Chapter 1

T10A Secondary Cells

1.0 Cells which are reversible to a high degree, i.e., those in which the chemical condition as well as the physical states of the electrodes after discharge, are brought back to the original conditions, simply by causing current to flow in the opposite direction, i.e., by charging, are called Secondary Cells. These are also known as Storage Cells or Accumulators. 1.1 In all practical forms of storage cell, both the electrode material and the products of the chemical reaction are substantially insoluble in the electrolyte. This is one essential requirement for any successful secondary cell. Electrical energy must first be supplied to the secondary cell before it can give any output. 1.2 The secondary cells in widest use are the lead-sulphuric acid type and the Nickel-Iron or Nickel-Cadmium (Alkaline) type. Another type, the silver-zinc cell is a recent introduction. 1.3 The open circuit voltage of any secondary cell depends wholly upon its chemical constituents and not in any way upon the number of plates and their total area. It also depends to some extent upon the strength of the electrolyte and its temperature. 1.4 Capacity: The capacity of any cell depends upon many things but with a given type and thickness of plates, the capacity under any definite conditions varies approximately in proportion to the plate area. The size of cell is usually given in terms of their ampere hour capacities under stated rates of discharge at the standard temperature. The capacities of all forms of secondary cells decrease with increasing rates of discharge. 1.5 Efficiency: The efficiency of a secondary battery is defined as the ratio of output of a cell or battery to the input required to restore the initial state of charge under specified conditions of temperature, current rate and final voltage. Generally, the efficiency is expressed in three ways: Ampere-hour efficiency Volt efficiency Watt-hour efficiency

1.6 Ampere-hour efficiency: The ratio of the ampere-hours output to the ampere-hours of the recharge. The ampere hour loss which determines ampere hour efficiency during cycle of charge and discharge is principally that due to gassing, local action. Since gassing is due to charging current in excess than needed for charging the active material, ampere-hour efficiency can be increased by controlling the charging current. Under commercial service conditions, including frequent cycles of charge, and discharge, involving nearly the full capacity of the battery, an ampere-hour efficiency between 85 and 90% may be expected. 1.7 Volt efficiency: The ratio of the average voltage during the discharge to the average voltage during the recharge. This will be reduced, if the rates of charge and discharge are comparatively high. It will also be reduced at low temperatures. Under the commercial service conditions, a volt efficiency of about 85% may be expected.

1.8 Watt-hour: The efficiency is the ratio of the watt hours output to the watt hours of the
recharge. This is sometimes assumed to be the product of the ampere-hour efficiency and the volt efficiency. In many cases this may be sufficiently accurate. Under commercial service conditions, watt hour efficiency of about 75% may be expected. 1.9 The capacity of Cell: Depends on Discharge Rate Size of plates Quantity and density of Electrolyte Temperature Age.

1.10 The AH rating is always given with the specified discharge rate, i.e., a 100 AH at 10 hr rate. This gives the indication that the maximum discharge current should not exceed 10A, and the period of discharge at this rate is 10 Hrs. The active material of the lead acid secondary cell is lead peroxide (Pb02) on the positive plate and spongy lead (Pb) on the negative plate. The plates are immersed in an electrolyte of diluted sulphuric acid. The cell is said to be discharging when it is supplying current to an external circuit. When current is forced through the cell from positive to negative, the process of electrolysis which occurs is called charging. The density of the electrolyte is maximum when the cell is fully charged, the working part of the positive plate is all lead peroxide and the working part of the negative plate is all lead. As the cell discharges, the electrolyte density falls owing to the conversion of some of the sulphuric acid to lead sulphate at the positive and negative plates and production of water. So the density or specific gravity of the electrolyte, serves as a valuable guide to the condition of the cell. During charging, the water and the sulphate of the plates are reconverted into sulphuric acid and the density gradually rises. The chemical reactions which take place on charge and discharge are given below:Chemical Changes: PbO2 + H2SO4 Pb + H2SO4 + O PbO2 + Pb + 2H2 SO4 PbSO4 + H2O + O (a) PbSO4 + H2O (b) 2PbSO4 + 2 H2O (Combining a&b)

Discharge: At the negative plate which acts as the anode, lead ions react with sulphions from the electrolyte to form lead sulphate. At the same time hydrogen ions from the electrolyte are discharged at the positive plate (cathode) and the liberated hydrogen reduces the lead peroxide to lead oxide, which is attacked by the acid to form lead sulphate. PbO2 + H2SO4 Pb + H2SO4 + O PbSO4 + H2O + O PbSO4 + H2O (a) (b)

Thus, both plates are converted into lead sulphate and water is produced, which causes the specific gravity of the acid to fall. It will be noticed that Both anode & Cathode become PbSO4 Due to formation of water specific gravity of the electrolyte decreases. Voltage of the cell decreases. The cell gives out energy.

Charge: The positive plate acts as the anode and the negative as the cathode. The sulphion moves to the positive plate (anode) and react with the water to produce sulphuric acid and oxygen, and the latter attacks lead sulphate and forms lead peroxide and more sulphuric acid. PbSO4 + H2O PbSO4 + H2O+O Pb + H2SO4 + O PbO2 + H2SO4

At the same time the Hydrogen ions liberated at the negative plate (Cathode) reduce the Lead Sulphate to metallic lead. Each of the above reactions produce Sulphuric acid. So the specific gravity of the electrolyte rises during charge. It will be noticed that during charging: The anode becomes dark chocolate brown in colour (PbO 2) and cathode becomes gray metallic lead (Pb). Due to consumption of water, specific gravity of electrolyte is increased. There is rise in voltage. Energy is absorbed by the cell.

1.11 If the charging current is continued after the plates have been fully converted, electrolysis of water continues, the hydrogen and oxygen are evolved freely and the cell is said to be gassing. The condition of gassing indicate that the cell is fully charged. 1.12 The parts of a Lead Acid Cell are: Plates Electrolyte Container Separators Bottom Blocks Connecting Bars Top Covers Connecting strips Vent Plugs 10)Float

1.13 Plates: The plates are actual electrodes Spongy Lead (-Ve) Lead Peroxide (+Ve)

1.14 Basing on the manufacture process of the plates, the lead acid cells are broadly divided into three categories: Plante type or formed plates Tubular type Faure type or pasted plates.

1.15 Plante Type: The principal feature of this type is a thick casting of pure lead, used for manufacture of the plate, and the active material is formed from the base material of the plate itself by special electro chemical process. Over its life span of 15 to 20 years as active material is lost, fresh active material is formed from the underlying lead, until the lead is thinned down beyond useful life. The formation is normally layer by layer due to which the manufacturing of this type of plate is time consuming and it needs a high consumption of electrical energy. Yet, the plante positive type cells (IS-1652) are popular for their superior performance, high dependability, superior life, simple maintenance and reliability, under every type of service. Though it is initially costlier, it is cheaper in long run per AH per year of service. Other advantage of Plante type over other cells are low internal resistance, high AH 90 to 95% and WH 85% efficiencies. It gives a higher current drain upto 144% when compared with other cells. The capacity needed by a Plante Type Cell is lesser than that of the other cells for the same load. Antimony content in plates which causes corrosion is eliminated in this type as plates are made from pure lead. 1.16 Tubular Plate Type: In this type of cells, active material is held in tube of slotted hard rubber or woven glass fibre, woven terylene or other synthetic fibres. Normally Tubular Positive Type Cells (IS-1651) are specified for capacities in the range 150 AH to 600 AH, for which, Plante Positive Type are not available. 1.17 Faure Type: In this type of plates the active materials are mechanically applied instead of being electro-chemically produced out of lead plate itself. The active material is pressed into the interstices of a thin lead grid or lattice work of intersecting ribs, which also serves as conductor of current. The pastes after being pasted, are allowed to dry and harden and then assembled in weak solution of H2SO4 and are formed by passing electric current between them. The advantage of this type is less cost and less time taken, but the Positive Plate is not suitable for rapid and high discharges and is liable to get disintegrated. Hence, Faure type plates are normally used as Negative Plates and Plante or tubular type are used as Positive Plates. 1.18 Electrolyte: The Electrolyte used is diluted H2SO4. The concentrated Sulphuric acid of battery grade confirming to the specification IS:266 having a specific gravity of 1.835 should be procured and diluted by adding distilled water confirming to the specification IS: 1069. The Sp.Gr. of electrolyte to be prepared should be as given by Manufacturer in the instruction card. While diluting the conc. H2S04, the following precautions should be observed: 1) Preparation of electrolyte: Acid should be added to distilled water in very small quantities. Water should never be added to concentrated Sulphuric Acid. 2) The solution should be stirred continuously with a glass rod. 3) The temperature of solution under preparation should never be more than 50 deg. C. If temperature reaches 50 deg. C, the addition of acid should be stopped, the solution should be allowed to cool to room temperature and again the addition of acid should be started. 4) The solution can be prepared in a clean lead lined wooden tank or ebonite or plastic or well glazed earthenware vessel, or vulcanized hand rubber tank.

5) After mixing, the solution is allowed to cool overnight and the specific gravity and temperature are noted. 6) If the specific gravity as required has not been obtained, add acid or distilled water as the case may be till the correct specific gravity is obtained. 1.19 Temperature Correction: The Sp. gravity of Electrolyte varies with temperature. Any reading observed on the hydrometer should be corrected to read to 27 deg. C. Normally, if temperature increases, specific gravity decreases and vice versa by 0.0007 for each degree centigrade. Hence, the correction should, be made as followsFor every 1 deg C above 27 deg C add 0.0007 to the Sp. gravity as read on the hydrometer. Similarly, for every 1 deg. C below 27 deg.C, subtract 0.0007 from the Sp. Gr. as read on the Hydrometer. Example: Sp. gravity read from hydrometer is : 1.200 The temperature is 28 deg. C. The corrected Sp.Gr. is 1.200 + .0007 = 1.2007. 1.20 The denser the electrolyte the more vigorous the chemical action. The specific gravity chosen, is limited to the specified value for the following reasons: 1. The conductivity of Electrolyte is greater at 1.240. 2. Internal resistance is minimum at 1.240. 3. The best overall results i.e., greater output per unit weight plus longer period of active life is obtained when Sp.Gr. is 1.215 on charge and 1.165 on discharge. 4. Higher Sp. Gr. longer discharge time. 5. A Sp.Gr. more than 1.240 of Electrolyte results in chemical action with the grids and separators. The Sp.Gr. chosen is a compromise which gives best results under the conditions of voltage, capacity, internal resistance and safety in handling. The minimum voltage 1.8V is the normal limitation to the capacity of the cell. 1.21 Precautions: When working with acid or electrolyte, use protective goggles, rubber gloves and rubber aprons. In case acid splashes on garment, remove the same immediately, neutralize the spot with 5% to 10% ammonia, or Soda Solution and wash thoroughly in water. In case of acid splash on skin, eyes or other parts of the body, flush with large quantities of water and seek immediate medical aid. Wear clothes of terylene which are resistant to dilute acid. 1.22 The electrolyte is prepared to a Sp.gravity as indicated in Manufacturer Instruction Card.

1.23 The separators act as insulating pieces between the different plates. They are made of either specially treated wood, perforated rubber, celluloid or rubber fabric made porous by thick cotton threads or glass wool. 1.24The container is made of vulcanized rubber, pitch celluloid or glass. Celluloid or glass containers are normally used for light duty work and celluloid container for portable work. 1.25 The bottom blocks are raised ribs either fitted in the bottom of the jar or made in the jar itself so that the plates do not touch the bottom, and the top portion is kept at the correct level. These also form a receptacle to collect the sludge formed during its period of active life. 1.26 All the positive plates are welded to one common bar and all the negative plates to another common bar. There is always one more negative plate than the positive to provide equal working area, on all sides of the positive plates. The outside plates are, therefore, always negative plates. The terminals are upward extensions of connecting bars. This forms the terminal and passes through the cover to enable external connections to be made. 1.27 The covers are generally of vulcanized rubber or pitch. A hole is provided for pouring the electrolyte and this can be closed by a screwed cap. The cap is provided with minute holes for gases to escape. This is also known as 'Vent Cap'/'Vent Plug'. 1.28 The connecting straps are flat bars joining the positive of one cell to the negative of another cell and is made of lead or any non-corrosive metal. These are in the form of castings and very solid so as to pass heavy currents. 1.29 On charge, the voltage rises rapidly to 2.2 and then slowly to 2.35, at which value the cell is fully charged. Further charge will give a temporary rise of another 0.2 volts, but this rise is not effective since on suspension of the charge the voltage drops down immediately to 2.20 volts and after sometimes to 2.1 volts which remains constant for 6 hours of normal discharge. After that, it steadily drops down to 1.8 volts, which is normally taken as the end point value for this type of cell. The Sp. gravity reading when the voltage is of this value will normally correspond to the discharge condition value. For all practical purposes the voltage of a charged cell is taken as2.1 volts. 1.30 In the case of glass or celluloid containers, the colour of the plates gives an indication of the charge and discharge conditions. When fully charged, positive plates are rich chocolate brown and negative plates are slightly Grey. The liquid will be sparkling and the plates look alive. When discharged, both the plates turn Grey and the positive plates will be of darker Grey. 1.31 The level of electrolyte should always be 1/2" above the plates. Electrolyte is normally lost due to: Excessive Gassing Evaporation and Spilling.

1.32 Standard tests on Lead Acid Secondary batteries: Capacity test on complete batteries Test for retention of charge

The above two tests conform to IS.1651 and IS.1652. In addition to these, RDSO has also instructed for two more tests on Batteries of S&T installation, namely: Test for resistance to overcharge Life Test.

1.33 Capacity Test on complete batteries: After standing on open circuit for not less than 12 hours and not more than 24 hours, from the completion of a full charge, the battery shall be discharged through a suitable variable resistance at a constant current of 0.190 amperes. The discharge shall be stopped when the closed circuit voltage across the battery has fallen to1.85 x n volts, where 'n' is the number of cells in series in the battery or when the voltage across any one cell has fallen to 1.70 V, whichever is earlier. The time in hours, elapsing between the beginning and the end of discharge shall be taken as the period of discharge. The average temperature of the electrolyte taken hourly in one of the cells chosen as pilot cell, shall be taken as temperature 't' deg C of the electrolyte during discharge. Such capacity test as above, after the first charge of the battery is normally treated as the test discharge for the purpose of acceptance. On the first discharge, the battery shall not give less than 85% of the rated capacity and this shall be reached within 10 discharge cycles subsequent to the initial charge. When individual cells are ordered, they shall be tested individually as above. 1.34 Test for retention of charge: A Cell or Battery, which has successfully passed the capacity test, shall be tested for the loss of capacity on open circuit. The battery shall be fully recharged at the current specified by Manufacturer and then shall be subjected to consecutive capacity tests, the value of the initial capacity 'C' being calculated as the mean of the two results thus obtained. After a complete recharge and the clearing of electrolyte from its surface, the battery shall be left on open circuit for a period of 21 days without disturbance, at a temperature of 27 + 2 deg. C. After storage of 21 days, the battery shall be discharged as stated in the capacity test. The value of capacity, measured after storage is noted as C1. After discharge, the battery shall be fully charged at the recommended rate given by Manufacturer. Loss of capacity as a percentage is calculated as:S = (C-C1)/C X 100 Loss of capacity as measured shall not exceed 21% of the initial capacity. 1.35 Resistance to over charge (RDSO Testing): This test is meant for determining the ability of the battery to withstand overcharging and to be carried out for batteries, which have undergone the capacity test.

The battery shall be continuously charged at a rate of 0.1 x C/10 Amps for 100 hours (i.e.,10 x C/10 A.H. is supplied to the battery) being immersed in a tank of water at a constant temperature of 40 deg + 3 deg C with the water level of the tank being 25 mm lower than the top surface of the battery. After the battery has been charged, it shall be left disconnected in a tank of water at 40 deg + 3 deg C for 68 hours and then to be discharged through resistance at a constant current of 0.1 x C 10 Amps. The discharge shall be stopped when the load-voltage falls to 1.85 x n., (n being the number of cells) or 1.70V across any one cell, whichever is earlier. This cycle of charge and discharge shall be repeated for 3 more times, i.e., 4 times in all. The battery is thus subjected to a total overcharge of 40 times the rated A.H. capacity and to four checking discharges. The period of discharge, i.e., the time in hours between beginning and the end of discharge during the 4th cycle, shall not be lower than 80% of the prescribed duration. 1.36 Life Test: The battery, which has already undergone capacity test shall be subjected to the Life Test. The battery shall be discharged and charged continuously as follows Discharge for 4 1/2 hours at a Current I = 0.17 x C/10 amps. Charge for 7 1/2 hours at a Current I = 0.12 x C/10 amps.

In order to verify the life test requirement, a test discharge shall be made at the 50th cycle. The temperature of the electrolyte shall be regulated at 27 deg C + 2 deg C before commencement of the life cycle. The life test shall be recorded as complete, as soon as the capacity obtained when tested as above, falls to 80% of the rated capacity in A.H. Batteries subjected to life test shall give a minimum life of 50cycles of charge and discharge. 1.37 The appliances required for maintenance are: A small voltmeter preferably with two ranges, 5 Volts and 15 Volts. An ammeter preferably with three ranges, 5, 15 and 30 Amps. Syringe type Hydrometer Glass tubes 9" long and 1/4" dia. Thermometer preferably graduated in F0 Glass rod 1/2" dia 15" long Glass or porcelain trough Glass funnel Glass tumbler Jar of distilled water Jar of Sulphuric Acid

1.38 The routine tests to be carried out are: Measurement of height of electrolyte above plates. Specific Gravity Voltage.

1.39 The battery received from manufacturers are normally received in 'dry charged' condition. Electrolyte has to be poured inside the cell and the battery charged for a period, which may

range from 60 to 72 Hrs. The instructions of the manufacturers should be strictly adhered to in all cases. Where such data is not available, the following procedure should be adopted. Divide the Amp. Hr. capacity of the cell by 15. Prepare electrolyte of specific gravity 1.220 and commence charging at the rate obtained by above value. Once charging is commenced it is very important that it is kept continuous for at least 12 Hrs. It is always better to keep continuous charge for the specified period. But in cases where it is impossible, a 12 hour intermission is satisfactory. Continue charging till gassing commences. Then reduce the charging rate to 5% of capacity and take readings of specific gravity and temperature at every half an hour The temperature should not exceed 50 deg. C. When SP. gravity readings are constant at same value for 3 consecutive hourly observations, it is deemed that the cell/battery is fully charged. 1.40 The following are the general precautions to be observed during installation and subsequent maintenance of secondary lead acid batteries used on the Railways: A. Installation: 1. Batteries should be housed in cool and well-ventilated rooms. Ordinarily natural ventilation is adequate. For large installation, forced ventilation by exhaust fans may be provided. For closed location box compartments, properly designed and located openings will be required. Recommended space between Cells and Walls is 305 mm. minimum 152 mm width of gang ways should be sufficient to allow withdrawal of cells for possible overhaul. The battery will give the best results when the room is maintained at a temperature between 20 deg C to 35 deg C. 2. Battery Room should be well white washed on walls and ceiling and should be clean and dry. The floor should be acid resistant Asaphalt flooring is recommended. 3. Care should be taken that no effluents such as, Chloride, acetic acid are not kept or taken into Battery Room. 4. Batteries should not be exposed to direct sunrays and should be away from any heat radiating equipment. 5. Batteries should be installed on wooden racks of suitable height, protected with two or more coatings of acid resistant paint (type 2 of ISI 58-68) and kept duly aligned. 6. Mount the cells on the insulators on the stand, align and level them properly. 7. Wipe the top of the cover, free of dust. Smear little of Petroleum Jelly on contact surfaces, threads, bolting faces and in the bolt holes before, bolting up. 8. Smoking or use of naked flame in the battery room should be strictly prohibited. 9. As far as possible, metal fixtures should be avoided. If used, they should be painted with antiacidic paint. B. Initial Charging: 1. This shall be done as per the instructions of the Manufacturer. 2. For preparing electrolyte, only battery grade concentrated Sulphuric acid (IS 266) and distilled water (IS 1069) should be used.

3. Never add water to the acid, to avoid injurious action. During mixing, the temperature must not be allowed to exceed 50 deg. C. 4. Allow newly mixed electrolyte to cool to room temperature before filling into the cell. C. Maintenance: 1. Keep open flames away from the battery. Smoking is prohibited. 2. Keep batteries and surroundings clean and top of the cells dry. 3. Electrical connections should be kept tight. Connecting cables should be flexible and long to prevent strain on the battery. 4. Terminals should be smeared with Vaseline (Petroleum Jelly) to prevent corrosion. 5. Vent plugs should be kept in position and tight to avoid spilling of electrolyte. 6. Electrolyte lost due to spillage, should be replaced with that of the other cells of same specific gravity. Under no other circumstances, electrolyte should be added. 7. Establish routine of battery care. Maintain charging and discharging log sheets. 8. Avoid undercharging or overcharging. 9. When idle, keep batteries on trickle charge where rectifier has been provided. 10. Take 'occasional' hydrometer reading with a syringe type of hydrometer. 11. Take frequent voltage reading (the resistance of the voltmeter should be at least 1000 ohms per volt). 12. In case of acid burns, apply Ammonia or Baking Soda. Dress with solution of Boric Acid to prevent infection. Keep these items always handy. 13. Use trays for batteries. 14. Give batteries an equalising charge monthly. In a battery of cells, the Sp.Gr. of the individual cell may vary by 2 to 3 points between them. Take the cells out with lowest Sp.Gr. and give them separate charge till they reach the maximum value. 15. Batteries showing irregularities, which cannot be corrected, should be taken out of service and report made to proper authority. 16. Use Protective measures (Apron, rubber gloves & eye shields) 17. Insulated metal tools should be used to prevent short circuit. Care should be taken not to leave metal tools on the top of the cells. 18. Ensure correct polarity between the cells. 19. Use calibrated meters for measuring current, voltage, specific gravity and temperature.

1.41 The chief troubles to which the battery is subjected to are: Sulphation Buckling Internal short circuit Internal discharge Loss of capacity Low density of electrolyte High density of electrolyte Reverse Voltage Shedding Sludge Open Circuit Temperature Troubles.

1. Sulphation: Indication: Slight white patches will be noted on the plates. When severe, that white growth will be big in size. If White patches cannot be observed on plates as container is not transparent, white patches are observed on terminals, the indication is loss of capacity. Cause: This is due to excessive discharge or due to keeping the cell in a discharged condition for a long period or due to impurities in the water or acid or exposure of plates or due to low level of electrolyte. Treatment: If slight, charge at 1/3rd of the normal rate, till the cell deliver gas freely. Discharge at the same rate. Repeat the cycle till the voltage of the cell reaches 2.35 on charge and specific gravity is as per manufacturer's rating. If the plates are visible, ensure that there are no white patches. If severe, pour out the electrolyte, fill with fresh electrolyte recharge. Penley's Method: This consists in charging for 60 hours at the normal rate, the electrolyte is the solution of Sodium Sulphate, prepared by mixing 2 lbs. of chemical in 1 gallon of water. Pour out the solution. Clean the inside and fill by acid of correct specific gravity. The cell will be ready for use after an initial charge. 2. Buckling: Indication: The plates become saucer shape or cup like with twisted or bulged ends tending to touch or touching the sides of the container or adjacent plates. Cause: Excessive discharge or charge, bad sulphation. Treatment: If not very badly bent, the plates can be removed, straightened in a vice or press. If very badly bent, they should be replaced. 3. Internal short circuit: Indication: The cell will be warm even when idle, specific gravity and voltage will be low immediately after charge. There will be no gassing.

Cause: Due to fallen pieces of hard sulphate, bending or treeing, high degree of sulphation or sludge. Treatment: If not very badly bent, the plates can be removed, straightened in a vice or press. If very badly bent they should be replaced. Fallen pieces should be removed. Excess sulphation or sludge, treatment as in sludge. 4. Internal Discharge: Indication: The cell discharges faster, warm even in idle condition, less capacity. Cause: Impurities inside the cell. Treatment: Electrolyte replaced. 5. Loss of Capacity: Indication: Same as for internal discharge but it may not be warm when idle. Cause: May be due to slight sulphation or slight buckling or aging or impurities. Treatment: Attend as in case of sulphation and buckling and internal discharge. 6. Low Density of Electrolyte: Indication: The readings are lower than the rated value, after charging and do not improve by continuous charging. Cause: May be due to short circuit or loss of electrolyte due to excessive gassing, spillage or sulphation. Treatment: Withdraw the electrolyte and make up with fresh acid to bring the value of the specific gravity to the rated value, half an hour after stopping the charge and continue the cycle till the readings are correct. If after 6 cycles the specific gravity does not come to the correct value, treat as for short circuit. 7. High Density of electrolyte: Indication: Maximum and minimum values of specific gravities will be always higher than the specified values. Cause: Due to topping up with acid instead of water. Treatment: Charge at a current equal to 1/10th of the ampere-hour capacity till gassing is observed. Remove some of the electrolyte, and replace with distilled water. Test specific gravity after half-an-hour and if not correct, charge again till gassing is observed. Remove electrolyte and water and repeat cycle till correct specific gravity is obtained. 8. Reverse voltage of cells: Indication: The positive and negative terminals will show opposite polarity.

Cause: This is due to defective cell in a battery, which got discharged already when the others are being discharged. As the discharge, continues the run down cell adds nothing to output but gets charged in the wrong direction by the main discharge current passing through it. This results in the positive plate being partially converted into spongy lead and the negative plate into lead peroxide. This causes a reverse voltage and acts in the opposite direction to the main battery emf. Treatment: Remove the cause of defect and give slight charge. Remove the discharged cell. 9. Shedding: Indication: Slight loss in capacity or short circuit in the case of very severe shedding. Cause: Due to excessive gassing, thereby dislodging peroxide paste from the grids or due to sulphation. Treatment: Replace cell if severe, otherwise give slight charge at low rate. 10. Sludge: This is the name given to the peroxide or sulphate sediments collected at the bottom of the jar. Indication: Loss of capacity or short circuit, visible in the case of transparent container. Cause: Bad maintenance, excessive gassing, shock and vibration, excessive sulphation Treatment: Wash the plates and re-charge at low rate with fresh electrolyte in the case of slight formation. In the case of severe formation replace the cell. 11. Open Circuit: Indication: No emf at the output terminal of the cell. Cause: Loose connections of connecting strap or corroded terminals, or break in terminals. Treatment: Check all connections, examine for loose joints at clamps and connecting bars. Clean terminals with sand paper and smear Vaseline. 12. Temperature Trouble: Indication: Temperature rises even for very slow rates of charging. Cause: Due to bad location, proximity to any heated element, shedding, buckling or defective separation. Treatment: Examine for the causes given and remove the cause. 1.42 Sometimes the batteries have to be laid up for an indefinite period. If left without attention for more than 2 months, it will deteriorate and a period of 6 months of no attention will definitely ruin it. Two methods are detailed below in the order of preference for keeping batteries in unused condition for a long time. 1. Periodic freshening charge:-

This consists in giving a freshening charge at the rate of 7 amp. for 100 AH battery. 3.5 amps for a 75 AH battery and proportionate rate for other sizes. This should be followed by further charges at regular intervals of 4 to 6 weeks and a final one just before re-commissioning. The battery should be kept in a cool dry place. Wash out and fill in with pure distilled water and commence charging at the freshening rate mentioned above. Observe the specific gravity reading and stop charging when there is no rise in specific gravity for 3 consecutive hours taken during a period of 3 hours. Pour out the electrolyte and repeat operation till there is no change in Sp.Gr. Finally pour distilled water, tighten vent plugs and store away. For re-commissioning, the distilled water is first poured out, cell is filled with electrolyte and recharged. 1.43 The recent improvements in lead-acid accumulators include: Reduction in the thickness of the plates Improvements in paste formulation Use of new types of microporous, PVC or rubber separators instead of wood.

These are commonly known by the trade name 'miper', 'miplast', 'porvic', 'fibrac', etc., and have low electrical resistance value. These not only give greater mechanical and chemical stability but also a better volumetric efficiency. 1.44 The microporous plastic separators are practically indestructible, flexible and tough throughout the service life of a battery. They stand up well in vibration testing and are chemically stable at high temperatures, encountered in tropical climates. The use of these separators and that of an inactive container against the face of the positive plates has brought about an increase of 30 to 50% in life of the battery. Sealed batteries with these separators can be held in stock for well over 4 to 5 years without appreciable deterioration setting in. New grid alloys have been developed in order to increase their resistance to corrosion, less electrolysis due to overcharge, for the purpose of improving life of the battery. Effects of specific gravity of electrolyte on high discharge rates as well as the relationship of life versus operating specific gravity have been investigated in some detail. From the data thus collected, it is concluded, that the most satisfactory compromise appears to be in the region of 1.250 to 1.260. Another development is the excellent capacity at low temperatures and high discharge rates achieved by the use of expanders - the two important ingredients of which are - Barium Sulphate on which lead sulphate can crystallise and a derivative lining fraction of wood which prevents lead sulphate from crystallising on the sponge lead surface. 1.45 Indenting of lead acid cells or batteries: While indenting the cells or batteries, applicable IS specification should be quoted. Care in specifying the requirements precisely and stressing the vital aspects, would ensure the supply of quality batteries and keep our option open to reject at the inspection stage, sub-standard batteries that do not confirm to the specification. The indent should specify batteries manufactured by one of the reputed and RDSO approved firms in addition, separators made of Microporous PVC or similar materials of adequate design, providing permanent highly porous insulating diaphram. The manufacturer instruction card should be obtained with cell. 1.46 Care and Upkeep of Batteries: Unpacking:

Unpack each case carefully. The Cells should be removed carefully by holding them from the bottom or in an horizontal position. They should not be removed out of the package by holding the terminals. In no case should the elements inside the cell be disturbed. After removing the cells, any dust or straw of the packages lying on the Cell should be carefully removed. The Cells and accessories should be thoroughly inspected from outside for any possible damage.

1.47 Storage Instructions: In case the cells are not to be commissioned immediately, they should be kept in a cool, dry place sheltered at all times from Sun, rain and dust. The sealing plug on the vent holes should be intact. The Cells shall be arranged in the Stores on wooden racks so that there is at least about 5 mm spacing between the two adjacent cells. Shall never be stacked on ground. The cell accessories like throw-away caps, connectors, bolts and nuts should be kept aside properly with an identification label. The throw-away caps already mounted on the cells should be tight. Fix an adhesive tape on these caps for safety. The storage of Cells should be inside the building and not in any outside temporary sheds exposed to rain and direct sun rays. The room should be well ventilated so as to keep the atmosphere cool. The batteries being heavy shall be preferably on the ground floor.

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