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Faraday's Law

InducedVoltage:Faraday'sLaw
Tounderstandwhathappenswhenthemagneticfieldsuroundingawoundcomponentchanges,youneed toknowaboutFaraday'sLawofInduction.EveryinductorusedwithACobeysit.Therearefour variationsonathemebyFaraday Fluxtellsyouvolts Currenttellsyouvolts Voltstellsyouflux Voltstellsyoucurrent Postscript:Timetowavegoodbye Aboutyourbrowser:ifthischaracter''doesnotlooklikeamultiplicationsign,oryouseelotsofquestion marks'?'orsymbolslike' 'orsequenceslike'&cannot'thenpleaseacceptmyapologies. Seealso... [Producingwoundcomponents][Aircoils][Aguidetotheterminologyofmagnetism][Powerlossin woundcomponents]

Fluxtellsyouvolts
MichaelFaraday'sgreatestcontributiontophysicswastoshowthatanelectricpotential,v,isgeneratedby acoilofwirewhenthemagneticflux,,enclosedbyitchanges v=Nd/dt Faraday'sLaw(differential)

Frequently,aminussignfollowsthe'=',dependingonthesignconventionsusedforfluxandpotential.The fluxmaychangebecause Anearbypermanentmagnetismovingabout. Thecoilrotateswithrespecttothemagneticfield. Thecoiliswoundonacorewhoseeffectivepermeabiltychanges. Thecoilisthesecondarywindingonatransformerwheretheprimarycurrentischanging. Inelectricmotorsandgeneratorsyouwillusuallyhavemorethanoneofthesecausesatthesametime.It doesn'tmatterwhatcausesthechangetheresultisaninducedvoltage,andthefasterthefluxchangesthe greaterthevoltage.

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Example:Inthestandardexampletoroidcoretheflux,inwebers,variesaccordingto =5106sin(8105t) Whatpotentialisinduceditswindingoftwoturns? SubstitutingequationFYSintoFaraday'slaw v=2d(5106sin(8105t))/dt v=251068105cos(8105t) v=8cos(8105t) EquationFYC EquationFYA EquationFYB EquationFYS

Sothiswindingwillhaveapeakvoltageof8volts.Youcaneasilygeneralizethisforanyfluxvarying sinusoidallyatafrequencyftoshow V=2Nfpk=4.44Nfpk WhereV/voltsistherootmeansquaredpotentialacrossthecoil. [Topofpage] Thetransformerequation

Currenttellsyouvolts
OK,that'sallclearenough,butthereisoneotherreasonforalterationtotheflux:currentflowinthecoil. HansChristianOersteddiscoveredthatanelectriccurrentcanproduceamagneticfield.Themorecurrent youhavethemorefluxyougenerate.That,too,iseasyenoughtograsp.Whatneedsafirmintellectualgrip istoappreciatethatFaraday'sLawdoesnotstopoperatingjustbecauseyouhavecurrentflowinginthe coil.Whenthecoilcurrentvariesthenthatwillalterthefluxand,saysFaraday,ifthefluxchangesthenyou getaninducedvoltage.Thismerrygoroundbetweencurrent,fluxandvoltageliesattheheartof electromagnetism. "Veryinteresting",youyawn,"butwhatuseisallthisifIdon'tknowanythingaboutthefluxinmy inductor?"Well,youoftendoknowwhatinductanceyouhave(henries).Fromitsdefinitionyouknowthat d=Ldi/N SubstitutingthisintoFaraday'sLaw EquationFYN

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Faraday's Law

v=N(Ldi/N)/dt Therefore v=Ldi/dt

EquationFYO

EquationFYU

AstheFrenchsay,thisistrsutilebecauseyounolongerworryaboutfluxorthenumberofturns. EquationFYUdoesn'treallysayanythingdifferentfromFaraday'sLawit'sjustthatallthenasty magneticsstuffhasbeenabstractedawayinthemagicparameterwecallinductance.Onceyouknowthe currentflowingthroughLyouthensimplymultiplyitsvalueinhenriesbythedifferentialofcurrentwith respecttotimeandvoilyouhavethevoltageacrossthatinductor. Again,aminussignissometimesincludedtoexpressthefactthattheinducedvoltageopposesanexternal potentialdrivingthecurrent.Fairenough,butthesameistrueofthevoltagedropinaresistor,andwho eversaysV=IR? Example:Inthestandardexampletoroidcorecurrentincreaseslinearlyby3ampspersecond.What potentialisinducedinthewinding? Thetwoturnwindinggivesaninductanceof8.8H(derivedimmediatelyonthetermspage).Thecurrent isgivenbyi=3t.SubstitutingintoequationFYU v=8.8106d(3t)/dt=8.81063=26.4V EquationFYZ

Thisaspecttoinductancecomesintoplaywiththeignitioncoilinautomotiveengines.Whenthecontact breakergoesopen,thecurrentinthecoildropsalmostinstantaneously.Itsrateofchange(di/dt)issogreat thatanenormouslyhighvoltageisinducedgeneratingasparktoignitethefuelmixture. [Topofpage]

Voltstellsyouflux
Nowlet'sspinourfairgroundrideintheotherdirection.Insteadofgettinganinducedvoltagebyputtingin acurrentwe'llputavoltageacrossthecoilandseewhathappens.Normally,ifyouputseveralvoltsacross anyrandomlyarrangedbitofwirethenwhatwillhappenwillbeaflashandabangthecurrentwillfollow Ohm'sLawand(unlessthewireisverylongandthin)therewon'tbeenoughresistancetoprevent fireworks.It'sadifferentstorywhenthewireiswoundintoacoil.Ifthecurrentincreasesthenwegetflux buildupwhichinducesavoltageofitsown.Thesignofthisinducedvoltageisalwayssuchthatthe voltagewillbepositiveifthecurrentintothecoilincreases.Wesaythattheinducedvoltagewilloppose theexternallyappliedvoltagewhichmadethecurrentchange(Lenz'slaw).Thiscreatesalimittotherateof riseofthecurrentandprevents(atleasttemporarily)themeltdownwegetwithoutcoiling.

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Faraday's Law

Inthissituationitishelpfultobuildamentalpicturebyimaginingthat,ratherthanhavinganidealised inductor(FigureFSAa),youreplaceitwithamodelwhich includesaverysmallseriesresistanceasallpracticalinductors musthave(FigureFSAb).PretendthatRSisone,ifyou wish.Inaddition,replacetheinductancewithavoltagesource whosepotentialdifferenceis vL=Nd/dt EquationFSE

ThisiswhatFaraday'sLawinsiststhe'backemf'oftheinductor mustbe.ItshouldnowbeclearthatthevalueofvLmustbeonly thetiniestbitlessthanvG.IfitweresignificantlylessthenthePD acrossRSwouldincreaseand(becauseRSisonlya)the currentwouldrapidlyincrease,thefluxinthecorewould increaseandtherebycompensatethroughincreasedvGrather likea'feedback'system. Youseektheactualvalueofflux,ratherthanitsdifferential,soyouintegrate =(1/N)v.dt Example:Inthestandardexampletoroidcoreassume youhavenofluxtostartwith.Afterapplyingtwenty voltsforthreemicroseconds(figureFYV).haveyou thensufficientfluxtosaturatethecore? Thevalueofthepotential,v,is20volts.Soyou integratethatwithrespecttotime =(1/N)20.dt= (1/2)20t=10t EquationFYW Faraday'slaw(integral)

Yousustainthispotentialfor3s,sosubstitutingthis timeyouobtainanactualfluxvalue =103.0106=3.0105Wb Fromthecoredatasheetyouknow thatthesaturationfluxdensityis0.36teslaandthe effectivecoreareais19.4mm2.Themaximumallowablepeakfluxistherefore max=BsatAe= 0.3619.4106=6.98106Wb EquationFYY EquationFYX

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Faraday's Law

Thisisseveraltimeslessthantheactualflux,sothecoreissaturated.Tocorrecttheproblemyoushould eitherapplyfewervolts(4.66),applythemforlesstime(698ns)orusemoreturns(9). SatisfyyourselfthattheaboveresultisconsistentwithouroriginalformulationofFaraday'slaw:voltageis proportionaltotherateofchangeofflux.Nochangeoffluxnoinducedvoltage.Fluxincreasinglinearly constantpositiveinducedvoltage.It'sstillFaraday'sLaw,justseenfromadifferentperspective. Example:IfasinusoidalwaveformofRMSamplitudeV=230voltsatfrequencyf=50Hzisappliedto aninductorhaving200turnsthenwhatisthepeakvalueofmagneticflux,? v=(2)Vsin(2.f.t) SubstitutingthisintotheintegralformofFaraday =(1/N)(2)Vsin(2.f.t).dt =((2)V/N)sin(2.f.t).dt =((2)V/(2.fN))cos(2..f.t) Thepeakvalueoffluxisthengivenby pk=2V/(2fN) pk=V/(4.44fN) Comparethiswiththetransformerequationabove. pk=230/(4.4450200) pk=5.18mWb EquationFYL EquationFYM EquationFYJ EquationFYK EquationFYF EquationFYG EquationFYH EquationFYE

Consider,then,howusefulthisintegrationmethodisinpracticalinductordesignifyouknowthenumber ofturnsonawindingandthevoltagewaveformonitthenyouintegratewrttimeandthenyouhavefound theamountofflux.What'smoreisthatyoufounditwithoutknowingabouttheinductanceorthecore:its permeabilty,size,shape,orevenwhethertherewasacoreatall! NiceworkMike! [Topofpage]

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Faraday's Law

Voltstellsyoucurrent
Often,youknowwhatvoltageyouwishtoapply,vG,andwanttoknowtheresultingcurrent.Can Faraday'sLawstillhelpyouunderstandwhathappens?ReferagaintofigureFSA. iS=(vGvL)/RS BecausevGvLyouthereforeknowbyequationFYUthat diS/dt=vG/L EquationFSG EquationFSH

SoyouknowwhatthedifferentialofiSmustbe.However,whatyouactuallyneedtoknowisiSitself. Well,toconvertanydifferentialquantityintoitsplain,undifferentiatedequivalentyoumustperforman integration iS=(1/L)v.dt wherevistheexternallyappliedvoltage. Inthespecialcasewherevisaconstantthenthisformulaforthecurrentsimplifiesto i=Vt/L+I0 EquationFYQ EquationFYR

Here,I0maybethoughtofasaconstantofintegrationrepresentingthecurrentwhichflowedinthe inductoratthestart(t=0). Oneimportantgeneralpoint:ifyourwindinghastocopewithagivensignalamplitudethenthecorefluxis proportionaltotheinverseofthefrequency.Thismeans,forexample,thatmainstransformersoperatingat 50or60Hzarelargerthantransformersinswitchingsupplies(capableofhandlingthesamepower) workingat,say,50kHz. ExamplevGisasinewave(FigureFSBa)ofRMSamplitude,VG=230voltsatafrequencyf=50hertz standardvaluesfortheUKmainssupply.Youapplythistoa3.5henryinductance.Whatcurrentwill flow?

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Faraday's Law

vG=2VGsin(2ft)=1.41230sin(23.1450t) Therefore vG=325sin(314t) PuttingthisintoequationFYR iS=(1/L)vG.dt=(325/3.5)sin(314t).dt therefore iS=92.9cos(314t)/314+I0=0.296cos(314t)+I0

EquationFSI

EquationFSJ

EquationFSK

EquationFSL

whereI0isthearbitraryconstantofintegrationwhich,inthiscase,maybetakenaszero.TheRMSvalue ofthiscurrentis0.296/2=209milliamperes.DoesthiscosinecurrentfulfilltherequirementsofFaraday's Law? Asfarasthegeneralshapeandphaseoftheappliedpotentialgoes,youcaneasilyseethatitisthesameas thedifferentialofthecurrent.Att=0youhavethemaximum(negative)valueofcurrentbutitsslopeor timevariationiszerosotheinducedvoltageiszero.Att=5msthecurrentslopeisatitsmostpositivevalue sotheinducedvoltageisalsoatitsmostpositive.Mickeyisahappyman. Theamplitudeofthecurrentcanbeverifiedusinganordinarycircuitanalysisapproach

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IS=VG/XL=230/(2503.5)=0.209amperes

EquationFSM

Fromthisequationitisclearthattheamplitudeofthecurrentwillfallasthefrequencyisincreased.The current,however,willalwaysstay90degreesbehindthevoltage.At50hertzcurrentreachesitspeakvalue 5millisecondsafterthevoltagedoes. [Topofpage]

Postscript:Timetowavegoodbye
Caveat(there'salwaysone):Thecoilsdescribedhereareidealised.Seetheparagraphonfluxlinkagefora morecompletepicture.Wehavealsokeptthingssimplebypretendingthattheseriesresistanceandparallel capacitancearebothnegligible.Realworldinductorssometimesapproachtheidealbehaviourclosely,and sometimesnot. Thesewebpagesconcentrateonthetheoryrequiredtodesigncoils.Pleasedon'tleavewiththeideathat Faraday'slawisjustaboutbitsofwiretheyaretheresimplyto'sample'theelectricfieldproducedbya shiftingmagneticfield.TheEfieldisthereevenwithoutacoil. Itwasdeducedin1862byJamesClerkMaxwellthattheconversehappens:thatachangingelectricfield producesamagneticfield.Putthetwotogether,thatachangeinonegivestheotherandviceversa,and youmightwonderwhereitallends.Infactitendswithadancebetweenthetwoformsofenergyinwhich EandMcontinuallyrubshoulderswithinwhatiscalledanelectromagneticwaveofwhichlight,radio andXraysareallexamples.MaxwellexpressesFaraday'slawinamoregeneralvectorfieldequation curlE=B/t [Topofpage] Maxwell'sequationforE

Email:R.Clarke@surrey.ac.uk Lastmodified:2007April28th.

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