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ELE 361
Electric Machines I
http://www.ee.hacettepe.edu.tr/~usezen/ele361/
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A.E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, S.D. Umans, Electric
Machinery, McGraw-Hill, 6th Ed., 2003, (5th Ed. 1991)
S.J . Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, McGraw-
Hill, 2nd Ed., 1991 (3rd Ed., 1993)
G.R. Slemon, A. Straughen, Electric Machines, Addison
Wesley, 1980.
P.C. Sen, Principles of Electrical Machinery and Power
Electronics, J . Wiley, 1989
S.A. Nasar, L.E. Unnewehr, Electromechanics and Electric
Machines, J . Wiley, 2nd Ed., 1983.
Textbooks
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Contents
Basic concepts of magnetic circuits (Ch.1, Text 1)
magnetization, energy storage, hysteresis and eddy-current losses
Single-phase transformers (Ch.2, Text 1)
equivalent circuit, open-and short circuit tests, regulation, efficiency
Electromechanical energy conversion (Ch.3, Text 1)
field energy, co-energy, force, torque, singlyanddoubly-excited systems
Principles of rotating machines (Ch.4, Text 1)
Constructionandtypesof rotatingmachines, induced emf, armature mmf,
torque production
Direct-current machines (Ch.7, Text 1)
emf and torque production, magnetization characteristic, methods of
excitation, DC generator and motor analysis, ratings and efficiency
Single-phase induction motors (Ch.9, Text 1)
equivalent-circuit, s/soperation, starting. linear induction motor, split-
phase, capacitor type, shaded pole motors
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I. Basic concepts of
Magnetic Circuits (M.C.)
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1. Basic principles
Electromechanical energy conversion device (E.M.D)
links electrical & mechanical systems
or Electromechanical transducer (E.M.T)
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice versa
The energy conversion is reversible
Electrical energy Mechanical energy
Electric Motors
Generators
6
Most energy forms are converted to electrical energy, since
it can be
transmitted & distributed easily
controlled efficiently and reliably in a simple manner
Primary sources
of energy
hydropower, fossile fuel, natural gas
wind, nuclear power etc.
Ultimately desired
Output
mechanical , heat,
chemical, light etc.
Electrical Energy
Turbine
G M process
Pumps,
fans etc
EMT
primary
source
output
mechanical
energy
electrical
energy
electrical
energy
mechanical
energy
7
Coupling between electrical systemsand mechanical
systemsis through the medium of fields of electric
currents or charges.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Electromagnetic machine
ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
Electrostatic machine (not usedin practiceduetolowpower
densities, resultingin largem/c sizes)
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Principle phenomena in
Electromechanical Energy Conversion (E.M.C)
1. Force on a conductor
2. Force on ferromagnetic materials
(e.g. iron)
3. Generation of voltage
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Force on a conductor
A mechanical force is exerted on
current carrying conductor in a
magnetic field (MF) and also between
current carrying conductorsby means
of their MF
Reversibly voltage is induced in a circuit
undergoingmotionin a MF
B i l F

=
Right-hand rule
NB. In left-hand rule, B and i exchange fingers
10
Ex1.
Ex2.
Ex3.
Ex4.
dt
d
e

= Induced voltage
linkage flux ) ( = t
11
Force on a ferromagnetic materials
A mechanical force is exerted on a ferromagnetic
material tending to align it with the position of the
densest part of MF.
12
Generation of voltage
A voltage is induced in a coil when there is a change
in the flux linking the coil
dt
d
dt
d
N e
|
= =
dt
d
N e
|
2 2
=
air iron ' '
>>
13
The change in flux linkage is either due to changing
flux linking the coil (i.e. transformer voltage) or by
relative motion of coil and MF with respect each other
Single-coil rotor
Flux linkage of the coil
(i.e. flux captured by the coil)
( ) ( ) t A NB e o o o = = , cos
0
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Classification of E.M.D.
E.M.D.
Continuous energy
conversion devices
electric motors,
generators
Devices used for
measurement and
control
Electromechanical
transducers
Force producing
devices
Relays, solenoids,
electromagnets
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Motoring action
An E.M.D involves energy in 4 forms:
Energy input from
electrical sources
=
Mechanical
energy output
+
Energy converted
into heat due to losses
+
Increase in energy
stored in magnetic field
Generating action
Electrical energy
output
=
Mechanical
energy input

Energy converted
into heat due to losses

Increase in energy
stored in magnetic field
Irreversible conversion to heat
occurs due to
heat in i
2
R losses (copper losses)
magnetic losses (core losses)
mechanical losses (friction & windagelosses)
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Rewriting the energy balance equation (motoring convention):
Electrical energy input

Copper losses
=
Mechanical energy output
+
Friction & windage losses
+
Increasing energy stored in M.F.
+
Core losses
Net electrical energy input Gross mechanical energy output
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2. Analysis of Magnetic Circuits (M.C.)
c
g <<
0
~ >>
air c
H/m 10 4
7
0

= t
0

r c
=
80000 2000 < <
r

Ni = F Magnetomotiveforce (F):
c
c
A
B
|
= Core flux density (B
c
):
g
g
A
B
|
= Airgapflux density (B
g
):
[ Ampere-turns (AT) ]
[ Wb/m
2
or Tesla (T) ]
[ Wb/m
2
or Tesla (T) ]
where | represents the magnetic flux
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Fringing effects:
Due to fringing effects
A
g
>A
c
Normally, we ignore fringing effects, so
A
g
~ A
c
Since A
g
~ A
c
B
g
~ B
c
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Magnetomotive Force

d H
C
=
}
F
Ni g H H H
g c c
= + = =

F
For the M.C. on the right
where H represents the magnetic field intensity
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Relationship between B
c
and H
c
In the linear region
c c c
H B ~
F
c c
H B , |
linear region
linear region
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g H H
g c c
+ = F
Assuming operating in the linear region, we can rewrite the above equation as :
g
B
B
g
c
c
c
0

+ = F
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Magnetomotive Force - 2
Noting that B =|/A, we can rewrite the above equation as
g
B
B
g
c
c
c
0

+ = F
g
A A
g
c
c c 0

|
+ = F
We can further simplify the notation
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
g c c
c
A
g
A
0

|

F
( )
g c
R R F + | = where R represents themagneticresistance
of themediumagainst flux, calledreluctance
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Reluctance
where:
c c
c
c
A

= R
( )
g c
R R F + =|
g
g
A
g
0

= R and
Magnetic resistance of a medium against magnetic flux is called RELUCTANCE
Note the analogy between the electrical circuits
( ) ( )
2 1
R R i V
g c
+ = + = R R F |
[ AT/Wb]
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Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits
Correspondence of conductancein magnetic circuits is called permeance:
R
P
1
=
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Simplifications:
c c
c
c
A

= R
g
g
A
g
0

= R
Noting that
c
=
r

0
and 2000 <
r
< 80000
R
c
<< R
g
in the linear region of B
c
-H
c
curve, i.e. in linear M.C.s
so
g
R F | ~
g
A Ni Ni
c
g g
0

|

= = ~
R R
F
Nearlyall magnetomotiveforce(F ) is usedtoovercometheairgapportionof theMC
( )
g c
R R F + =|
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3. Flux Linkage and Inductance
Flux linkage | N = and induced voltage e is given by
dt
d
e

=
For linear magnetic circuits Li =
where L indicates the self-inductance of coil
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Li N = = |
Self inductance of the N-turn coil:

i
A NB
i
N
L
c c
= =
|
or
c c
N
i
N
i
N
L
R R
F
2
= = =
|
c
N L P
2
=
For non-linear magnetic circuits
di
d
N
di
d
L
|
= =
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Ex1.
Find:
a) the inductance of the winding
b) flux density in gap g
1
(B
1
)
Equivalent magneticcircuit:
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Ex2.
Consider the plastic ring above and assuming rectangular cross section area
a) Find B at the mean diameter of coil
b) Find inductance of coil, assuming flux density inside ring is uniform

plastic
=
0
N =200 turns
i =50A
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Self and Mutual Inductances
c g
R R
F F
+
+
=
2 1
|
g
R
F F
2 1
+
~
|
1 1
N =
|
2 2
N =
1 1 1
i N = F
2 2 2
i N = F
g g
i N N i N N
R R
2 2 1 1 1 1
1
+ =
2
0 2 1
1
0
2
1
1
i
g
A N N
i
g
A N
g g

+ =
L
11
L
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Self-inductance of coil
Mutual-inductance between
coils 1 & 2
0
~ >>
air c Assumption:
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Self and Mutual Inductances - 2
2 12 1 11 1
i L i L + =
2 22 1 21 2
i L i L + =
g
N L P
2
1 11
=
g
N L P
2
2 22
=
g
N N L L P
2 1 21 12
= =
g
A
g
g
g
0
1

= =
R
P
where
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leakage
flux
core
flux
Leakage Flux
m
| | | + =

Leakage flux: |
l
Magnetizing flux: |
m
(core flux)
Not all the flux closes its path fromthe magnetic core, but
some portion closes its path through air.
This is called the leakage flux, |
l
.
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4. Magnetic Stored Energy
Stored energy in a magnetic circuit in a time
interval between t
1
and t
2:
}
= A
2
1

t
t
dt p W
}
=
2
1

t
t
dt i e
}
=
2
1

t
t
dt i
dt
d
}
= A
2
1

d i W
dt
d
dt
d
N e
|
= =
i e p =
34
}
=
2
1

d i W A
For a linear magnetic circuit:
Li =
L
i

=
}
= A
2
1
1

d
L
W
( )
2
1
2
2
2
1
= A
L
W
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Similarly
}
=
2
1

d i W A
i L = i L d d =

}
=
2
1
i
i
di i L
( )
2
1
2
2
2
1
i i L =
2
2
1
Li W = A
2
2
1

L
W = A
or
With i
1
= 0, i
2
= i or
1
= 0,
2
=
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}
=
2
1

d i W A
i N = F

N
i
F
=
| N =

| d N d =
}
=
2
1
|
|
| d W F A
F H
| B
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Magnetic
Ferrimagnetic(2000 <
r
<10000)
e.g. Mn-Zn alloy
Ferromagnetic(
r
around 80000)
Hard (permanent magnet)
e.g. Alnico, Neodimium-Iron-Boron, etc.
(rare-earthmagnets)
Soft (electrical steel)
e.g. FeSi, FeNi and FeCoalloys
Non-magnetic
Paramagnetic (
r
slightly >1)
e.g. aluminum, platinum and magnesium
Diamagnetic(
r
slightly <1)
e.g. copper and zinc
4. Magnetic Materials
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Properties of Magnetic Materials:
Become magnetized in the same
direction of the applied magnetic field
B varies nonlinearly with H (double-
valuedrelationshipbetweenB andH)
Exhibit saturation and hysteresis
Dissipate power under time-varying
magnetic fields
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Terminology:
Magnetizationcurve
Magnetichysteresis
Residual fluxdensity, B
r
andcoercive
fieldintensity, H
c
Cyclicstate
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S
N
S
N
Magnetic Hysteresis
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Normal (DC) magnetization curve (n.m.c)
for a ferromagnetic core:
The curve used to describe a magnetic material is called
the B-H curve, or the hysteresis loop:
42
Hysteresis Loop:
B
r
: residual flux density
H
c
: coercive field intensity
43
Hysteresis Loop
1. From a demagnetized state (B =0) while mmf F or field intensity H is
gradually increased, B moves on n.m.c. from a b :
[ H =0 H
m
B =0 B
m
]
2. B moves from b c : [ H = H
m
0 B =B
m
B
r
]
3. B moves from c d : [ H = 0 H
c
B =B
r
0 ]
4. B moves from d e : [ H =H
c
H
m
B =0 B
m
]
5. B moves from e f : [ H =H
m
0 B =B
m
B
r
]
6. B moves from f g : [ H = 0 H
c
B =B
r
0]
7. B moves from g b : [ H =H
c
H
m
B =0 B
m
]
Magnetic performance of magnetic
material depends on their previous
history
During measurements, thematerial should be
put to a definite magnetic cycle:
H is varied in a cyclic manner
{ +H
m
0 H
m
0 +H
m
}
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Ex:
a. The exciting current i
e
for B
c
=1.0 T.
b. The flux | and flux linkage (ignore leakage fluxes).
c. The reluctance of the airgapR
g
and magnetic core R
c
.
d. The induced emf e for a 60 Hz core fluxof B
c
=1.0 sin 377 t, Tesla
e. The inductance L of the winding (neglect fringing fluxes)
f. The magnetic stored energy W at B
c
=1.0T
g. Assuming that core material has a DC magnetization curve, find the
excitingcurrent i for B
c
=1.0 T
70000 =
r

Find:
45
Ex:
70000 =
r

Magnetization curve of the core

46
a) Relation between periodic exciting current i
e
and
flux | in a magnetic circuit
6. AC Excitation and Losses
( ) ( )
dt
d
N t e t v
|
= =
( ) f t V t v
m
2 cos = = where e
t t
m
e u | sin ) ( =
( ) t E t N
dt
d
N t e
m m
e e u e
|
cos cos = = =
m m
fN E u t 2 = m rms
fN E u
t
2
2
=
m rms
fN E u 44 . 4 =
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Duetonon-linear B-H characteristic(or | - F ch.) of a magnetic
material, theexcitingcurrent i
e
(or i
|
) is a distortedsine wave
althoughflux| is sinusoidal.
48
Distortedsine waveexcitingcurrent waveform
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+ + + + + + = t I t I t I t I t I t I t i
m c m c m c e
e e e e e e 5 sin 5 cos 3 sin 3 cos sin cos ) (
5 5 3 3 1 1
Expanding i
e
using Fourier series
t I t I t i
m c e
e e sin cos ) (
1 1
+ ~
t I t I t i
m c e
e e sin cos ) ( + ~
Steady-stateequivalent circuit model of the
excitingbranch
Neglectinghighorder harmonics:
r
c
: corelossresistance
x
m
: magnetizingreactance
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b) Energy (power) losses in magnetic circuits
Hysteresis loss
Eddy current losses
Power lossin M.C. is dueto:
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Hysteresis Loss
}
=
2
1
|
|
| d W F A c c
l H = F
c c
A B = |
}
=
2
1
B
B c c
dB H l A W A
}
=
2
1
B
B c
dB H V W A
V
c
: Volume of the magnetic core
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}
=
m
a
B
B
c ab
HdB V W
}
=
c
m
B
B
c bc
HdB V W
}
=

m
c
B
B
c cd
HdB V W
}
=

a
m
B
B
c da
HdB V W
0 >
0 >
0 <
0 <
da cd bc ab h
W W W W W + + + =
f W P
h h
=
f B V P
x
m c h
q =
Empirical eqn:
( ) 5 2 5 1 . . s s x
q: constant depending on material type
For onecycleof acexcitation:
Hysteresislossper cycleof acexcitation:
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Eddy Current Loss
2 2 2
f B d V K P
m c e e
=
Ingeneral, M.C. have
- veryhighmagneticpermeability,
- highelectrical conductivity
(lowresistivity), whichcauses
extraI
2
R losses(P
e
) withinthe
magneticmaterialswhentheyare
subject totime-varyingMF.
0
~ >>
air c
Eddycurrent loss:
54
Eddy Current Loss
2 2 2
f B d V K P
m c e e
=
e h core
P P P + =
Stackingfactor F
s
in a laminated material
(actual) ) (effective c s c
A F A =
d: thickness of lamination
K
e
: constant depending on material
resistivity
Core loss:
0.95 < Fs < 1
55
Core Loss
e h core
P P P + =
CoreLossis givenin manufacturersdata sheetsfor eachspecificcorematerial as
P
core
vs B
m
curvesin log. scale, withoperatingfrequencyas a parameter:
Corelossincreases with increasing frequency