Work and Energy

Introduction/Motivation
Energy is the capacity of matter to perform work as a result of its position, its motion, or its internal state. Energy exists in various forms, including mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, electromagnetic (radiation), and nuclear. Energy associated with motion is called kinetic energy, while energy associated with position or internal state is called potential energy. All forms of energy tend to be transformed, in part, into heat. In mechanical devices, energy not expended in useful work is dissipated as friction. Resistance in electrical circuits causes energy dissipation as heat. All forms of energy are interconvertible by appropriate processes. An electric battery has potential energy stored in chemical form. When the battery is connected to a circuit, the chemical potential energy is converted to electrical kinetic energy. In an internal combustion engine, the chemical potential energy in the fuel is first converted to thermal kinetic energy, which in turn is converted to mechanical kinetic energy in the form of the moving piston. In a nuclear power plant, nuclear energy (potential) in the fuel is converted to thermal energy, which is used to generate steam. The steam is expanded through a turbine, causing the turbine to rotate and converting thermal energy into mechanical kinetic energy. The turbine is connected to a generator, which converts mechanical energy into kinetic electrical energy. As these examples indicate, an energy transformation process may cause kinetic or potential energy to be lost. However, the sum of the two, plus the dissipative energy, always remains the same. This is the law of conservation of energy. Work is the product of a force applied to a body and the displacement of the body in the direction of the applied force. Mathematically, this is written as: W=Fd where W is the work, F is the applied force, and d is the displacement or distance moved in the direction of the force. For example, if a 50 N weight is lifted 2 m , then 100 N-m of work is done on the weight. The work is expended in overcoming the downward force of gravity. Notice that the units of work are N-m (Newton-meters), or joules. In the British system of units, work is measured in foot-pounds. The formula above implies that the body to which a force is applied must travel through some distance before any work is done. Thus, the act of holding up a weight against the force of gravity does not constitute work (even though a lot of energy may be expended!).

1. Terminology
Potential Energy: Kinetic energy: Energy associated with position (raised weight - mechanical) or internal state (battery - chemical Energy associated with motion (falling weight mechanical) or change of internal state (discharge of battery - chemical to electrical). Energy, which leaves a system, usually in the form of heat, and does no useful work. Friction is a form of dissipative energy. Energy due to the motion of physical objects. Energy produced by the motion of electrons in a conductor. Energy produced by heat flow or the heat content of matter. Energy that results from the rearrangement of the molecular composition of substances. Energy produced by the oscillation of an electric change in a magnetic field. Examples: light, radio waves. Energy released due to splitting or fusing atomic nuclei. Resistance to sliding or rolling motion of a body in relation to another body with which it is in contact, or resistance to fluid flow.

Dissipative Energy:

Mechanical energy: Electrical energy: Thermal energy: Chemical energy: Electromagnetic energy: Nuclear energy: Friction:

2. Mathematical Fundamentals
2.1 Algebra

Example: Satisfaction of conservation of energy equation: T1 + P1 = T2 + P2 P1 P2 = T2 T1 Mg(h1 h2) = m (v22 v12)

If h2 = 0 and v1 = 0, m g h1 = m v22 v22 = 2 g h1 v2 = (2 g h1) (This is the final velocity of a body dropped from height h 1 in a gravity field.) 2.2 Proportions

Example: Force and displacement in a spring are related by a proportionality constant. F1 F2 = =k x1 x2 2.3 Statistics

Example: Averaging the response measurements from several trials of an experiment to account for random error. 2.4 Graphical methods

Example: Force-displacement curve of spring.

Force k

Displacement

3. Advanced Mathematical Concepts

3.1 Trigonometry

Example: Static coefficient of friction s is related to the angle at which a cart starts to roll down a ramp. s = tan ramp y x m gravity

Friction angle

3.2

Vectors

Example: Determining the components of a weight force in directions parallel to and perpendicular to an inclined plane upon which a mass rests.

4. Science Principles
Science principles that will be presented in this unit include: work, energy, forces, gravity, mass, velocity, displacement, elasticity, friction, and series and parallel components.

5. Elastic Potential Energy

A common form of potential energy is due to the deformation of an elastic body. In mechanical systems, springs are common elastic members. For example, springs are used in automobile suspension systems, door closers, mouse traps, toasters, clocks, scales and balances for weighing, and many other common devices. The form of a spring depends upon its use. Springs for balances and door closers are extension or compression type springs. Springs for watches and mouse traps are called torsional springs. These are all typically constructed as helical coils of some elastic material, such as steel. The difference between these types of springs is in how the force is applied. For extension or compression springs, the force is applied along the axis of the helix, so that the spring elongates or compresses along the axis. For torsional springs, the force is applied at a right angle to the helix axis, producing a torque that rotates the spring about the axis. Springs for other applications are constructed differently.

For example, a leaf spring in an automobile suspension system consists of a stack of flat metal bars. Rubber bands are also used as springs in many devices, particularly toys. 5.1 Linear Springs

Many springs can be approximated by linear elastic relationships: F=kx where F is the force supported by the spring, x is the displacement of the spring from its undeformed position (either extension or compression), and k is a proportionality constant called the spring constant. A graph of force vs. displacement of a linear spring is a straight line.

Force k

Displacement The slope of the line is the spring constant k. Note that the displacement x of a spring is the difference between some reference length, x 1, and the final length, x2: x = x2 x1. Example: Suppose we want to design a spring that will stretch from 0.4 m to 0.8 meters when a force of 80 N is applied. What is the required spring constant? k= k= F x2 x1 80 0.8 0.4 80 0.4

k=

k = 200 N/m The potential energy of a spring displaced from length x 1 to length x2 (either extension or compression) is equal to the trapezoidal area under the forcedisplacement curve between x1 and x2.

Force

Energy stored in spring

x1

Displacement Mathematically, this potential energy is: P = k (x22 x12) Example: How much energy is stored in the spring in the example above? P = k (x22 x12) P = (200) (0.82 0.42) P = (200) (0.64 0.16) P = (200) (0.48) P = 48 Nm 5.2 Nonlinear Springs

The linear relationship described above is an approximation that is used for engineering calculations. No spring is truly linear. The linear relationship is a very good approximation for many springs. For some spring elements, such as rubber bands, the linear relationship is not a good approximation. The forcedisplacement curve for such springs is not a straight line. The figure below shows a force-displacement curve for a nonlinear spring.

Force

Energy stored in spring

Linear region x1 x

Displacement Notice that for this spring, there is a fairly linear relationship for small displacements, near the origin of the coordinate axes. For small displacements, then, we can assume the spring is linear. As the spring is displaced more and more, less force is require for a given increment of displacement, and the relationship becomes more nonlinear. Notice also that the energy stored in the spring is still equal to the area under the curve. However, this relationship is also complicated by the more complex force-displacement curve. 5.3 Parallel Springs

Two springs that are connected in a machine such that they have the same displacement are said to be in parallel. This configuration is shown schematically in the figure below. Notice that the two springs have different spring constants, k1 and k2. We can characterize a system of multiple springs by determining an equivalent spring constant, keq, that applies to the entire system, such that the force applied to the entire system is related to the displacement of the entire system: F = keq x For a system of parallel springs, keq is equal to the sum of the individual spring constants. To see this, consider the lower part of the figure, which shows that, because of the different spring constants, the total force F applied to the entire system is split between the two springs into components F 1 and F2. Thus, we have F = F1 + F2 From the relationships of the individual springs, we also know that

F 2 = k2 x F 2 = k2 x We can combine these four equations to determine k eq: F = F1 + F2 keq x = k1 x + k2 x keq x = x (k1 + k2) keq = (k1 + k2) In general, the equivalent spring constant for a system of n parallel springs is keq = (k1 + k2 + + kn) x F F
1

k
x F
1

k F
2

F
1

k x

5.4

Series Springs

Two springs that are connected end-to-end are said to be in series. This configuration is shown schematically in the figure below. Notice that the two springs have different spring constants, k1 and k2. Again, we can characterize a system of multiple springs by determining an equivalent spring constant, keq, that applies to the entire system, such that the

force applied to the entire system is related to the displacement of the entire system: F = keq x k F
1

x x k
1

k F

To determine the equivalent spring constant for the system, first note that the force in each spring for this case is equal to the force, F, applied to the total system (as shown in the figure). Also note that, due to the different spring constants, the springs have different displacements. The total displacement for the system is x = x1 + x2 From the force displacement relationships of the entire system and the individual springs, we also know that x= x1 = F keq F

k1 x2 = F k2

Substituting these relationships into the equation above gives F F F = + keq k1 k2 We can then eliminate F to get the equivalent spring rate: 1 1 1 = + keq k1 k2 We can manipulate this equation algebraically to get: 1 keq = 1 1 + k1 k2 1 keq = 1 k2 1 k1 x + x k1 k2 k2 k1 1 keq = k2 k1 + k2 k1 k2 k1 1 k1 + k2 K1 k2 k1 k2 k1 + k2

keq =

keq =

In general, the equivalent spring constant for a system of n springs in series is 1 1 1 = + keq k1 k2 5.5 Example ++ 1 kn

Two springs have spring constants k1 = 100 N/m and k2 = 200 N/m, respectively. Determine the equivalent spring constant if (a) the springs are connected in parallel; (b) the springs are connected in series.

(a) keq = k1 + k2 = 100 + 200 = 300 N/m . (b) keq = k1 k2 = k1 + k2 (100) (200) 100 + 200 = 20 000 300 = 66.67 N/m

This example shows that the equivalent spring constant for two springs in parallel is greater than the individual spring rates, while the equivalent spring constant for two springs in series is less than either of the individual spring constants.

6. Mechanical Friction
Mechanical friction is a dissipative force that resists rolling or sliding motion between two contacting bodies. In a dynamic situation, friction tends to reduce the kinetic energy in a system and convert the energy to heat. Friction arises due to microscopic irregularities on the contacting surfaces of two bodies. Friction is usually thought to be undesirable because it causes wear and loss of energy. However, many technologies would not be feasible without friction. For example, we could not walk without friction between our feet (or shoes) and the ground. The wheels on an automobile would not turn without friction between the tires and the road surface. The automobile could not be stopped without friction between the brake shoes and the brake drum. However, too much friction is not a good thing. That is why ball bearings (or anti-friction bearings) are used to allow the wheels on the automobile to turn freely on the axles. 6.1 Sliding Friction

While the physics of friction are very complicated, there are some simple approximations that we can use to perform engineering calculations. One common mathematical model assumes that friction is proportional to the reactive, or normal, forces that arise between two bodies in contact. To see this, consider a block of mass, m, sitting on an inclined plane with adjustable angle. If there were no friction between the mass and the ramp, the block would slide down the ramp. Thus, to maintain equilibrium, there must be a friction force along the contact surface between the ramp and the block directed to oppose the motion of the block down the ramp.

ramp

y x m gravity

Friction angle

Now consider the free-body diagram of the block, shown below. Recall that a free-body diagram is a tool to help us understand the forces that act upon a body. To develop a free-body diagram, we first isolate the body in question. To do this, we replace the other objects that contact the body by their reactive forces. In the free-body diagram below, we have removed the ramp and replaced it by the reactive normal force N perpendicular to the contact surface between the block and the ramp, and the friction force f acting along the contact surface between the ramp and the block. The figure also shows the weight mg acting vertically downward, which is the force exerted on the block by gravity.
y mgsin x f N mg mg

mgcos

The coordinate axes are arranged such that the x-axis is parallel to the surface of the ramp, and the y axis is perpendicular to the ramp. Thus, the normal force N acts in the positive y direction, and the friction force f acts in the negative x direction. The weight of the block acts at an angle to both the x and y-axes. Because the weight is a vector, it can be decomposed into components parallel to the coordinate axes, as shown in the figure. Thus, the weight force consists of a component, m g cos, acting in the negative y direction, and a component, m g sin, acting in the positive x direction. For static equilibrium, the following relationships must be true: Fx = m g sin - f

 Fy = m g cos - N Based on these conditions of equilibrium, f = m g sin N = m g cos 6.1 Static and Kinetic Friction

Now consider an experiment where the angle of the ramp is increased from 0 until the block starts to move. There will be a range of angles in which the block does not move. The friction force f will increase as the angle increases through this range. At some angle, say cr, the block will begin to move. As the ramp angle is increased past cr, the friction force assumes a constant value, fk. The graph below summarizes the foregoing discussion. Notice that the graph is divided into two regions: (1) static friction, which occurs before the critical angle is reached; and (2) kinetic friction, which occurs after the critical angle. Also notice that the kinetic friction is less than the maximum static friction. This should ring true intuitively, since many of us have experienced the phenomenon that it takes more effort to start moving an object than to keep it moving. Based on this behavior, we can define two constants that characterize sliding friction. The first is called the coefficient of static friction, s, and is defined as: s = f max N

where fmax = m g sincr and N is the normal force acting on the body. The second coefficient is called the coefficient of kinetic friction, fk, and is defined as: k = fk N

f max fk mgsin

static friction

cr

kinetic friction

Sliding friction can be summarized as follows. For the static case, f s N. For the case of relative motion, f = k N. 6.2 Derivation of Static Coefficient of Friction

The static coefficient of friction can also be defined in terms of the critical angle. From the equation above, we have fmax = s N We also know that: fmax = m g sin cr N = m g cos Substituting these relationships into the previous equations gives: m g sin cr = s m g cos By solving this equation for s, we get the following definition: s = 6.3 m g sin cr m g cos cr = sin cr cos cr = tan cr

Typical Values of

Typical values of the coefficients of static and kinetic friction have been tabulated for use in engineering calculations. These values are used to estimate frictional forces in mechanical systems. The actual coefficients are very dependent on the exact nature of the contacting surfaces (e.g., cleanliness, surface finish,

pressure, lubrication, etc.). A variation of 25% to 100% can be expected in an actual application. Contacting Surfaces Steel on steel (dry) Steel on steel (greasy) Teflon on steel Brass on steel (dry) Brake lining on cast iron Rubber tires on smooth pavement (dry) Wire cable on iron pulley (dry) Hemp rope on metal Metal on ice s 0.6 0.1 0.04 0.5 0.4 0.9 0.2 0.3 k 0.4 0.05 0.04 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.15 0.3 0.03

Table 1. Typical Values of Coefficient of Friction,

7. Gravitational Potential Energy

The gravitational potential energy of a body close to the earths surface is defined as the work done against the gravitational field to elevate the body a distance h above a given reference plane (such as the surface of the earth, the floor in a building, a table top or other working surface, etc.). The potential energy of the body is taken to be zero at the reference plane. The work that is done against the gravitational field consists of moving the weight of the body, mg, a distance h. Thus, the potential energy is defined mathematically as: Pg = m g h This formulation assumes that the weight of the body is essentially constant. Moving a body from one height h1 to a higher level, h2 causes a change in potential energy given by: Pg = m g (h2 h1)

8. Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy T if a body is defined as T = m v2

This is the total work that must be done on the body to bring it from a state of rest to a velocity v. Note that this relationship accounts only for transnational velocity, not rotation. The change kinetic energy of a body whose velocity changes from v1 to v2 is T = m (v22 v12)

9. Work-Energy Relationship
The total energy contained in a system is equal to the sum of its kinetic and potential energy. For mechanical systems, the total mechanical energy in the system is written as E = T + P g + Pe where E is the mechanical energy of the system, T is the kinetic energy of the system, Pg is the gravitational potential energy of the system, and P e is the elastic potential energy. Systems that have little or no friction are said to be conservative. The energy in such systems is constant, and the change in energy is zero: E = (T + Pg + Pe) = 0 . This equation, called the work-energy equation, is a mathematical statement of the law of conservation of energy. This equation can be used to relate the kinetic and potential energy of a system a two different times: (T2 T1) + (Pg,2 Pg,1) + (Pe,2 Pe,1) = 0 m (v22 v12) + m g(h2 h1) + k (x22 x12) = 0 For systems that have appreciable friction or other losses, the energy equation must be revised to account for the work done by friction: E = (T + Pg + Pe) = Wf where Wf is the work done by friction on the system. Example: Suppose a 75 kg body is dropped from rest from a height of 50m above the ground. What is its velocity when it hits the ground? We will use the work-energy equation to solve this problem. Since the system contains no springs or other elastic elements, Pe,1 = Pe,2 = 0. Also, v1 = 0 and h2 = 0. Thus, T1= 0 and Pg,2 = 0. The work-energy equation reduces to T2 Pg,1 = 0

T2 = Pg,1 m v22 = m g h1 v22 = 2 g h1 v2 = (2 g h1) From the problem statement, we know h1 = 50m. Also, recall that g = 9.81 m/s2. The final velocity is: v2 = (2 g h1) = (2 9.81 50) = 31.32 m/sec Example: Now suppose we want to attach a spring to the body such that its velocity is reduced to zero just as the body reaches the ground. What should the spring constant be? In this case, we have T1 = 0, T2 = 0, Pe,1 = 0, and Pg,2 = 0. The work-energy equation reduces to Pe,2 Pg,1 = 0 Pe,2 = Pg,1 k x22 = m g h1 k= 2 m g h1 x22

From the problem statement, we know h1 = x2 = 50m and m = 75 kg. The desired spring constant is: k= 2 m g h1 x22 = 2 75 9.81 50 502 = 29.43 N/m