doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3121.2005.00601.

A new scenario for related IOCG and Ni(Cu) mineralization: the relationship with giant mid-crustal mac sills, Variscan Iberian Massif
Fernando Tornos1 and Cesar Casquet2
1

Instituto Geologico y Minero de Espan a, Salamanca; 2Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Dpto. de Petrologia, Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT
Both magmatic Ni(Cu) and hydrothermal iron oxidecopper gold mineralization coexist in ancient belts but their relationship remains poorly known. Geochronology and eld geology evidence show that in SW Iberia both styles of mineralization were coeval with widespread metaluminous to peraluminous Variscan magmatism (350330 Ma). We propose that mineralization was probably related to a hidden large layered macultramac layered complex, recently inferred from geophysics, that was emplaced in a mid-crustal decollement zone. Contamination of a primitive mantle-derived magma with continental crust in the layered complex led to fractional crystallization accompanied by high-Tlow-P metamorphism and the incorporation of volatiles into the melt. Hot hypersaline CO2CH4-bearing brines were subsequently released and focused along major thrusts and strike-slip faults to produce the IOCG mineralization. Assimilation of continental crust also led to the formation of sulphide magmas that were tectonically injected high into the crust, leading to the formation of pipe-like breccia-hosted Ni(Cu) ore bodies. All these processes took probably place as a consequence of oblique ridge and/or continentcontinent collision.

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Introduction
Iron oxidecoppergold (IOCG) ore deposits have recently been recognized as constituting a new class of mineralization with high economic potential (Hitzman, 2000; Pollard, 2000). The deposits are dominated by magnetite or hematite, have variable amounts of Au and Cu and are usually enriched in U, LREE, Co, Ni, As, Mo, W and Te. Volatile-rich minerals are also common (e.g. Pollard, 2000). However, the geological setting and the source of the metals and uids are still controversial, mainly because most of these ore bodies occur in highly deformed Proterozoic belts, such as the Fennoscandian shield (Weihed and Eilu, 2003) or the Cloncurry district (Australia) (Mark et al., 2001). This style of mineralization show a direct relationship with largescale faults and broad zones of sodiumcalcium (albiteactinolite) or potassic (Kfeldspar or biotite) alteration. IOCG deposits span a range of depths and tectonic settings,
Correspondence: Dr Fernando Tornos, Ocina Proyectos Salamanca, Instituto Geologico y Minero de Espan a, Azafranal 48, Salamanca 37001, Spain. Tel.: 00-34923-265009; fax: 00-34-923-265066; e-mail: f.tornos@igme.es and ftornos.igme@ telefonica.net

particularly extensional environments along subduction-related continental margins (Hitzman, 2000). In most cases the uids involved were apparently part of large-scale deep-seated hydrothermal systems. Here we report the case of the Ossa Morena Zone (SW Iberia), one of the domains of the Variscan European basement. Current geodynamic models suggest that the Ossa Morena Zone was an active continental margin during Variscan times, with a magmatic arc broadly similar to recent Andean or Pacic magmatic arcs (e.g. Quesada, 1991). The Ossa Morena Zone is unusual for the diversity of Variscan mineralization. It includes abundant IOCG (-REE-U) replacements as well as magmatic Ni(Cu) mineralization, a diversity of periplutonic and intraplutonic vein-type deposits [Cu-(Au Bi), ZnPb, W(Sn), ZnPb, and Au], Sn-rich replacements and epithermal Hg deposits (Tornos et al., 2002). However, the district lacks the porphyry and epithermal deposits typical of subduction-related magmatic arcs (Mitchell, 1992). We will focus here on the rst two types of mineralization. This unusual metallogenesis was the consequence of Variscan oblique collision and the magmatic and hydrothermal activity resulting from the intrusion of a large layered igneous complex in the middle crust. This

model provides new clues as to the genesis of the IOCG and Ni(Cu) mineralization, and can help to better understand similar ore-forming systems in ancient metallogenic belts.

The Ossa Morena Zone: geological and geodynamic setting

The Ossa Morena Zone is a Proterozoic terrane that was accreted to the autochthonous Central Iberian Zone of the Iberian Massif (Fig. 1) during the Cadomian orogeny in late Neoproterozoic to early Cambrian times (Eguiluz et al., 2000). The region was rejuvenated during the Variscan orogeny when the continental South Portuguese Zone, which is host to the world class volcanogenic deposits of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, was in turn accreted to the Ossa Morena Zone. Accretion involved subduction of intervening ocean-oor under the Ossa Morena Zone, ophiolite obduction, and oblique ridge and/or continental collision in Devonian to Lower Carboniferous times (e.g. Silva et al., 1990; Quesada, 1991). Variscan deformation within the Ossa Morena Zone was partitioned between longitudinal southward verging fold-and-thrust zones and slightly younger strike-slip faults, the former involving a Cadomian basement and its unconformable Palaeozoic sedimentary cover. I-type
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Fig. 1 Geological map of the Central Ossa Morena Zone, showing the relationship between dierent types of iron oxide-rich, Ni (Cu) and Cu-Au ore bodies, magmatism and major Variscan structures. Ages are of Variscan plutonic rocks and related ore deposits. The inset shows the dierent zones of the Variscan Belt of Iberia: Cantabrian Zone (CZ), West Asturian Leonese Zone (WALZ), Central Iberian Zone (CIZ), Ossa Morena Zone (OMZ) and South Portuguese Zone. The box shows the area enlarged in the Fig. 2.

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high-K calc-alkaline magmatism developed in the Ossa Morena Zone between 352 4 Ma and 332 3 Ma (Pin et al., 1999; Montero et al., 2000), consisting of composite plutons formed mainly by diorite and tonalite with local gabbronorite and gabbro, and only minor volcanic rocks. Peraluminous leucogranite dykes and small stocks are also common. A seismic reection survey across the Ossa Morena Zone (IBERSEIS) recently revealed a subhorizontal 1 5 km thick high velocity layer in the middle crust, about 15 km deep and 140 km long (Iberian Reective Body; Simancas et al., 2003). This evidence, coupled with regional magnetic and gravity data and the inference that plutons had to be fed from a crustal magma chamber to account for their isotope geochemistry (Casquet et al., 2001), has led to the suggestion that the reector is a large but discontinuous layered mac complex underlying most of the Ossa Morena Zone (Simancas et al., 2003). The complex is probably Variscan, as major thrusts of this age merge at the depth of the intrusion (Fig. 2), suggesting emplacement along a main Variscan crustal decollement (Simancas et al., 2003). Geophysical and geological evidence suggest that Variscan middle continental crust and dismembered parts of the layered complex crop out along the southern margin of the Ossa Morena Zone (AracenaBeja domain) where a high-Tlow-P metamorphic belt has been long recognized (Bard, 1969). Maximum pressures of 46 kb and peak temperatures of over 920 C were determined by D az Azpiroz et al. (2004), and references therein. Anatexis is widespread in the core of the belt where discordant mac ultramac intrusions with disseminated to semi-massive sulphides occur. Moreover, high-grade metamorphism has been recorded from some of these intrusions (Castro et al., 1999), suggesting that magmatism probably began close to the peak of metamorphism and continued further. ArAr hornblende cooling ages for the Aracena metamorphism range between c. 328 and 342 Ma with the highest values found in the Beja domain (Dallmeyer et al., 1993; Castro et al., 1999). The discordant Beja gabbro has a UPb zircon age of c. 352 Ma (Pin et al., 1999), which is probably a minimum age for the peak of metamorphism. massive stratabound lenses, always located within the fold-and-thrust belt that constitutes the southern limb of the anticline. The rocks involved are late Neoproterozoicearly Cambrian felsic volcanic rocks, siliciclastic sediments and reef carbonates that underwent low-grade regional metamorphism. A few ore bodies in the volcanic sequence probably formed from low temperature (sub)-exhalative hydrothermal uids synchronous with the volcanism (Galindo et al., 1995); most iron oxide mineralization formed by replacement of the volcanic and carbonatic rocks along major thrust and strike-slip fault zones, usually close to epizonal (approximately 1.5 kbar equivalent to c. 5 km depth) Variscan intrusions (Fig. 1). Magnetite is allied to albite actinolite(salitescapolite)-rich rocks that can be locally rich in allanite, uraninite, monazite and apatite. Where the host rock is marble, both magnesian and calcic Fe-skarns developed (Tornos et al., 2002, and references therein). Mineralization consists of massive or banded magnetite with subordinate sulphides (pyrite, chalcopyrite and trace amounts of millerite and cobaltite) and irregularly distributed gold; both sulphides and gold are always younger than the magnetite. Volatile-rich minerals such as vonsenite, uorite, axinite, apatite

F. Tornos and C. Casquet IOCG and Ni(Cu) mineralization

Iron oxide(CuAu) mineralization

Iron oxide mineralization is particularly abundant along the large OlivenzaMonesterio anticline in the central part of the Ossa Morena Zone (Fig. 1). The ore bodies occur as large

Fig. 2 (a) Schematic cross section of the Ossa Morena Zone (OMZ) and northern South Portuguese Zone (SPZ) as inferred from the IBERSEIS deep reection seismic prole (Simancas et al., 2003). IRB, Iberian Reective Body. Folded line represents Lower Cambrian sedimentary cover rocks. (b) Enlarged inset zone of cross-section showing an interpretation of relationships between Variscan mineralization, magmatism, metamorphism and tectonic structures. IRB is a layered macultramac igneous complex; sm, sulphide-rich immiscible magma; HGM, zone of high-grade high-Tlow-P metamorphism; sn, late Neoproterozoic-early Cambrian siliciclastic and volcanic rocks of the Cadomian basement; lc, Lower Cambrian sedimentary cover sequence; tg, tonalitegabbro-(norite) plutons with Ni(Cu)-rich massive sulphides and breccias; gr, peraluminous granite stocks and dyke swarms. sop. Santa Olalla Pluton; ag, Aguablanca pluton; mz, iron oxide-rich hydrothermal replacements with allied NaCa alteration. Only Variscan tectonic structures are shown.
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and tourmaline are also common. Mineralization has been dated at 334 32 Ma at Jerez (SmNd, Darbyshire et al., 1998) and 338 1.5 Ma at Monchi (UPb, Casquet et al., 1998). These ages are within error of those of Variscan plutonism referred to above but, in detail, most magnetite mineralization formed rst, as evidenced by the presence of enclaves of magnetite within diorite. The range of Nd isotope compositions of the mineralization (eNd340 )8.0 to )4.0; Galindo et al., 1995; Darbyshire et al., 1998) is comparable with that of local diorite and tonalite (eNd340 )7.5 to )6; Casquet et al., 2001). Fluid inclusion and stable isotope data show that the magnetite mineralization precipitated from hot (>500 C), hypersaline (>25 wt% NaCl eq.) H2ONaClFeCl2CaCl2 brines with heavy d18O values between +9 and +12& (Cuervo et al., 1996). Local quartz-ankerite veins rich in chalcopyrite, bismuthinite and maldonite with albitetourmalinesericite alteration were probably synchronous with the sulphide-rich stage of the iron oxide ore bodies (Tornos and Velasco, 2002). These veins formed by pulsatile unmixing of H2OCO2CH4NaClKClCaCl2 brines (30 wt% NaCl eq.) with heavy d18O values (+5 to +8& ). cation of magma composition, formation of cumulates and generation of a sulphide immiscible melt. The deposit has an age of 335337 Ma (39Ar/40Ar age of phlogopite from breccia fragments; Tornos et al., 2004), which is also interpreted as the crystallization age of the Aguablanca pluton. This age is embraced by those of nearby Variscan igneous rocks, which range between c. 332 and 348 Ma (207Pb/206Pb) single-zircon grain ages; Montero et al., 2000).

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A model for the Ossa Morena Zone deposits

Most ore bodies in the Olivenza Monesterio anticline are found in the proximity of Variscan plutons and thrusts and strike-slip zones (Fig. 1) suggesting a genetic relationship. In fact, the mineralization was essentially coeval with the calc-alkaline metaluminous plutonism, between 352 Ma and 332 Ma. Variable mixing of juvenile magmas with continental crust has also been invoked to explain the isotope composition of the calcalkaline igneous rocks (Casquet et al., 2001). The available Nd isotope compositions of mineralization and igneous rocks are coincident, suggesting that uids and magmas were in isotopic equilibrium. In turn, lead isotope compositions of ores from the Ossa Morena Zone systematically plot below the crustal and orogenic lead growth curves, indicating that signicant amounts of juvenile lead mixed with crustal lead during the ore forming processes. Moreover, the 207 Pb/206Pb ratios of ore bodies in the Ossa Morena Zone are signicantly lower than those of the adjacent terranes and are signicantly more juvenile than those of other Phanerozoic orogenic belts (Tornos and Chiaradia, 2004). We propose here that the Iberian Reective Body of Simancas et al. (2003) was the most probable source of magmas and uids and that it largely controlled the Variscan metallogenic evolution of the Ossa Morena Zone, favouring the shallow intrusion of mac-intermediate plutons in the OlivenzaMonesterio anticline area and developing a characteristic suite of mineralization. Emplacement of the macultramac complex in the middle crust took

Ni(Cu) magmatic mineralization

The recently discovered economic Aguablanca magmatic Ni(Cu) deposit is hosted by Variscan gabbronorite and norite, which form part of a small calcalkaline pluton in the easternmost part of the OlivenzaMonesterio anticline (Fig. 1). The major ore body is hosted in a breccia pipe, with sulphides (mainly pyrrhotite with minor chalcopyrite and pentlandite) that are either massive or supporting fragments of the host rocks, pyroxenite, peridotite and metasedimentary rocks (Tornos et al., 2001). Isotope (S, Sr, Nd and Pb) data are consistent with a model involving assimilation of Neoproterozoic upper crustal rocks, likely grey shale which forms most of the basement of the Ossa Morena Zone, by a mantlederived magma and simultaneous fractional crystallization in an underlying magma chamber (Casquet et al., 2001). These processes led to diversi4

probably place in the Tournaisian Visean as inferred from plutonic rock ages and the age of the related AracenaBeja metamorphism. The process induced high-Tlow-P metamorphism and partial melting of the shale. As quoted above, direct geological evidence of such processes can be seen in the AracenaBeja domain. Present depth estimate to the igneous complex, i.e., 15 km, is compatible with metamorphic pressure estimate (4 6 kbar) if post-Variscan erosion equivalent to 1.5 kb (approximately 5 km) is accounted by. Magmatic assimilation of siliciclastic sediments released sulphur and lithophile elements and induced water-enrichment in the evolving igneous body (Casquet et al., 2001). The macultramac rocks show evidence of high water activity at the time of crystallization, such as the presence of intercumulus phlogopite and amphibole, pegmatoids and high-T hydrothermal alteration. Thus, it is likely that hydrothermal uids were exsolved from the contaminated magmas during the late stages of its crystallization. The uid inclusion data suggest that uids were CO2CH4-bearing hypersaline brines similar to those found in IOCG deposits (Khin Zaw et al., 1994) and that behaved immiscibility during upow. A magmaticmetamorphic source for uids is compatible with the high d18O values obtained for water in equilibrium with mineralization. Assimilation of siliciclastic sediments resulted also in production of an immiscible sulphide melt that incorporated chalcophile elements from the magma. Batches of residual gabbroic to tonalite melts, along with minor molten sulphide magma and fragments of already crystallized ultramac cumulates, were intruded episodically, giving rise to both the Aguablanca mineralization and the composite Variscan plutons. Minor peraluminous plutonism rose directly from anatexis of middle crust rocks. Thrusts and strike-slip faults were the pathways to the upper crust. This model is consistent with the geophysical evidence showing that the southverging thrusts that form the southern limb of the OlivenzaMonesterio anticline are rooted in the Iberian Reective Body (Simancas et al., 2003).
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Apart from Aguablanca, few magmatic Ni(Cu) deposits have been described from orogenic belts (Papunen, 2003). Most magmatic Ni(Cu) deposits seem to be within giant mac intrusions related to mantle plumes in rifted intracratonic settings, such as Norilsk (Naldrett, 1992) or Voiseys Bay (Ryan, 2000). Many IOCG ore bodies have also been inferred to be related to mantle plumes (e.g. Kiruna, Martinsson, 2003; Cloncurry district, Oliver et al., 1991). However, MacCready et al. (1998) have also invoked a hidden large mac intrusion in the Cluncurry district, which as in the case of the Ossa Morena zone, is coincident with a regional compression decollement. A syn-orogenic mantle plume has also been invoked for Ossa Morena (Simancas et al., 2003), although this possibility is dicult to prove. We propose that the intrusion of the layered complex was directly related to the beginning of oblique collision at the DevonianCarboniferous boundary (Fig. 2). The middle crust decollement became a zone of major crustal decoupling that favoured the injection of voluminous juvenile magmas and the consequent strong heating of the middle crust. One explanation for the proximity of hot mantle to the overriding continent is ridge-subduction, an idea rst invoked by Castro et al. (1996). In this model, oblique collision of an oceanic ridge under the Ossa Morena margin evolved into a slab window from which juvenile magmas might have been released. However, the origin of the voluminous magmatism still remains conjectural. magmas and hydrothermal uids were focused into major thrusts and strikeslip faults and formed IOCG and magmatic Ni(Cu) deposits at epizonal depths. This is the rst time that coexisting IOCG and nickel sulphide deposits have been recognized in a Phanerozoic magmatic belt, showing that orogenic environments can be the loci of magmatic sulphide mineralization and that they may have a genetic link with IOCG mineralization.
Cuervo, S., Tornos, F., Spiro, B. and Casquet, C., 1996. El origen de los ui rrico de dos hidrotermales en el skarn fe rbara (Zona de Comenar Santa Ba Ossa Morena). Geogaceta, 20, 1499 1500. ndez, D az Azpiroz, M., Castro, A., Ferna pez, S., Ferna ndez, J.C. and C., Lo Moreno-Ventas, I., 2004. The contact between the Ossa Morena and South Portuguese Zones. Characteristics and signicance of the Aracena metamorphic belt, in its central sector between Aroche and Aracena. J. Iberian Geol., 30, 2352. Dallmeyer, R.D., Fonseca, P.E, Quesada, C. and Ribeiro, A., 1993. 39Ar/40Ar mineral age constraints for the tectonothermal evolution of a Variscan Suture in SW Iberia. Tectonophysics, 222, 177194. Darbyshire, D.P.F., Tornos, F., Galindo, C. and Casquet, C., 1998. Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr constraints on the age and origin of magnetite mineralisation in the Jerez de los Caballeros iron district of Extremadura, SW Spain. Chinese Sci. Bull., 43, 28. Eguiluz, L., Gil Ibarguchi, J.I., Abalos, B. and Apraiz, A., 2000, Superposed hercynian and cadomian orogenic cycles in the Ossa Morena Zone and related areas of the Iberian Massif. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112, 13981413. Galindo, C., Darbyshire, D.P.F., Tornos, F., Casquet, C. and Cuervo, S., 1995. Sm-Nd geochemistry and dating of magnetites: a case study from an Fe district in the SW of Spain. In: Mineral Deposits: from their Origin to Environmental Impacts (J. Pasava, B. Kribek and K. Zak, eds), pp. 4143. Balkema, Rotterdam. Hitzman, M.W., 2000. Iron oxideCuAu deposits. What, where, when and why. In: Hydrothermal Iron OxideCopperGold and related deposits: A Global Perspective (T.M. Porter, ed.), pp. 925. Australian Mineral Foundation, Adelaide. Khin Zaw, Huston, D.L., Large, R.R., Mernagh, T. and Homann, C.F., 1994. Microthermometry and geochemistry of uid inclusions from the Tennant Creek gold-copper deposits: implications for ore deposition and exploration. Mineral. Deposita, 29, 288300. MacCready, T., Goleby, B.R., Goncharov, A., Drummond, B.J. and Lister, G.S., 1998. A framework of overprinting orogens based on intepretation of the Mount Isa deep seismic transect. Econ. Geol., 93, 14221434. Mark, G., Oliver, N.H.S. and Foster, D.R.W., eds, 2001. Mineralisation, Alteration and Magmatism in the Eastern Fold Belt, Mount Isa Block, Australia. Geological Review and Field Guide, Vol. 5. Geological Society Australia, Specialist Group Economic Geol, Townsville, 121 pp.

F. Tornos and C. Casquet IOCG and Ni(Cu) mineralization

Acknowledgements
We acknowledge comments by C. Conde, C. Galindo, L. Lucen o, rez-Estau L.R. Pevida, A. Pe n and R. Carbonell and the critical review of G. Gutierrez-Alonso, R. Pankhurst and N. White. Further comments of J. Hronsky and G. Brugmann and the associated editor claried aspects of the original manuscript. This work was supported by the Spanish MCYT grant DGI-BTE2003290.

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Conclusions
The intrusion of a large macultramac layered complex into the Ossa Morena crust (SW Iberia) during oblique collision is probably the reason of the unusual metallogeny of the area, which lacks the conventional suite of ore deposits commonly found in subduction-related magmatic arc environments. Interaction of mantlederived melts with upper crustal metasedimentary rocks led to extensive contamination and complementary immiscibility of a sulphide melt, as well as uid saturation and consequent exsolution of iron- and volatilerich saline brines. Silicate and sulphide
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interaction in ore forming processes. Econ. Geol., 99, 965985. Tornos, F. and Velasco, F., 2002. The Sultana orebody (Ossa Morena Zone, Spain): Insights into the evolution of Cu-(Au-Bi) mesothermal mineralisation. In: Abstracts GEODE Study Centre, 2528 October 2002. pp. 1617. Grenoble. Tornos, F., Casquet, C., Galindo, C., Velasco, F. and Canales, A., 2001. A new style of Ni-Cumineralisation related to magmatic breccia pipes in a transpressional magmatic arc, Aguablanca, Spain. Mineral. Deposita, 36, 700706. Tornos, F., Casquet, C., Relvas, J., Barriga, F. and Saez, R., 2002. The relationship between ore deposits and oblique tectonics: the SW Iberian Variscan Belt. In: The Timing and Location of Major Ore Deposits in an Evolving Orogen (D. Blundell, F. Neubauer and A. von Quadt, eds), Spec. Publ. Geol. Soc. Lond., 206, 179198. Tornos, F., Iriondo, A., Casquet, C. and Galindo, C., 2004. Geocronolog a Ar-Ar de ogopitas del stock de Aguablanca, Badajoz). Implicaciones sobre la edad n y de la mineralizacio n de del pluto Ni-(Cu) asociada. Geotemas, 6, 189192. Weihed, P. and Eilu, P., 2003, Gold, Fe oxide-Cu-Au and VMS metallogeny of the Fennoscandinavian shield. In: Mineral Exploration and Sustainable Development (D.G. Eliopoulos et al. eds), pp. 11231126. Millpress, Rotterdam. Received 27 May 2004; revised version accepted 15 December 2004

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