Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 27332740

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

A viscoplastic constitutive model for hot mix asphalt in compression at high conning pressure
Taeyoung Yun a,, Y. Richard Kim b
a Highway Research Division, Infrastructure Research Department, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, 1190, Simindae-Ro, Ilsanseo-Gu, Goyang-Si, Gyeonggi-Do 411-712, South Korea b Dept. of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
In this study, the experimentally observed rate-dependent viscoplastic hardeningsoftening of hot mix asphalt (HMA) is modeled using Perzynas ow rule and a rate-dependent yield stress function. The yield stress function, which is adopted from the convolution integral in linear viscoelasticity, is applied with a strain hardening rule in order to address both the sudden and gradual changes in rate dependence of the viscoplastic media that are due to repetitive creep and recovery loading. The experimental study is performed to characterize the behavior of HMA and verify the developed model at 55 C with 500 kPa conning pressure. The developed model shows good agreement with the measured viscoplastic responses of HMA under various load levels and pulse times of repetitive creep and recovery loading histories. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 2 September 2010 Received in revised form 15 October 2010 Accepted 9 December 2010 Available online 3 January 2011 Keywords: Rate-dependent yield stress Softening Hot mix asphalt Pavement Conning pressure

1. Introduction In the modeling of elasto-viscoplastic materials, the ow rule with yield stress concept is often utilized because the concept supports phenomenally observed material behavior, such as the generation of elastic strain without viscoplastic strain. Historically, this modeling approach has required signicant effort in enhancing the hardening rule that is responsible for simulating the changes in rate dependence of the viscoplastic hardening material. Consequently, the ArmstrongFrederick type of nonlinear hardening rule, which species the evolution of the hardening parameter, has attracted much attention and has become the basis of other hardening rules and softening rules. This type of model is able to describe the viscoplastic state of materials under various loading conditions, including either monotonic deformation or ratcheting, without losing accuracy [13]. Hot mix asphalt (HMA) is widely used as a pavement construction material and is known to exhibit time- and temperaturedependent viscoelastic and viscoplastic behavior [4,5]. However, because HMA is composed not only of asphalt binder but also various sizes of aggregate, the mechanical behavior of HMA under repetitive trafc loading is signicantly different from that of other construction materials, such as soil, steel, and polymer, as reported in recent studies [911]. In those studies, it was shown that the
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tyun@kict.re.kr (T. Yun), kim@ncsu.edu (Y.R. Kim). 0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.12.025

number of rest periods under compressive creep loading has a signicant effect on viscoplastic strain development in HMA. The resulting characteristic behavior seems to be caused mainly by friction between the aggregates in the HMA mixture, and this behavior becomes dominant at high conning pressure. However, although the viscoplastic models developed by various researchers [1,68] show good predictions for the viscoplastic behavior of various construction materials, they are not sufciently specialized to be used in predicting the viscoplastic behavior of HMA under repetitive creep and recovery loading. Although the repetitive creep and recovery loading is understood to be a representative loading shape that causes various distresses in a pavement structure, most viscoplastic constitutive models have been aimed at viscoplastic behavior under only a certain type of loading, such as monotonic deformation or ratcheting. In this study, a viscoplastic constitutive model is developed for HMA that can accurately predict the behavior of HMA subjected to various repetitive compressive creep loadings using a specialized rate-dependent yield stress function and evolution law.

2. Viscoplastic constitutive model 2.1. Flow rule The rate form of Perzynas ow rule that is widely used to describe the behavior of elasto-viscoplastic materials represents the _ v p , and the overrelationship between the viscoplastic strain rate, e

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stress function, u(f). The overstress function and viscosity determine the magnitude of the viscoplastic strain rate, as shown in Eq. (1). When the plastic potential function is assumed to be the same as the yield stress function (i.e., the associated ow rule), then the stress derivative of the plastic potential function in Eq. (1) determines the direction of the viscoplastic strain rate which is normal to yield surface as dened

function can be represented as a convolution integral, as shown in Eq. (4), and the unit yield stress function can be represented by the Prony series in Eq. (5). The variations of the yield surface in the principal stress space are described schematically in Fig. 1. As shown, the hydrostatic stress-independent yield surface expands and shrinks according to the changes in loading condition (i.e., loading and unloading)

_ vp e

h/f i @ g ; g @r

Z
0

Dt s

dr ds; ds

where hi is the Macaulay brackets, u(f) is overstress function, g is viscosity, and g is the plastic potential function. The Perzynas ow rule with a simplied overstress function that is used in this research is represented in Eq. (2). The terms in the Macaulay brackets determine the magnitude of viscoplastic strain due to overstress, and m determines the nonlinearity of the viscoplastic strain rate. The yield stress, G, is considered to be the internal resisting force to the viscoplastic deformation, which includes aggregate friction and the viscosity of the binder

where D(t) is the unit yield stress function, s is integration variable, and r is the stress

Dt D0

m X i 1

  t Di 1 e qi ;

_ vp e

 m jrj jGj jr G j ; D r G

where hi is the Macaulay brackets, D and m are tting coefcients, r is stress, and G is the yield stress. 2.2. Hardeningsoftening rule HMA exhibits stress rate-dependent hardeningsoftening behavior in the compressive stress state. This characteristic behavior of HMA implies the existence of multiple states of the material at certain viscoplastic strains, which must be reected in the viscoplastic constitutive model in order to describe the difference between the viscoplastic strain development that is observed from HMA under continuous loading and that observed under discontinuous loading at a certain cumulative loading time [9,10]. A general form of the yield stress function that is capable of describing the stress rate-dependent (i.e., stress history) hardeningsoftening behavior of the material is represented in Eq. (3). The superimposed dot in Eq. (3) denotes the time derivative

where D0 and Di are the Prony coefcients and qi is the retardation time. Although the yield stress function represented by the convolution integral simulates the rate-dependent hardeningsoftening behavior of HMA, as shown in Fig. 1, the yield stress function should be not only a function of stress but also of another state variable that could be a function of viscoplastic strain or the viscoplastic strain rate. This phenomenon occurs because HMA exhibits not only the rate-dependent hardeningsoftening of the yield stress, but also gradual hardening as the material state changes due to repetitive loading in compression. Therefore, the retardation times that are shifted as a function of the viscoplastic strain rate are utilized in order to consider the overall strain hardening of HMA within the yield stress function, as shown in Eqs. (6)(8). The relationships in Eqs. (7) and (8) are developed from the observation of the viscoplastic strain development under a specic loading history (i.e., the variable loading time test), which is described in the experimental research section of this paper

qi qi;initial =10H ;

where qi is the retardation time at a certain state of the material, qi,initial is initial retardation time, and H is the internal state variable for viscoplastic strain hardening (H > 0).

_ f r; r _ ; G; G

  b3 H b1 1 eb2 h ;
where b1, b2, and b3 are the tting coefcients.
_ vp _ v p a1 ea2 e Dh e Dt ;

where G is the yield stress and r is the stress. In this study, the rate-dependent hardeningsoftening of the yield stress is simulated by the so-called unit yield stress function that is adopted from the unit response function in viscoelasticity. The yield stress function incorporated into the unit yield stress

_ v p is the viscoplastic strain rate, a1 and a2 are tting coefwhere e cients, and Dt is the incremental time.

2
Yield surface during loading Yield surface at the end of loading Yield surface during unloading Hydrostatic axis

1 3
Fig. 1. Variations of yield surface in the principal stress space.

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Applied Stress

Yield Stress

t
Fig. 2. Variations of yield stress and the internal state variable in the stresstime domain.

Table 1 Aggregate gradation. #68 Size 1/200 3/800 #4 #8 Sub-#8 Sum Mass (g) 266.8 198.2 179.2 22.9 19.1 686.2 #78 Size 1/200 3/800 #4 #8 Sub-#8 Sum Mass (g) 0.0 144.9 792.9 358.3 91.5 1387.6 Sand Size 1/200 3/800 #4 #8 Sub-#8 Sum Mass (g) 0.0 0.0 34.3 327.8 686.2 1048.3 #10 Size 1/200 3/800 #4 #8 Sub-#8 Sum Mass (g) 0.0 0.0 15.2 156.3 480.3 651.9 Lime Size 1/200 3/800 #4 #8 Sub-#8 Sum Mass (g) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 38.1 38.1

As shown in Eqs. (6)(8), the decreased retardation times that are in inverse proportion to the viscoplastic strain increase the instantaneous portion of the unit yield stress, which can be similarly achieved by increasing D0 in Eq. (5) and changing the rate dependence of the yield stress during loading. Therefore, the reduction of qi simulates the gradual hardening of the viscoplastic media due to repetitive loading. The evolutions of the yield stress and H as a result of the shifting retardation times are described schematically in Fig. 2. The model variables, such as D; m; a1 ; a2 ; b1 ; b2 ; and b3 in Eqs. (2), (7), and (8), can easily be determined by optimizing the viscoplastic strain model against the viscoplastic strain measured at the end of the rest periods. However, determining m 1 number of Prony coefcients with the other variables using an optimization technique is not practical considering the complexity of the suggested model. Therefore, in this study, a sigmoidal function that is represented in Eq. (9) is rst determined with the other model variables, and then, a set of Prony coefcients that shows the best t against the sigmoidal function is determined to reduce the computational time needed for the yield stress calculation

a height of 178 mm and a diameter of 150 mm. To obtain specimens of uniform air void distribution, these samples were cored and cut to a height of 150 mm with a diameter of 100 mm. 3.2. Repetitive creep and recovery tests Repetitive creep and recovery tests were conducted in compression at 55 C with a conning pressure of 500 kPa. At this high conning pressure, the effect of aggregate friction on viscoplastic strain development, which is observed at the conning pressures of 0 kPa and 140 kPa, becomes more dominant [10]. Three loading conditions were applied for the calibration and verication of the developed model. The rst condition is a xed stress level with increasing pulse times without a change in the duration of the rest period as the loading cycle increases (i.e., a variable time, or VT). The second condition has a xed stress level with a xed pulse time and xed rest period throughout the entire test (i.e., a constant loading time, or CLT test). The third condition has a variable load level with a xed loading time (VL). All viscoplastic strain values were measured at the end of 200 s of rest in order to isolate the viscoplastic strain from the viscoelastic strain. The following sections provide a description of each repetitive creep and recovery test. 3.2.1. Variable time (VT) test Repetitive creep and recovery tests with variable pulse times were performed to calibrate the viscoplastic model. For these VT tests, the level of deviatoric stress remained the same until the end of the test, but the duration of the loading (i.e., pulse time) was varied. The rst loading block started with a 0.05-s pulse followed by 200 s of rest; then longer loading pulses with 200 s of rest were subsequently applied to the end of the loading block. The loading block sequence was repeated until the specimen failed. The deviatoric stress levels used for the VT test were 1600 kPa, 1800 kPa, and 2000 kPa. The loading blocks for the VT tests are presented schematically in Fig. 3.

Dt 10

b 1ecd logt

where D(t) is the unit yield stress function and a, b, c, and d are the tting coefcients (b = a). 3. Experimental research 3.1. Materials For this study, the aggregate structure of the HMA mixture is coarse 12.5 mm nominal maximum size aggregate comprised of 18.0% #68 stone, 36.4% #78 stone, 17.1% #10 stone, 27.5% sand, and 1.0% lime and Table 1 shows the gradations of each stock pile. PG 70-22 is used as the asphalt binder. The asphalt content for each mixture is set at 5.3% by total mixture mass. All specimens were compacted using the Servopac Superpave gyratory compactor to

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Rest Period: 200 sec 200 sec 200 sec 200 sec 200 sec 200 sec

Pulse Time:

0.05 sec 0.1 sec

0.25 sec

0.4 sec

1.6 sec

2.0 sec

6.4 sec

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the loading blocks for VT testing.

2.5%

2.0%

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0% 1600 kPa VT (1) 0.5% 1800 kPa VT (1) 2000 kPa VT (1) 0.0% 0 50 100 150 1600 kPa VT (2) 1800 kPa VT (2) 2000 kPa VT (2) 200 250

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 4. Viscoplastic strain development in VT tests with three deviatoric stress values.

Rest Period: 200 sec 200 sec 200 sec 200 sec

Pulse Time:

0.4 sec

0.4 sec

0.4 sec

0.4 sec

Fig. 5. Viscoplastic strain development in CLT tests with 0.4-s pulse times.

Fig. 4 shows the development of viscoplastic strain in term of cumulative loading time with three different deviatoric stresses. As expected, more viscoplastic strain was measured at the ends of the rest periods as the deviatoric stress increased. The number in parentheses represents the replicate number. 3.2.2. Constant loading time (CLT) test The constant loading time (CLT) test clearly shows the effect of pulse time on viscoplastic strain development. Throughout the entire testing process, the pulse time, rest period, and load level were kept constant. The deviatoric stress was 1800 kPa, and three pulse times of 0.4, 1.6, and 6.4 s were used with a rest period of 200 s. Fig. 5 schematically shows the stress history of the CLT test with a 0.4-s pulse time. Fig. 6 shows the viscoplastic strain measured at the end of the rest periods. As shown, more viscoplastic strain is evident at a given cumulative loading time in the CLT test that consists of short pulse times. Even considering the ramp time of 0.005 s for all the tests, which is not taken into account in the cumulative loading time, the difference in the viscoplastic strains is signicant. It is noted that for a given cumulative loading time, the number of cycles and, thus, the number of rest periods differ among the CLT

tests with different loading times. For example, the cumulative loading time of 8 s yields 20 cycles of 0.4-s pulse, whereas the same cumulative loading time yields 5 cycles of 1.6-s pulse. Because a sufcient rest period is introduced after each loading cycle, the 0.4-s pulse time CLT test has four times the opportunity to soften during rest periods than the 1.6-s loading time. Because of this characteristic behavior of HMA, conventional viscoplastic models with hardening rules that are specic to monotonic deformation and ratcheting cannot be used to simulate the viscoplastic behavior of HMA under repetitive creep and recovery loading conditions. 3.2.3. Variable load (VL) test Repetitive creep and recovery tests with a variable load (i.e., VL tests) were performed to evaluate the model performance of a loading pulse with variable load levels. Also, the applicability of the hydrostatic stress-independent yield criterion that is used in this study can be checked by using this type of stress history. In this VL test, the pulse time remains constant until the end of the test, whereas the load level is varied. One loading block consists of 8 increasing loading pulses. The deviatoric stress of the rst load in the loading block is the same as that of the third load in the preceding loading block. The rst deviatoric stress was 300 kPa and

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2.5%

2.0%

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0%

1800 kPa CLT 0.4s (1) 1800 kPa CLT 1.6s (1)

1800 kPa CLT 0.4s (2) 1800 kPa CLT 1.6s (2) 1800 kPa CLT 6.4s (2)

0.5%

1800 kPa CLT 6.4s (1)

0.0%

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 6. Viscoplastic strain development in CLT tests with three pulse times.

200sec

t
Fig. 7. Schematic representation of the loading blocks for VL testing.

0.4 sec

2.5% VL (1) VL (2)

2.0%

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%

10

12

14

16

18

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 8. Viscoplastic strain development in the VL tests.

was stepped by 1.2(n1) as the number of loads, n, increased. Figs. 7 and 8 represent the stress history of the VL tests and measured viscoplastic strain, respectively. The pulse time was set to 0.4 s, and the loading was repeated until the specimens failed. 3.3. Calibration of the viscoplastic model The VT test with a deviatoric stress of 1800 kPa was used to determine the coefcients of the viscoplastic constitutive model because it includes a wide range of pulse times from 0.05 s to

6.4 s. To determine the coefcients in the model, the lsqnonlin function in the commercial program Matlab was utilized. Table

Table 2 Determined model coefcients. D 869,488 m 2.788 a 7.000 b1 8.228 c 1.802 b2 10.026 d 0.687 b3 0.677

a1
1.200

a2
5,099,578

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2.5% 1800 kPa VT (1) 2.0% 1800 kPa VT (2) 1800 kPa VT Prediction

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 9. Calibration result of the VT test.

2.5% 1600 kPa VT (1) 1600 kPa VT (2) 2.0% 1600 kPa VT Prediction

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%

50

100

150

200

250

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 10. Viscoplastic strain prediction for VT testing with deviatoric stress of 1600 kPa.

2 shows the coefcients determined from the nonlinear optimization process. The predicted and measured viscoplastic strains are represented in Fig. 9. As shown in Fig. 9, the developed model is

capable of simulating the rate-dependent characteristic behavior not only in terms of overall viscoplastic strain, but also in terms of the local hardening and softening of the HMA.

2.5% 2000 kPa VT (1) 2.0% 2000 kPa VT (2) 2000 kPa VT Prediction

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 11. Viscoplastic strain prediction for VT testing with deviatoric stress of 2000 kPa.

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2.5%

2.0%

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0% 1800 kPa CLT 0.4s (1) 1800 kPa CLT 0.4s (2) 1800 kPa CLT 0.4s Prediction 0.0% 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0.5%

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 12. Viscoplastic strain prediction for CLT testing with a loading time of 0.4 s.

2.5%

2.0%

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0% 1800 kPa CLT 1.6s (1) 1800 kPa CLT 1.6s (2) 1800 kPa CLT 1.6s Prediction 0.0% 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

0.5%

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 13. Viscoplastic strain prediction for CLT testing with a loading time of 1.6 s.

2.5%

2.0%

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

1800 kPa CLT 6.4s (1) 1800 kPa CLT 6.4s (2) 1800 kPa CLT 6.4s Prediction

0.0%

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 14. Viscoplastic strain prediction for CLT testing with a loading time of 6.4 s.

3.4. Verication of the viscoplastic model By using the model coefcients determined from the previous calibration process, the viscoplastic strains of the other loading

conditions, such as those found in the CLT tests with three different pulse times and the VT tests with two different load levels, can be predicted. Each test condition is designed to evaluate the accuracy of the developed model for the viscoplastic behavior of the mate-

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2.5% VL (1) 2.0% VL (2) VL Prediction

Viscoplastic Strain

1.5%

1.0%

0.5%

0.0%

10

12

14

16

18

Cumulative Loading Time (sec)

Fig. 15. Viscoplastic strain prediction for the VL test.

rial under various loading conditions. As shown in Figs. 1014, the predictions agree quite well with the measurements. Especially in Figs. 13 and 14, clearly the effect of pulse time is well simulated by the suggested viscoplastic model with its rate-dependent hardeningsoftening yield stress function. The VL test prediction is presented in Fig. 15. Although the predicted viscoplastic strain starts to diverge from the measured strain at the beginning of the fth loading block, the overall prediction seems to be acceptable considering that the stress at the end of the fourth loading block is very high (i.e., over 3200 kPa). This stress level may cause severe damage to the mixture, and the viscoplastic strain following this loading pulse is mostly in tertiary ow. However, considering the accuracy of the predictions under various load histories, it seems that the hydrostatic stress-dependent yield stress function is required in order to describe the behavior of HMA for a wide range of material states, including the tertiary state. 4. Conclusions The viscoplastic rate-dependent hardeningsoftening behavior of HMA at 55 C with 500 kPa conning pressure is simulated successfully by using the developed viscoplastic constitutive model. The model is implemented using Perzynas ow rule, which is a unit yield stress function incorporated into the model along with the strain hardening rule. The VT test is used to determine the coefcients of the developed model for calibration. The VT test at two different load levels, the CLT test, and the VL test are utilized to evaluate the performance of the model. Considering the complex-

ity of the loading histories and the high viscoplastic strain level used in this study, it is concluded that the developed model is capable of predicting the viscoplastic strain of HMA for various loading conditions. References
[1] Chaboche JL. Modeling of ratcheting: evaluation of various approaches. Eur J Mech 1994;13:50118. [2] Ohno N, Wang JD. Kinematic hardening rules with critical state of dynamic recovery. Part I. Formulations and basic features for ratcheting behavior. Int J Plast 1993;9:37590. [3] Wang H, Barkey ME. Strain space formulation of the ArmstrongFrederick family of plasticity models. ASME J Eng Mater Technol 1998;120(3):2305. [4] Chehab GR, Kim YR, Schapery RA, Witczack M, Bonaquist R. Timetemperature superposition principle for asphalt concrete mixtures with growing damage in tension state. Asph Paving Technol 2002;71:55993. [5] Gibson NH, Schwartz CW, Schapery RA, Witczak MW. Viscoelastic, viscoplastic, and damage modeling of asphalt concrete in unconned compression. Trans Res Rec 2003;1860:315. [6] Colak OU. Modeling of deformation behavior of polymers with viscoplasticity theory based on overstress. Int J Plast 2004;21:14560. [7] Collop AC, Scarpas A, Kasbergen C, Bondt AD. Development and nite element implementation of stress-dependent elastoviscoplastic constitutive model with damage for asphalt. Trans Res Rec 2003;1832:96104. [8] Krempl E, Khan F. Rate (time)-dependent deformation behavior: an overview of some properties of metals and solid polymers. Int J Plast 2003;19:106995. [9] Saadeh S, Masad E, Little D. Characterization of hot mix asphalt using anisotropic damage viscoelasticviscoplastic model and repeated loading. ASCE J Mater Civ Eng 2007;19:91224. [10] Yun TY, Kim YR. Experimental investigation of rate-dependent hardeningsoftening behavior of hot mix asphalt in compression. Road Mater Pavement Des 2010, Accepted for publication. [11] Yun TY, Kim YR. Modeling of viscoplastic rate-dependent hardening-softening behavior of hot mix asphalt in compression. Mech Time-Dependent Mater 2010, Accepted for publication.