REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION

11. DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION

This chapter deals with the estimation of drag polar including the effects of landing gear. 11.1 Introduction Drag Estimation: The total drag polar of an airplane is considered to consist of two different types in the subsonic regime of flight. (i) zero-lift drag (ii) Induced drag where ( )

The zero-lift drag has form drag, skin-friction drag, leakage and protuberance drag. The form drag is due to the pressure field around the body and skin friction drag is due to the shear stresses at the surface of the body. The induced drag arises as a consequence of the production of lift and represents the cost of producing lift by pushing a body through a fluid. 11.2 Calculation of Zero-Lift Drag Coefficient ( Component Buildup Method: The zero-lift drag of an aircraft is defined as: where q ):

- total zero-lift drag of the aircraft - Dynamic pressure - Wing reference area.

This equation may also be written as,

where the summation sign

indicates the summation of the values of parasite drag coefficient for all components of the aircraft including interference. The term (D/q) is often called the equivalent flat plate area, because the term has the units of square feet (or square meters) and is numerically roughly equal to the drag of a flat plate which is held normal to the flow. Aircraft components may be broken down into three categories, 1. Components that are streamlined for which the reference area is usually the wetted area of the component, which produces the drag known as skin friction, drag. 2 .Components that are bluff (such as landing gear) for which the reference area is usually the frontal (or maximum cross sectional) area, which produces drag called miscellaneous drag.

REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION 3. Other drag effects, such as leakage and protuberances, which may be expressed as a percentage of the total drag of the aircraft, which produces drag known as leakage and protuberance drag. The estimation of parasite drag coefficient ( ) is done based on component build-up method.

In this method the subsonic parasite drag is estimated by considering each component of aircraft for calculations of their skin friction drag ( ), form factor (FF) and interference factor (Q). Total parasite drag (zero lift drag) co-efficient is given by [1],

(11.1)

where, subscript c indicates those values are different for different components.

of components

11.2.1 Skin Frictional Drag Coefficient-(

Skin friction drag coefficient depends upon Mach number, Reynolds number and surface roughness. The Reynolds number is estimated and depending on the flow to be laminar or turbulent, skin friction coefficient of all the components has been calculated. For laminar flow The skin friction coefficient is given by [1]

(11.2)

REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION The skin friction coefficient for turbulent flow is given by [1]
(( ) ( ) )

(11.3)

The Reynolds number is given by

where

Fuselage Table 11.1 Fuselage details Characteristic length(fuselage length) Reynolds number Nature of flow 1.2 m 12.4138 Turbulent 4.25499 Wing Table 11.2 Wing details Characteristic length(chord) 0.188 m Reynolds number Nature of flow 1.94484 Laminar 3.011314

REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION Horizontal tail Table 11.3 Horizontal tail details Characteristic Length( mean chord) Reynolds number Nature of flow 0.1426 m 1.47518 Laminar 3.4576

Vertical tail Table 11.4 Vertical tail details Characteristic length(mean chord) 0.08944 m Reynolds number Nature of flow 0.92524 Laminar 4.36584 11.2.2 Form factor for various components Fuselage The form factor for fuselage is given by [1] (11.4) Since the cross section is rectangular, the equivalent diameter is found using the following relation

FF
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REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION Wing The form factor for wing is given by [1] (
( ) ( )

( ) )(

))

(11.5)

FF=0.957132 Horizontal, Vertical Tail The same airfoil NACA 0012 is selected and the form factor is given by [1] (
( ) ( )

( ) )(

))

(11.6)

FF=0.99419 11.2.3 Interference factor The interference factor [1] for wing and fuselage is 1.1 and empennage is taken as 1.03.

REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION 11.2.4 Wetted area estimation Fuselage The wetted area is given by [1]

(
Wing

(11.7)

The exposed area is given by (11.8)

The wetted area is given by [1]

(
Horizontal Tail The exposed area is given by

( ))

(11.9)

(11.10)

The wetted area is given by [1]

( ))

(11.11)

REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION Table11.5 Skin friction drag estimation Component ( ) FF(Form factor) 1.058774 0.957132 0.99419 Q(Interference factor) 1.1 1.1 1.03 2.2472 2.03033 0.59865 ( )

Fuselage Wing Horizontal tail Vertical tail

4.25499 0.957132 3.4576

11.1372 6.43705 2.1196

4.3658

0.99419

1.03

0.17352 Total CF

0.77575 20.4696

11.3 Miscellaneous drag coefficient: In addition to the basic parasite drag of the major components, the drag due to landing gear, aft-fuselage upsweep, and control surface gaps must be consider for parasite drag .One of the major contributions for miscellaneous drag is Landing Gear (no retracting mechanism). The drag coefficient for landing gear is estimated by comparison of test data for a similar gear arrangement. But if the above data is not given then the gear drag can be estimated as summation of drags of wheels, struts and other gear components using the table below Table 11.6 Drag coefficient for landing gear components Configuration Regular wheel and tire Second wheel and tire in tandem Streamlined wheel and tire Wheel and tire with fairing Streamline strut Round strut Flat spring gear leg Fork,bogey,irregular fitting (D/q) 0.25 0.15 0.18 0.13 0.05 0.30 1.4 1.0-1.4

REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION Table no 11.7 Landing Gear Dimensions S. No Component Description Wheel Diameter 1 Nose landing gear Front Wheel Wheel thickness Frontal Area Strut Length Strut Width Strut Strut thickness Frontal Area (1 Struts) S. No Component Description Wheel Diameter 3 Rear landing gear Rear Wheel Wheel thickness Frontal Area Strut Length Strut Width Strut Strut thickness Frontal Area (2 Struts) Drag Coefficient of Landing gear: By using the above table for nose landing gear, CDo (front wheel) = [0.25 x 0.003767] / Sref = [0.25 x 0.003767] / 2.2907 = 0.000411 5 mm 2005 mm2 = 0.0215816 Ft2 5 mm 575 mm2 = 0.006189 Ft2 Dimensions 35 mm 10 mm 350 mm2 = 0.003767 Ft2 200.5 mm 5 mm Dimensions 35 mm 10 mm 350 mm2 = 0.003767 Ft2 115 mm 5 mm

REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION for front wheel strut, (strut) = [0.3 x 0.006189] / Sref = [0.3 x 0.006189] / 2.2907 = 0.000810 for rear wheels, (rear wheel) = [0.25 x 0.003767 x 2] / Sref = [0.25 x 0.003767 x 2] / 2.2907 = 0.000822 for rear wheel strut, (strut) = [0.3 x 0.0215816] / Sref = [0.3 x 0.0215816] / 2.2907 = 0.002826 ( ) = = 0.00489

11.4 Protuberance and Leakage Drag Drag due to leakage and protuberance is difficult to estimate. Leakage drag is due to tendency of aircraft to inhale through holes and gapes in high pressure region and exhale into low pressure zones. Protuberance drag includes drag due to manufacturing defects that is protruding rivets, rough skin panels etc. For a normal airplane, leaks and protuberance drags can be estimated as about 2-5% of the parasite drag of the airplane
( )

The parasite drag coefficient is given by

( )

REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION 11.5 Ostwald efficiency The Ostwald efficiency factor is given by [1] ( AR=6 ) (11.12)

The new drag polar equation is given by

11.6 Conclusion The final drag polar equation including the contribution of landing gear is given by

11.7 References [1] Daniel P Raymer, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, 2nd edition AIAA Educational series, 1989. [2] John D Anderson Jr, Aircraft Performance and Design, 4th reprint 2011, McGraw- Hill, New York.

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REPORT 11 DRAG POLAR ESTIMATION List of Symbols 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. c 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. - Aspect ratio - Top area of fuselage - Side area of fuselage - span - chord - Parasite drag coefficient - Induced drag coefficient - Miscellaneous drag coefficient ) - Leakage and protuberance drag - Skin friction coefficient - Equivalent diameter of fuselage - Parasite drag - Ostwalds efficiency - Form factor of the components - Length - Mach number - Dynamic pressure - Interference factor - Reynolds number - Exposed area - Reference wing area - Wetted area of wing

Deq e

Sexp Sref Swet

23.
24. v

- Thickness to chord ratio

- velocity

25.
26. 27. 28.

- chord wise location

- Sweep of maximum thickness line - density - viscosity

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