AB2.

15: Theorems of Real Analysis

Recall that a set of real numbers S R is called bounded if there is a real number M > 0 such that |x| < M for every x S . Denition 1. A function f : A B is called bounded provided there is a real number M > 0 such that |f (x)| < M for every x A.

EXAMPLE 1
Show that the function f (x) = x2 is unbounded on R but is bounded on each bounded interval I . Solution. If f (x) = x2 is bounded on R then there exists a real number M > 0 such that 2 x < M for every x R; however, f (M + 1) = (M + 1)2 > M + 1 > M, and this contradiction shows that f (x) = x2 is bounded on R because there can be no bound for f (x) on R. If we restrict f (x) to a bounded interval I = [a, b] then |f (x)| M x [a, b], M = max{a2 , b2 },

and, by Denition 1, f (x) = x2 is bounded on I . A function f : A B is called bounded above if there is a real number M1 such that f (x) M1 for every x A. f : A B is called bounded below if there is a real number M2 such that f (x) M2 for every x A. Then a function f : A B is bounded if and only if it is bounded above and bounded below. A function f : A B is called bounded at x0 A if there is an open interval J containing x0 such that f is bounded on J A. If f is bounded on A then f is bounded at each x0 A For example, f (x) = x2 is bounded on every bounded interval I = [a, b] and hence is bounded at each real number x0 THEOREM 1. If f (x) is bounded at each point x0 A and A is a compact set then f (x) is bounded on A. In particular, if f (x) is bounded at each point x0 [a, b] of a closed bounded interval then f (x) is bounded on [a, b]. Limit of a function Denition 2. The limit of f as x approaches a is a real number L,
x a

lim f (x) = L,

provided that given any then |f (x) L| < .

> 0 there is a > 0 such that if 0 < |x a| <

EXAMPLE 2
Show that
x 3

lim (2x 1) = 5.

Solution. Let > 0 be given. Find > 0 such that if 0 < |x 3| < then |(2x 1) 5| < , that is, |x 3| < 2 Taking = , 2 we observe that if 0 < |x 3| < = 2 then 2|x 3| = |2x 6| = |(2x 1) 5| < 2 = . THEOREM 2. If then
x a

lim f (x) = L1 ,

x a

lim g (x) = L2

xa

lim [f (x) g (x)] = L1 L2 .

xa

lim f (x)g (x) = L1 L2 . L2 = 0.

Prove the rst equality. The limit of f as x approaches a is a number L1 , provided that given any > 0 there exists a 1 > 0 such that if 0 < |x a| < 1 then |f (x) L1 | < /2. Similarly, the limit of g as x approaches a is a number L2 , provided that given any > 0 there exists a 2 > 0 such that if 0 < |x a| < 2 then |g (x) L2 | < /2. Take = min{1 , 2 }; then both inequalities |f (x) L1 | < /2 and |g (x) L2 | < /2 hold if 0 < |x a| < . So |[f (x) g (x)] (L1 L2 )| = |[f (x) L1 ] [g (x) L2 ]| |f (x) L1 | + |g (x) L2 | < /2 + /2 = . Continuity Denition 3. A function f (x) is called continuous at x0 if
xx0

xa

lim 1/g (x) = 1/L2 ,

lim f (x) = f (x0 ).

Equivalently, given any |f (x) f (x0 )| < .

> 0 there is a > 0 such that if |x a| < then

Denition 3 can be summarized in three stages: (i) x0 is in the domain of f ; that is, f (x0 ) exists; (ii) xlim f (x) exists; x
0

(iii)

lim f (x) and f (x0 ) are equal. x x

0

If any of these three conditions fails, f is not continuous at x0 . We say that a function f (x) is discontinuous at x0 or has a discontinuity (break) at x0 . If condition (ii) holds but (i) (and hence (iii)) fails, or if (ii) and (i) hold but (iii) fails then f is said to have a removable discontinuity at x0 .

EXAMPLE 3
Prove that f (x) = has a removable discontinuity at x0 = 2. Solution. The function x2 4 x2

f (x) = (x2 4)/(x 2) = x + 2,

x=2

is not dened at x0 = 2 but it is dened at every other real number and hence in a deleted neighborhood 0 < |x 2| < of x = 2. Hence x = 2 is not in the domain of f and f (2) does not exist. On the other hand
x2

lim f (x) = lim (x2 4)/(x 2) = lim (x + 2) = 4,

x 2 x 2

which means that f has a removable discontinuity at x0 = 2: if we dene f (2) = 4 then f (x) has been made continuous at x = 2.

EXAMPLE 4
Prove that f (x) = sgn x, has a jump discontinuity at x = 0 and f (x) = sgn |x|, has a removable discontinuity at x = 0. Solution. The function f (x) = sgn x, f (0) = 0 f (0) = 0

f (0) = 0

is dened at x0 = 0 and at every other real number and hence in a deleted neighborhood 0 < |x| < of x = 0. However,
x+0 x0

lim f (x) = 1,

x0

lim f (x) = 1
x0

which means that lim f (x) and f (0) are not equal and lim f (x) does not exist. Therefore f (x) = sgn x is not continuous and has a jump discontinuity at x = 0 with a jump 2 because

On the other hand, f (x) = sgn |x| has a removable discontinuity at x0 = 2: if we dene f (0) = 1 then f (x) has been made continuous at x = 1 because lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (0) = 1.
x+0 x0 x 0

x+0

lim f (x) lim f (x) = 2.

x0

Denition 4. A function f (x) has a simple discontinuity (discontinuity of the rst kind) at x = x0 if the discontinuity is either removable or a jump discontinuity. Every other discontinuity is called a discontinuity of the second kind. So if both limits lim f (x) and lim f (x) exist but then f (x) has a jump discontinuity. If at least one of the two one-sided limits at x = x0 fails to exist, f (x) has a discontinuity of the second kind. THEOREM 3. If f (x) and g (x) are each continuous at x = x0 then f g , f g are continuous at x = x0 and f /g is continuous at x0 if g (x0 ) = 0. Prove the continuity for f g . For f (x) and g (x) that are continuous at x = x0 , we have
xa x+x0 x+x0 xx0

lim f (x) = lim f (x),

xx0

lim f (x) = L1 = f (x0 ),

x a

lim g (x) = L2 = g (x0 ).

Then, by Theorem 2,
xa

lim [f (x) g (x)] = L1 L2 = f (x0 ) g (x0 ),

which proves the continuity of f g . Thus, every polynomial f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + . . . + an1 x + an is continuous at each real number x = x0 , and every rational function f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + . . . + an1 x + an b0 xm + b1 xm1 + . . . + bm1 x + bm

(a ratio of two polynomials) is continuous at each real number x = x0 except the nitely many zeros of the denominator polynomial q (x) = b0 xm + b1 xm1 + . . . + bm1 x + bm . THEOREM 4. If f (x) is continuous at x0 and g (x) is continuous at f (x0 ) then g (f (x)) is continuous at x = x0 . PROOF. Let > 0 be given. Since g (x) is continuous at f (x0 ) there is a > 0 such that if |y f (x0 )| < then |g (y ) g (f (x0 ))| < . But since f (x) is continuous at x0 there is a > 0 such that if |x x0 | < then |f (x) f (x0 )| < . Consequently, for each x satisfying |x x0 | < we have |g (f (x)) g (f (x0 ))| < . Therefore g (f (x)) is continuous at x = x0 .

EXAMPLE 5
Prove that f (x) = sin has a discontinuity of the second kind at x = 0. Solution. Consider the function f (x) = sin(1/x) and dene f (0) = 0. The rational function 1/x is continuous at each nonzero real number and the function sin x is continuous at each real number. Hence, by Theorem 4, f (x) is continuous at each x = 0. By considering the sequence xn = we see that
x+0

1 x

2 0 2n

lim f (x)

does not exist and so f (x) has a discontinuity of the second kind at x = 0. Denition 5. A function f (x) is called right-continuous at x0 if
x+x0

lim f (x) = f (x0 ). lim f (x) = f (x0 ).

or left-continuous at x0 if
xx0

Thus f (x) is continuous at x0 if and only if it is both left- and right-continuous at x0 . Properties of continuous functions LEMMA 1. If f (x) is continuous at x0 then there exists a > 0 such that f is bounded on (x0 , x0 + ); that is f (x) is bounded at x0 . PROOF. Since f (x) is continuous at x0 there is a > 0 such that if |x x0 | < then |f (x) f (x0 )| < 1, so that |f (x)| < 1 + |f (x0 )| = M for each x (x0 , x0 + ). Therefore f (x) is bounded at x0 . THEOREM 5. If f (x) is continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b] then f (x) is bounded on [a, b]. PROOF. Suppose f (x) : [a, b] R is continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b]. By Lemma 1 f (x) is bounded at each x0 [a, b]; thus f (x) is bounded on [a, b] by Theorem 1. COROLLARY. If f (x) is continuous on R then f (x) is bounded on every bounded itnterval [a, b]. Dene M = supxA f (x), m = infxA f (x).

EXAMPLE 6
Let f (x) = x2 on (0, 2). f (x) is continuous and bounded on a bounded interval (0, 2). M = 4 and m = 0 but there are no points x1 , x2 (0, 2) with f (x1 ) = 4 and f (x2 ) = 0.

EXAMPLE 7
Let x|x| f (x) = = 1 + x2
x2 1+x2 x2 1+ x2

if x > 0, if x < 0,

on R. f (x) is continuous and bounded on R. M = 1 and m = 1 (f is an odd function) but there are no points x1 , x2 R with f (x1 ) = 1 and f (x2 ) = 1. THEOREM 6 (extreme-value theorem). If f (x) is continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b] then there exist points x1 , x2 [a, b] such that f (x2 ) f (x) f (x1 ) for all x [a, b]. That is, f (x1 ) = M, f (x2 ) = m.

PROOF. If f (x) is continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b] then, by Theorem 5, f (x) is bounded on [a, b], and so M = supxA f (x), m = infxA f (x)

exist as real numbers. Suppose that value M is not assumed; then f (x) < M Dene g (x) = x [a, b]. x [a, b].

Clearly, g (x) > 0 x [a, b] and g (x) is continuous on [a, b]. Then, by Theorem 5, g (x) is bounded on [a, b], and so there is a real number k > 0 such that g (x) k Now for every x [a, b] and so k g (x) = x [a, b]. 1 , M f (x)

1 , M f (x)

1 1 > 0, f (x) M , x [a, b], k k and this contradicts the denition of M as the least upper bound of f (x) on [a, b]. Therefore, value M must be assumed; i.e., there exist a point x1 [a, b] with M f (x) f (x1 ) = M.

A similar statement for m and x2 [a, b] can be proved by applying the same argument to f . THEOREM 7 (intermediate-value theorem). If f (x) is continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b] and k is between f (a) and f (b) then there exist a c [a, b] such that f (c) = k .

PROOF. Let f (x) be continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b] and k be between f (a) and f (b); that is, either f (a) < k < f (b) or f (b) < k < f (a). We will prove the former. Dene the function g (x) = f (x) k, x [a, b]. Then g (a) = f (a) k < 0, Let c = sup {x [a, b] : g (x) < 0}. Since g (x) is continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b] then g (x) < 0 on some interval [a, a + 1 ], 1 > 0 and g (x) > 0 on some interval [b 2 , b], 2 > 0. Thus a < c < b. Now for every x satisfying c < x b g (x) 0, for otherwise c would not be an upper bound of the set {x [a, b] : g (x) < 0}. Hence
x+c

g (b) = f (b) k > 0,

x [a, b].

lim g (x) 0. g (c) 0.

By continuity of g , g (c) = lim g (x) :

x+c

Choose a sequence xn in [a, b] such that xn < c and g (xn ) < 0 for every integer n. Note that if there no such a sequence then the set {x [a, b] : g (x) < 0} would have an upper bound less than c, in contradiction with the denition of c. Now since g (x) is continuous at c, g (xn ) g (c). Hence g (c) 0. It follows that g (c) = 0 and consequently f (c) = k .

EXAMPLE 8
Prove that the function f (x) = x + 1, x (0, 1], f (0) = 0

does not satisfy the conclusion of the intermediate-value theorem.

Solution. f is bounded but not continuous on [0, 1] since f fails to be right-continuous at x = 0. We have M = supx[0,1] f (x) = 2, m = infx[0,1] f (x) = 0. In fact f (0) = 0 and f (1) = 2 but there is no c (0, 1) with f (c) = 1, for example. It is easy to see that none of the intermediate values x (0, 1] are assumed by f . THEOREM 8. If f (x) is continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b] and f (x) [a, b] then f has a xed point: there exists and x0 [a, b] such that f (x0 ) = x0 .

PROOF. Let f (x) be continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b] and f (x) [a, b] for every and x [a, b]. If f (a) = a or f (b) = b then the theorem is proved; hence assume that f (a) < a and f (b) < b. Dene g (x) = f (x) x for every and x [a, b]. Clearly g (a) > 0a, g (b) < 0, and g (x) is continuous on [a, b]. Now 0 is an intermediate value for g on [a, b]. Now, by the intermediate-value theorem, there exist a c = x0 [a, b] such that g (x0 ) = 0. Then f (x0 ) = x0 . THEOREM 9. If f (x) is one-to-one and continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b] then f is strictly monotone on [a, b].

PROOF. Let f (x) be one-to-one and continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b]. Then f (a) = f (b). Consider the case f (a) < f (b). If f is not strictly increasing on [a, b] then there exists x1 , x2 [a, b] such that x1 < x2 , f (x1 ) f (x2 ). Equality here violates the assumption that f (x) is one-to-one and continuous, and so we must have f (x1 ) > f (x2 ). There are two possibilities: (a) f (x1 ) > f (b). Choose k (f (b), f (x1 )). Then k (f (a), f (x1 )), and by the intermediatevalue theorem there is a c1 (a, x1 ) with f (c1 ) = k and there is a c2 (x1 , b) with f (c2 ) = k . But c1 c2 and this contradicts the assumption that f (x) is one-to-one. (b) f (x1 ) < f (b). Then f (x2 ) < f (b). Choose k (f (x2 ), f (x1 )). Then k (f (x2 ), f (b)), and by the intermediate-value theorem there is a c1 (x1 , x2 ) with f (c1 ) = k and there is

a c2 (x2 , b) with f (c2 ) = k . But c1 c2 and this contradicts the assumption that f (x) is one-to-one. It follows that f is strictly increasing on [a, b]. Finally for the case f (a) > f (b) the above argument applied to f shows that f is strictly increasing on [a, b] and hence f is strictly decreasing on [a, b]. [a, b]. THEOREM 10. If f (x) is one-to-one and continuous on [a, b] then f 1 is continuous on [m, M ] where M = supx[a,b] f (x), m = infx[a,b] f (x). PROOF. We know that the range of f 1 is the closed bounded interval [m, M ] and so f 1 is a well-dened one-to-one function dened on [m, M ] with the range [a, b]. Let y0 [m, M ]. It suces to prove that f 1 is continuous at y0 . Choose a sequence yn in [m, M ] such that yn y0 . It is sucient to show that f 1 (yn ) f 1 (y0 ), Let x0 = f 1 (y0 ), xn = f 1 (yn ) n = 1, 2, . . . , and suppose that xn does not converge to x0 . Then for some > 0 |xn x0 | for innitely many integers n. Extract a subsequence x n of xn such that |x n x0 | n. n .

Now x n is a bounded sequence and by the BolzanoWeierstrass theorem xn has a convergent subsequence, say x n . Then

|x n x0 | By the continuity of f at c,

n,

x n c [a, b],

c = x0 .

But {f ( x n )} is a subsequence of {f (xn ) = yn } and

f ( x n ) f (c).

yn y0 = f (x0 ). Therefore, f (c) = f (x0 ). Since this contradicts the assumption that f is a one-to-one function, we must have xn x0 ; that is, f 1 (yn ) f 1 (y0 ), which means that f 1 is continuous on [m, M ]. Derivative. Dierentiable functions Denition 6. The derivative of a function f (x) at x0 is f (x0 ) = lim f (x)
h 0

n ,

f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) . h

Whem the limit exists we say that f (x) is dierentiable at x0 . THEOREM 11. If f (x) is dierentiable at x0 then f (x) is continuous at x0 . PROOF. Recall that a function f (x) is continuous at x0 if
xx0

lim f (x) = f (x0 ),

or
xx0

lim [f (x) f (x0 )] = 0.

Assume that f (x) is dierentiable at x0 . Then lim [f (x)f (x0 )] = xlim x f (x) f (x0 ) f (x) f (x0 ) (xx0 ) = xlim lim (xx0 ) = f (x0 )0 = 0. x xx0 0 x x0 x x0

xx0

THEOREM 12 If f (x) has a local extremum (maximum or minimum) then either f (x0 ) = 0 or f (x0 ) does not exist. PROOF Let f (x) have a local maximum. We have f (x) f (x0 ) 0, x x0 f (x) f (x0 ) 0, x x0 x0 < x < x0 + . x0 < x < x0 .

If f (x0 ) exists then necessarily lim

x+x0

f (x) f (x0 ) f (x) f (x0 ) (x x0 ) = f (x0 ) = lim xx0 x x0 x x0 f (x) f (x0 ) (x x0 ) 0, x x0 f (x) f (x0 ) 0. x x0

By the above lim lim

x+x0

xx0

It follows that f (x0 ) = 0. If f (x0 ) does not exist, we have several obvious examples when f (x) has a local extremum. Note that the converes is not true: If f (x0 ) = 0 or f (x0 ) does not exist then f (x) may not have a local extremum (maximum or minimum). To see this consider the function f (x) = x3 at x = 0. THEOREM 13 (Rolles theorem). If f (x) is continuous on [a, b] and dierentiable on (a, b) and f (a) = f (b) then there exists an x0 (a, b) such that f (x0 ) = 0. PROOF If f (x) = f (a) for every x (a, b) then f is constant on [a, b] and so f (x) = 0 for every x (a, b). Hence we can assume that there is some x (a, b) for which f (x) = f (a). By

the extreme-value theorem, f assumes its absolute-maximum and absolute-mainimum values on [a, b]; that there exists x1 , x2 [a, b] such that f (x1 ) f (x) f (x2 ) x [a, b]. By our assumption that f is not constant on [a, b] together with the fact that f (a) = f (b) it follows that there is x0 (a, b) such that f has an absolute extremum at x0 , and f (x0 ) is a local extremum of f . Also f (x0 ) exists by the condition that f (x) is dierentiable on (a, b). Thus, by Theorem 12, f (x0 ) = 0. THEOREM 14 (Cauchy mean-value theorem). If f (x) and g (x) are each continuous on [a, b] and dierentiable on (a, b) then there exists an x0 (a, b) such that f (x0 )[g (b) g (a)] = g (x0 )[f (b) f (a)]. PROOF Let F (x) = f (x)[g (b) g (a)] g (x)[f (b) f (a)]. F is continuous on [a, b] and dierentiable on (a, b). Also F (b) = f (b)[g (b) g (a)] g (b)[f (b) f (a)] = f (a)g (b) g (a)f (b) = f (a)[g (b) g (a)] g (a)[f (b) f (a)] = F (a) By Rolles theorem, there exists an x0 (a, b) such that F (x0 ) = 0. But F (x) = f (x)[g (b) g (a)] g (x)[f (b) f (a)]. Hence f (x0 )[g (b) g (a)] = g (x0 )[f (b) f (a)].

PROBLEM 15.1
Show that the function f (x) = 1/x is unbounded for 0 < x < but is bounded on (a, ) for every a > 0. Solution. Take M > 0 and x > 0 such that x < 1/M ; then 1/x > M so that M is not a bound for f (x) and, by Denition 1, f (x) = 1/x is unbounded for 0 < x < . Note that f (x) = 1/x is bounded at each x0 (0, 1) (and at each x0 > 0) but is not bounded on (0, 1).

PROBLEM 15.2
Show that the function f (x) = is bounded for all real x. Solution. Since | sin x| |x| x R, we have |f (x)| = | sin x| 1, |x| sin x , x = 0, x f (0) = 1

and we can choose, e.g., M = 2 as a bound for f (x) so that, by Denition 1, f (x) = sin x/x is bounded on R. Note that 1/x is unbounded on R and sin x is bounded on R; however, their product, f (x) = sin x/x, is bounded on R (and at each point x0 ).

PROBLEM 15.3
Show that the function f (x) = x sin x is unbounded for all real x (on R). Solution. Take an arbitrary M > 0 and choose integers k1 and k2 such that 2k1 + Now, sin(2k1 + Hence, f (2k1 + > M, 2 ) = 1, 2 2k2 + < M. 2 ) = 1, 2

sin(2k2

) = 2k1 + > M, f (2k2 ) = 2k2 + < M. 2 2 2 2 Thus f (x) is neither bounded above nor bounded below and thus unbounded on R.

PROBLEM 15.4
Prove that x2 4 = 4. x 2 x 2 lim

Solution. The function f (x) = x2 4 (x 2)(x + 2) = = x + 2, x2 x2 x=2

is not dened at x = 2 but it is dened at every other real number and hence in a deleted neighborhood 0 < |x 2| < of x = 2. Let > 0 be given. Find > 0 such that if 0 < |x 2| < then |f (x) 4| < , that is, |(x + 2) 4| = |x 2| < Taking, for example = (or = /2) we observe that if 0 < |x 2| < then |x 2| = |(x + 2) 4| = |f (x) 4| < . (x = 2).

PROBLEM 15.5
Prove that x = 1. x1 2x + 1 lim

x 2x + 1 is dened at every real number x = 1/2 and hence in a deleted neighborhood 0 < |x +1/2| < of x = 1/2 and in a deleted neighborhood 0 < |x +1| < of x = 1 provided that 0 < 1/2 . Let > 0 be given. Find > 0 such that if 0 < |x + 1| < then |f (x) 1| < . That is, we must prove that for such f (x) = x 1 x 1 1 = = |x + 1| < 2x + 1 2x + 1 2x + 1 Assume that |x + 1| < Then 1 : 4 5 3 x , . 4 4 (x = 1/2).

Solution. The function

3 1 |2x + 1| > |2x| 1 > 2 1 = , 4 2

so that

Hence

1 < 2. |2x + 1| |f (x) 1| = |x + 1| 1 < 2|x + 1| |2x + 1|

which means that for

|f (x) 1| < 0 < |x + 1| < = Taking 1 = min{ , } 2 4 1 we observe that both inequalities |x + 1| < 4 and |f (x) 1| < will be satised. Note that the initial restriction 1 |x + 1| < 4 could be replaced by |x + 1| < for any xed positive 1 < . 2 2

PROBLEM 15.6
Prove that
x a

lim

x = a, f (x) =

a > 0.

Solution. The function

is dened at every real number x 0 and hence in a deleted neighborhood 0 < |x a| < of x = a > 0. Now x+ a> a so that xa 1 < |x a| | x a| = x+ a a = min{a, we obtain a}

Take > 0 and

1 a |f (x) a| = | x a| < |x a| < = . a a a

PROBLEM 15.7

Prove that f (x) = x sin has a removable discontinuity at x = 0. Solution. Consider the function

1 x

f (x) = x sin(1/x) and dene f (0) = 0. The rational function 1/x is continuous at each nonzero real number and the functions sin x and x are continuous at each real number. Hence, by Theorem 3, f (x) is continuous at each x = 0. The limit below exists, and
x+0

lim f (x) = 0

because | sin x| 1 and lim x = 0. Therefore we have x0 (i) f (0) dened as f (0) = 0 exists; (ii) lim f (x) exists; x0 (iii) lim f (x) and f (0) are equal (to zero). x 0 So f (x) has a removable discontinuity at x = 0 and is continuous at x = 0, (and thus at each real number).

PROBLEM 15.8
Find and classify all discontinuity points of the function

f (x) =

x2 2x + 3 |x 1| x3 7 (x 3)/(x 4) 0

if if if if if if

x < 1, 1 x 0, 0 < x < 2, 2 x < 3, 3 x < 4, x 4,

PROBLEM 15.9
Find M = supx[a,b] f (x), for f (x) =

m = infx[a,b] f (x) if if if if x [0, 4], x [2, 2], x [0, ), x (2, 1],

x2 + 2x + 3 2 |x 1| e1/x 1 x2

PROBLEM 15.10
Prove that the polynomial p(x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + . . . + an1 x + an , a0 = 0, n = 2l 1, l = 1, 2, . . . ,

has at least one real root x0 R: p(x0 ) = 0. Solution. Consider, for example p(x) = x3 + 2x2 + x + 1. We have p(3) = 27 + 18 3 + 1 = 11 < 0, p(1) = 1 + 2 1 + 1 = 1 > 0.

Thus, by the intermediate-value theorem, there is an x0 (3, 1) at which p(x0 ) = 0 because 11 < 0 < 1. For a polynomial p(x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + . . . + an1 x + an , a0 > 0, n = 2l 1 (l = 1, 2, . . .),

one can choose a suciently large by modulus negative x1 such that a0 |xn | > |a1 xn1 + . . . + an1 x + an |, x < x1 and a suciently large positive x2 such that a0 xn > |a1 xn1 + . . . + an1 x + an |, x > x2 . Thus, by the intermediate-value theorem, there is an x0 (x1 , x2 ) at which p(x0 ) = 0.