Insi 51 3 151 PDF

Insight Vol 51 No 3 March 2009 151
GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a valuable non-
destructive method for detecting steel bars in reinforced
concrete structures. Measuring the diameter of the steel
bars is difcult and few previous experiments have been
successful. We compare the difference of discrete wavelet
transform (DWT) and stationary wavelet transform (SWT)
and make the contour map of SWT detail coefcients, then
nd that SWT is an effective method to measure the diameter
of steel bar. We also discuss our choice of the wavelet basis
that best interprets the raw GPR data.
Keywords: Ground penetrating radar (GPR), Concrete, Steel bar,
Diameter, Stationary wavelet transform.
1. Introduction
The safety of reinforced concrete structures greatly depends on
whether the actual position and diameter of steel reinforcement
match the design requirements. Ground penetrating radar (GPR)
is a non-destructive testing technique that uses a radio wave source
to send a pulse of electromagnetic energy into the test medium.
Sensors detect any reected energy and record it for analysis. A
widely used application of GPR has been detecting the location
of steel bars in concrete structures. However, the GPR scan image
itself gives no information on the diameter of the steel bars. Since
both steel bar position and diameter affect the structures safety, a
supplemental method is required to determine the diameter. Stolte
and Nick (1994)
[1]
proposed an eccentricity migration method
to improve GPR images with hyperbolic response and possibly
determine the diameter of buried pipes from the geometry of a
hyperbola in a GPR section. Nevertheless, the method yielded no
successful results and remains just a possibility. Molyneaux et al
(1995)
[2]
attempted to use neural networks to determine the diameter
of steel reinforcement but the results were not successful. They
concluded that their approach failed because they used a solitary
signal at the centre of each bar. As a promising alternative, they
propose using an orthogonal antenna orientation to determine both
the size and depth of the bar. Newnham and Goodier (2000)
[3]
also
used a neural network approach to measure the size of a reinforcing
bar but they too had difculty in determining the bars diameter.
Quek et al described polynomial-based separation algorithms in
radar image processing, which are precursors to analysis that allows
measurement of the diameters, orientations and depths of the bars
[4]
.
They also used curvilinear models applied to orthogonal line scans
taken by an inductive sensor and the method allows estimates to be
made with accuracies of 1 bar size and 10% cover depth when
neither the depth nor the size is available
[5]
.
This paper introduces an approach that uses a stationary wavelet
transform to determine the diameters of steel bars. The method also
accurately obtains the horizontal position and depth of the steel
reinforcement and uses the data to produce a 3D image.
2. Data acquisition
A pulseEKKO1000 system provided the GPR data using the
reection method. The systems antenna had a centre frequency of
1200 MHz, a step size of 0.01 m. Figure 1 shows the location of
the steel bars and scan lines in the 850245150 mm reinforced
concrete slab test specimen. Figure 2, a typical GPR image, shows
six hyperbolas, of which hyperbolas 1, 2 and 3 indicate the position
of the steel reinforcement bars.
GPR measurement of the diameter of steel bars
in concrete specimens based on the stationary
wavelet transform
Runtao Zhan and Huicai Xie
Runtao Zhan is in the Department of Civil Engineering, Xinyang Normal
University. His research interests include non-destructive evaluation and
test techniques application in civil engineering.
Professor Huicai Xie is in the Department of Civil Engineering, Shantou
University. Email: hcxie@stu.edu.cn
Corresponding author: Runtao Zhan, Department of Civil Engineering,
Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang, Henan Province, 464000, China. Tel:
+00 (0)376 6391770; Email: g_rtzhan@hotmail.com
Figure 1. Photo of the reinforced concrete slab specimen
Figure 2. GPR image of scan line
Submitted 22 Jun 2008
Accepted 15 Dec 2008
DOI: 10.1784/insi.2009.51.3.151
3. Analysis of the GPR scan image
3.1 Limitations of the GPR scan image
Figure 2 clearly illustrates the limitations of the GPR scan image.
First, the scan image cannot indicate the diameters of the steel bars.
Second, the scan image sometimes shows two or more hyperbolas
stacked on top of each other. If the top hyperbolas (hyperbolas 1,
2, 3 of Figure 2) indicate the position of the steel bars, it is difcult
to explain what the lower hyperbolas (hyperbolas 4, 5, 6 of Figure
2) represent.
3.2 Velocity of the GPR wave
The velocity of the radar wave plays an important role in the
proposed method of measuring the diameter of the steel bars.
Placing two small concrete cubes below the specimen creates a
clear interface between the concrete block and the surrounding air
on the GPR image, as shown in Figure 2. This interface provides
a benchmark used in obtaining the accurate velocity of the radar
wave.
According to Figures 2 and 3, the reflection time from the
top of the concrete slab is 1.6 ns and that from the bottom of the
concrete slab is 4.6 ns. Since the height of the concrete slab is 0.15
m, according to the formula:
v = 2 ! d / t ...................................... (1)
the radar waves velocity is 0.15/(4.6-1.6)2 = 0.1 m/ns. Additional
trials yield reection times of 1.6 ns or 1.7 ns from the top of the slab
and 4.6 ns or 4.7 ns from the bottom. These times produce similar
velocities, so the calculated velocity of 0.1 m/ns is accurate.
4. DWT and SWT
If a signal, such as the GPR wave, has a time varying frequency, it
is non-stationary. To know the detailed information at a certain time
in a GPR wave, it is necessary to nd a suitable signal processing
method to handle the non-stationary signal. The wavelet transform is
a superior approach to other time-frequency analysis tools because its
time scale width of the window can be stretched to match the original
signal
[6][7]
. This makes it particularly useful for non-stationary signal
analysis, such as noises and transients. For a discrete signal, a fast
algorithm of discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is multi-resolution
analysis, which is a non-redundant decomposition
[8]
. However, the
non-redundant decomposition introduces an artifact-shift variance.
The artifacts will affect the precise alignments between the features
of the signal. Misalignments between wavelet coefcients lead to
errors in locating the rebars position and, consequently, measuring
the rebars diameter. Several people have independently discovered
the stationary wavelet transform for different purposes
[9-13]
. Each
inventor gave the transform a different name, including the shift/
translation invariant wavelet transform, the undecimated discrete
wavelet transform, and the redundant wavelet transform. As
these various names illustrate, the key aspects of the SWT is that
it is redundant, shift invariant and a denser approximation to the
continuous wavelet transform than that of the orthonormal discrete
wavelet transform (DWT). Lang et al provide a discussion of the
algorithm and its history
[10]
.
The SWT method can be described as follows. At each level,
when the high-pass and low-pass filters are applied to the data, the
two new sequences have the same length as the original sequences.
To do this, the original data is not decimated. However, the filters at
each level are modified by padding them out with zeros.
Supposing a function f(x) is projected at each step j on the subset

V
j
(!!V
1
!V
0
) , this projection is defined by the scalar product
of c
j,k
of f(x) with the scaling function (x) which is dilated and
translated:
c
j , k
= f (x),!
j , k
(x) = f (x)
"
!
j , k
(x)dx ............... (2)
!
j , k
(x) = 2
" j
!(2
" j
x " k) ........................ (3)
where (x) is a real scaling function, which is a low-pass lter. c
j,k

is also called a discrete approximation at the resolution 2
j
.
If (x) is a real wavelet function, the wavelet coefficients are
obtained by:

!
j , k
= f (x), 2
" j
#(2
" j
x " k)
.................... (4)

j,k
is called the discrete detail signal at the resolution 2
j
.
The scaling function (x) and wavelet function (x) has the
following property:

1
2
!(
x
2
) = h(n)!(x " n)
n
#
...................... (5a)

1
2
!(
x
2
) = g(n)"(x # n)
n
$ ...................... (5b)
c
j+1,k
and
j+1,k
can be obtained by direct computation from c
j,k
:
c
j +1, k
= h(n ! 2k)c
j , n
n
"
....................... (6a)

!
j +1, k
= g(n " 2k)
n
#
c
j , n ........................ (6b)
Equations (6a) and (6b) are the multi-resolution algorithm of
the traditional DWT. In this transform, a downsampling algorithm
is used to perform the transformation. That is, one point out of
two is kept during transformation. Therefore, the whole length of
the function f(x) will reduce by half after the transformation. This
process continues until the length of the function becomes one.
However, for stationary or redundant transform, instead of
downsampling, an upsampling procedure is carried out before
performing filter convolution at each scale. The distance between
samples increasing by a factor of two from scale to the next c
j+1,k
is obtained by:

c
j +1, k
= h(l)
l
!
c
j , k +2
j
l
........................... (7a)
and the discrete wavelet coefcients:

!
j +1, k
= g(l)
l
"
c
j , k +2
j
l
.......................... (7b)
The redundancy of this transform facilitates the identification of
salient features in a signal.
5. Measuring of the steel bars
There are many different types of wavelet families. Section 6 will
discuss how to choose the wavelet basis that best interprets the
raw GPR data. The desire to measure the diameter of steel bars
dictated choosing the Sym3 wavelet. Symlet wavelets are the
Figure 3. GPR wave at scan point 14
152 Insight Vol 51 No 3 March 2009

compactly supported wavelets with the least degree of asymmetry
and the highest number of vanishing moments for a given support
width. The associated scaling lters are near linear-phase lters.
Figure 4(a)-(b) shows the wavelet and scale functions of the Sym3
wavelet.
Figure 5 is DWT detail coefficients (DWT cD1~5) and SWT
detail coefficients (SWT cD1~5) of GPR wave. As Figure 5 shows,
the number of DWT coefficients decreases as the scale increases
while the number of SWT coefficients remains the same for every
signal scale. After normalising five scales of SWT detail coefficients
to create the contour map of normalised SWT cD5 coefficients
shown in Figure 6, the image of the three steel bars becomes clear.
5.1 Measuring the diameter of the steel bars
In Figure 6, the clear image of the three steel bars is a result of
the ability of the higher scales to show slowly changing details.
The boundary between positive and negative cD5 coefcients
clearly demarcates the bottom of the concrete slab. The position
of the steel bar in Figure 6 is unique, unlike that of Figure 2 where
one steel bar caused two hyperbolas that tend to confuse those
inexperienced with GPR evaluation. Unfortunately, Figure 9 does
not clearly show the positions of either zero time or the top of the
concrete slab.
Knowing the velocity of the GPR wave through the concrete
slab allows for the calculation of the distance using formula (1).
Therefore, 0.5 ns represents a distance of 0.10.5/2 = 0.025 m =
25 mm.
The next step is to load the images into AutoCAD 2004 and
label the correlation size. There are two methods to determine the
diameter of the rebar:
1) Measure the maximum diameter of the circles contained in the
rebar pattern.
2) Measure the maximum distance of the rebar pattern in the time
dimension.
We measure the distance of 0.5 ns and get 117, then measure the
maximum diameter of the circles contained in the rebar pattern of
Rebar 1 and get 60. When we measure the maximum distance of
the Rebar 1 pattern in the time dimension, we get 93.
Method 1: 2560/117 = 12.8 mm
Method 2: 2593/117 = 19.9 mm
Average: (12.8+19.9)/2 = 16.4 mm 16 mm
Similar calculations yield the diameter of Rebar 2 and Rebar 3.
5.2 Measuring the depth and horizontal position of the rebar
The distance between the top of the concrete slab and the centre of
the circles in Figure 6 is measured directly. The depth of Rebar 1 is:
25242/117 = 52 mm. The systems antenna has a step size of 0.01m
and thus the distance from scan point 1 to scan point 68 is 680 mm.
According to Figure 1 and Figure 6, we measure the distance of 10
scan points from scan point 45 to scan point 55 and get 172, and
the distance from the centre of Rebar 1 to the specimens side is:
215/172100+80 = 205 mm. Similar calculations yield the depth
and horizontal position of Rebar 2 and Rebar 3.
Using Autocad objectARX, post-processing programs are
being developed. By inputting the steel bar and concrete specimen
parameters as shown Table 1 into the programs, the 3D image
shown in Figure 7 is obtained.
Specimen 2 was tested in order to justify the proposed methods.
Table 2 shows the results for the second specimen.
Figure 4. (a) Wavelet function of Sym3; (b) Scale function of
Sym3
Figure 5. Detail coefcients of DWT and SWT of GPR wave at
scan point 14
Figure6.ContourmapofnormalisedSWTcD5coefcients
Figure 7. 3D image of specimen 1
Table 1. Parameters of steel bars of specimen 1 (Unit: mm)
Rebar 1 Rebar 2 Rebar 3
Diameter
(Method 1)
12.8 9.8 21.4
Diameter
(Method 2)
19.9 14.1 26.0
Diameter
(Average)
16 12 24
Actual diameter 18 10 22
Depth 52 53 45
Actual depth 51 53 47
Distance 205 224 221 199
Actual distance 209 224 217 200
Table 2. Parameters of steel bars of specimen 2 (Unit: mm)
Rebar 1 Rebar 2
Diameter 10 18
Actual diameter 14 20
Depth 54 49
Actual depth 55 51
Distance 216 224
Actual distance 215 225
Distance 216 224 119
Actual distance 215 225 120
6. Choosing the wavelet basis
Choosing the wavelet basis is vitally important in determining
the diameter of the steel bars. There are many different wavelet
families and each has different properties. Three main properties
distinguish the wavelet families. Table 3 lists ve main wavelet
bases and their properties. Figure 8(a)-(c), Figure 9(a)-(c) and
Figure 10(a)-(c) show the SWT cD5 coefcients contour map for
the wavelet families.
Table 3. Five wavelet bases and their properties
property symN dbN biorNr.Nd coifN meyer
Compact
support
l l l l
Orthogonal l l l l
Symmetry near l l
According the Figures:
a) The support length of (x) is the speed of convergence to
zero of the wavelet functions that quantify both the time and
frequency localisations. Creating three maps of specimen 1
using symN wavelets that have a 2N-1 support width allowed
for the comparison of the effect of the compact length of the
wavelet bases on the methods ability to measure rebar diameter.
As Figure 8(a)-(c) shows, the shorter the support width of the
wavelet bases is, the closer the steel pattern is to actual size.
This is a result of the shorter width support giving more precise
time localisations.
b) Orthogonality of (x)
The symN, dbN, and coif1 wavelet functions are all orthogonal
wavelets and their coefcient maps clearly image the steel bar
patterns, as seen in Figure 8(a)-(c), Figure 9(a)-(c) and Figure
10(c). However, as Figure 10(a) shows, the bior1.1 wavelet
function is not orthogonal and thus the steel bar pattern does not
appear on the image even though bior1.1 has a short 2-width
support. Therefore, the orthogonality of the wavelet basis is
important in the measurement of steel bars using GPR.
c) The symmetry of (x)
Except for the Haar basis, all real orthonormal wavelet bases
with compact support are asymmetric
[5]
. Symmetry is useful in
avoiding dephasing in image processing. Both the bior1.1 and
meyer wavelet functions are symmetric. Figure 10(a), made
using bior1.1 cD5 coefcients, does not clearly image the
steel pattern. Likewise, Figure 10(b), made using meyer cD5
coefcients, is not sufciently clear to determine the diameter
of the steel bars, despite its orthogonality, because the Meyer
functions support width is innite. Therefore, the symmetry of
wavelets is less important in measuring the diameters of steel
bars than are the other two main properties.
In summary, when measuring the diameter of steel bars, having
a short support width and being orthogonal are the most important
properties for a wavelet basis.
7. Conclusions
n The SWT wavelet transform is useful in measuring precisely
the diameter of steel bars in a concrete structure. Knowing the
velocity of the GPR wave is vitally important in measuring the
diameters and positions of the steel bars. The SWT coefcients
contour map clearly images the steel reinforcement pattern,
thereby overcoming the drawback of GPR images that one steel
bar may cause two or more hyperbolas.
n Having a short support width and being orthogonal are the most
important properties to consider when choosing the wavelet
basis.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the nancial support of the
Natural Science Foundation of the Guangdong province of China,
No. 032023, and the Science Foundation of Xinyang Normal
University for young teacher, No. 20070211.
Figure8(a)-(c).ContourmapofnormalisedSWTcD5coefcients
of symN
Figure9(a)-(c).ContourmapofnormalisedSWTcD5coefcients
of dbN
Figure 10(a)-(c). Contour map of normalised SWT cD5
coefcientsofbior1.1,meyer,coif1
154 Insight Vol 51 No 3 March 2009

References
1. C Stolte and K P Nick, A method to improve the imaging of
pipes in radar reection data, Proc 5th International Conference
on GPR, Univ. of Waterloo, pp 723-731, 1994.
2. T C K Molyneaux, S G Millard, J H Bungey and J Q Zhou,
Radar assessment of structural concrete using neural
networks, NDT&E International, Vol 28, No 5, pp 281-288,
1995.
3. L Newnham and A Goodier, Using neural networks to interpret
sub-surface radar imagery of reinforced concrete, Proceedings
of SPIE The International Society for Optical Engineering,
Vol 4084, pp 434-440, May 2000.
4. S Quek, P Gaydecki, B Fernandes and G Miller, Multiple
layer separation and visualisation of inductively scanned
images of reinforcing bars in concrete using a polynomial-
based separation algorithm, NDT&E International, Vol 35, No
4, pp 233-240, 2002.
5. S Quek, P Gaydecki, M A M Zaid, G Miller and B Fernandes,
Three-dimensional image rendering of steel reinforcing bars
using Curvilinear models applied to orthogonal line scans
taken by an inductive sensor, NDT&E International,Vol 36,
No 1, pp 7-18, 2003.
6. S Mallat, A wavelet tour of signal processing, Academic
Press, San Diego, 1998.
7. I Daubechies, Ten lecture on wavelets, Philadelphia, PA:
SIAM, 1992.
8. S Mallat, A theory for multiresolution signal decomposition:
The wavelet representation, IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal.
Machine Intell, Vol 11, pp 674-693, July 1989.
9. G Beylkin, On the representation of operators in bases
of compactly supported wavelets, SIAM J. Numer. Anal.
29(6):1716-1740, 1992.
10. M Lang, H Guo, J E Odegard, C S Burrus and R O Wells
Jr, Nonlinear processing of a shift-invariant DWT for noise
reduction, SPIE conference on wavelet applications, Vol
2491, Orlando, FL, April 1995, Tech. report CML TR95-03,
Rice University, Houston, TX.
11. M J Shensa, The discrete wavelet transform: Wedding the
trous and Mallat Algorithms, IEEE Trans. Inform. Theory,
40:2464-2482, 1992.
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HP 4d.indd 1 09/01/2009 11:10:10
Enquiry No 903-11
1 [CORROSION OF STEEL/BM]
THE CORROSION OF STEEL, AND ITS
MONITORING, IN CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION

This Guide describes:

(a) the circumstances in which steel reinforcement in concrete can corrode, and

(b) methods of revealing whether corrosion is occurring and, if so, at what rate.

WHY STEEL IN USED CONCRETE

Concrete is a complex material of construction that enables the high compressive strength of
natural stone to be used in any configuration. This is accomplished by breaking natural stone
to suitable sizes and mixing the aggregates so formed with suitable proportions of water and
cement. This mixture can then be moulded into any required shape while still fluid. The
water and cement react chemically, forming a glue that bonds the pieces of stone aggregate
together into a structural member, which becomes rigid and strong in compression when the
chemical reaction is completed (i.e. the concrete is cured). In tension, however, concrete
can be no stronger than the bond between the cured cement and the surfaces of the aggregate.
This is generally much lower than the compressive strength of the concrete.

Most structures are subjected to loadings that create bending moments, producing both
compression and tension stresses within the structure. Since concrete is comparatively weak
in tension, arrangements have to be made for the tensile stresses in the structure to be
transferred to another material that is strong in tension. Concrete is therefore frequently
reinforced, usually with steel, but occasionally with glass fibres or polymer filaments.

Steel can be used for such reinforcement in one of two ways. When a system of steel bars or
a steel mesh is incorporated in the concrete structure in such a way that the steel can support
most of the tensile stresses and leave the immediately surrounding concrete comparatively
free of tensile stress, then the complex is known as reinforced concrete. When the steel
introduced is initially tensioned in such a manner that it applies a compressive stress to the
surrounding hardened concrete such that no subsequent loading applied to the structure puts
that concrete into tension, then the complex is known as prestressed concrete.

The steel introduced into concrete can occasionally serve both of these functions.

CONCRETE AS AN ENVIRONMENT FOR STEEL

The role of alkalinity
It is well known that if bright steel is left unprotected in the atmosphere a brown oxide rust
quickly forms and will continue to grow until a scale flakes from the surface. This corrosion
process will continue unless some external means is provided to prevent it. One method is to
surround the steel with an alkaline environment having a pH value within the range 9.5 to 13.
Hydrated cement provides such an environment, the normal pH value being 12.6, at which
steel is protected in the absence of aggressive anions. At this pH value a passive film forms
on the steel that reduces the rate of corrosion to a very low and harmless value. Thus,
concrete cover provides chemical as well as physical protection to the steel. However,
circumstances do arise in which corrosion of reinforcement occurs. Since rust has a larger
volume than the steel from which it is formed, the result can be cracking, rust-staining, or
even spalling of the concrete cover. Such occurrences usually arise from loss of alkalinity in
the immediate vicinity of the steel or from the presence of excessive quantities of aggressive
anions in the concrete (normally chloride), or from a combination of both of these factors.

Loss of alkalinity by carbonation
Alkalinity can be lost as a result of:

(a) Reaction with acidic gases (such as carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere. The effects of
sulphur dioxide are also included in the term carbonation.

Or

(b) Leaching by water from the surface.

In practice both of these factors contribute to the reduction of alkalinity in the concrete.
Concrete is permeable and allows the slow ingress of the atmosphere; the acidic gases react
with the alkalis (usually calcium, sodium and potassium hydroxides), neutralising them by
forming carbonates and sulphates, and at the same time reducing the pH value. If the
carbonated front penetrates sufficiently deeply into the concrete to intersect with the concrete
reinforcement interface, protection is lost and, since both oxygen and moisture are available,
the steel is likely to corrode. The extent of the advance of the carbonation front depends, to a
considerable extent, on the porosity and permeability of the concrete and on the conditions of
the exposure.

For dense concretes, permeability and porosity are related to cement content, water/cement
ratio, aggregate grading, degree of compaction, and adequacy of curing. Likewise, the
permeability of lightweight concrete is determined mainly by the above factors and, to a
lesser extent, by aggregate permeability where lightweight concretes are used. For aerated
concretes, permeability is a function of the amount of air entrainment and the type of bubble
formation; interconnecting bubbles allow easier ingress of the atmosphere than do discrete
bubbles. (Methods of air entrainment for dense concrete should not permit the formation of
other than discrete bubbles.) The extent of carbonation is likely to be greater in lightweight
concretes than in dense concretes, and the depth of cover should be increased accordingly.
Indeed, where carbonation of loss of alkalinity (in, for example, autoclaved aerated concrete)
is expected to extend to the steel, additional protection to the reinforcement, or the use of a
more corrosion-resistant material such as stainless steel, is necessary.

It is normal to accept, in the long term, a degree of carbonation in the concrete according to
the above factors of porosity, permeability and degree of exposure. To provide the steel with
an effectively permanent protective alkaline environment, the designer therefore ensures that
the depth of cover to the reinforcement nearest the surface is sufficiently greater than the
depth of carbonation penetration.

Cracks in concrete formed as a result of tensile loading, shrinkage or other factors can also
allow the ingress of the atmosphere and provide a zone from which the carbonation front can
develop. If the crack penetrates to the steel, protection can be lost. This is especially so
under tensile loading, for debonding of steel and concrete occurs to some extent on each side
of the crack, thus removing the alkaline environment and so destroying the protection in the
vicinity of the debonding. The extent of subsequent corrosion will be determined by a
number of factors, including width of crack, loading conditions, degree of exposure and
atmospheric pollution. In some circumstances the cracks will be closed by the product of
carbonation reactions, ingress of dust or other solid airborne matter, or combinations of both
of these influences, so restricting further oxygen and moisture access and minimising further
corrosion. Where, however, cracks are not closed in this manner (especially cracks subject to
movement resulting from fluctuating load conditions), oxygen and moisture still have access
to the unprotected steel surface and corrosion is likely to progress.

Effect of chloride in the concrete

The passivity provided by the alkaline conditions can also be destroyed by the presence of
chloride ions, even though a high level of alkalinity remains in the concrete. The chloride ion
can locally de-passivate the metal and promote active metal dissolution. Chlorides react with
the calcium aluminate and calcium aluminoferrite in the concrete to form insoluble calcium
chloroaluminates and calcium chloroferrites in which the chloride is bound in non-active
form; however, the reaction is never complete and some active soluble chloride always
remains in equilibrium in the aqueous phase in the concrete. It is this chloride in solution that
is free to promote corrosion of the steel. At low levels of chloride in the aqueous phase, the
rate of corrosion is very small, but higher concentration increases the risks of corrosion.
Thus the amount of chloride in the concrete and, in turn, the amount of free chloride in the
aqueous phase (which is partly a function of cement content and also of the cement type) will
influence the risk of corrosion. While the concrete remains in an uncarbonated state the level
of free chloride in the aqueous phase remains low (perhaps 10% of the total Cl). However,
the influence of severe carbonation is to break down the hydrated cement phases and, in the
case of chloroaluminates, the effect is to release chloride. Thus more free chloride is
available in carbonated concrete than in uncarbonated materials.

The properties of the concrete (controlled by water/cement ratio, cement content, aggregate
grading and degree of compaction) have two influences on the effect of chloride in
stimulating the corrosion of reinforcement. As the cement content of the concrete increases
(for a fixed amount of chloride in the concrete), more chloride reacts to form solid phases, so
reducing the amount in solution (and the risk of corrosion), and as the physical properties
improve, the extent of carbonation declines, so preventing further liberation of chloride from
the solid phase.

When corrosion is a hazard

The great majority of reinforced concrete structures are built to guidelines given in British
Standard Codes of Practice and are in situations where they given very long maintenance-free
lives. There are, however, certain circumstances in which the concrete cannot be expected to
give the desired, almost indefinite, protection to the steel reinforcement. These
circumstances are:

(a) Where, because of error of construction, the full thickness of concrete cover was not
given to the reinforcement.
(b) Where the concrete contains damaging amounts of chloride, either present in high
concentration in the materials from which the concrete is made or added deliberately to
accelerate setting.
(c) Where the concrete is exposed to sea water, to de-icing salts or to acid.

In these circumstances it is very desirable to know whether or not the steel may be corroding.

METHODS OF DETECTING AND MONITORING CORROSION

General

Detection methods reveal whether corrosion is taking place, but not the rate of corrosion or
how much has already occurred. Monitoring methods tell either the rate of corrosion or the
total amount of corrosion that has already taken place.

Method A Detection by electrode potential

The electrode potential of steel in concrete is an indicator of corrosion activity; the value
reveals whether the steel is in a thermodynamically active or passive state.

The half-cell shown is that usually used as a reference electrode, i.e. the saturated copper/
copper sulphate electrode (CSE). The following values of potential of reinforcement are
generally accepted as revealing the active and passive conditions

CSE potential : volts Condition
0.20 Passive
0.20 to 0.35 Active or passive
0.35 Active

This method can be applied to existing structures provided that electrical connection can be
made to the reinforcement.

Method B Detection by the constant anodic current polarisation method

The corrosive or inhibitive character of alkaline media such as concrete can be predicted by
anodic polarisation measurements. This involves the application to the reinforcement of a
small fixed anodic (oxidising) current in the range 5-20 A cm
-2
and observing how the
electrode potential of the steel changes with time. If the concrete environment is inhibitive
the passive film formed on the steel will be stable and, on application of the constant anodic
current, the electrode potential will rise to a steady value in the region of 0.6 V SCE (standard
calomel electrode), representing the evolution of oxygen from the passivated steel surface. If
the concrete environment is corrosive to steel the passive film will be unstable; rusting can
occur and the potential will not attain the oxygen-evolution value of 0.6 V SCE.

This method is used in laboratory tests on the corrosion of steel in concrete. It could be
adapted for use on structures, in which case electrical connection to the reinforcement or to
probes would be required.

Method C Monitoring by the electrical resistance probe

In this method the loss of section of a probe by corrosion is determined by measuring its
electrical resistance. The resistance of the probe is given by:

t
K
t
1
w
l
A
l
R = |
.
|
\
|
=
=

where R denotes the resistance of the specimen
denotes the resistivity of the specimen
l denotes the length of the specimen
w denotes the width of the specimen
A denotes the cross-sectional area of the specimen
t denotes the thickness of the specimen
K is a constant.

In order to use this phenomenon to measure corrosion rates two conditions must be satisfied:

1. The probe must be made from the same metal of alloy as the reinforcement and must
be sufficiently thin for corrosion to cause a significant loss of metal thickness in a convenient
time interval.

2. Compensation for the variation of resistance with temperature is essential because
resistance changes resulting from changes in temperature can swamp those caused by loss of
section through corrosion. This compensation can be achieved by incorporating in the
resistance probe a reference element, which experiences the same temperature variation as
the test element and is protected from corrosion by a suitable coating.

The reference and test elements of the probe are incorporated as two arms of an AC bridge
network, which enables the resistance ratio of the reference and test elements of the probe to
be measured. Schematic diagrams of the probe and electrical circuit are shown in.

T R R
T T
R
T
t
K
t / K
t / K
R
R
= =

where R
T
denotes the resistance of the test element
R
R
denotes the resistance of the reference element
t
T
denotes the thickness of the test element
t
R
denotes the thickness of the reference element
K, K
T
, K
R
are constants.

The main advantages of this method are that measurements can be made continuously and at
a position remote from the probe location, and that the measurements are not affected by the
conductivity of the concrete. Each reading shows the total corrosion to date; rates of
corrosion can be readily calculated.

Method D Monitoring by the polarisation resistance probe

In this method instantaneous corrosion rates are determined from measurements of small
currents and potentials between two probe electrodes made of the same metal as the
reinforcement and set in the concrete or between two pieces of isolated reinforcement. The
results take into account all the corrosion processes that are taking place.

In electrochemical terms the method gives a semi-logarithmic plot of potential versus log.
current for any polarisation that is linear. The polarisation resistance relates the slope of the
polarisation curve in the vicinity of the corrosion potential to the corrosion current by the
following equation:

c a corr
a a
0 E
b b ( i 3 . 2
b b
i
E
+
= |
.
|
\
|
A
A
A

where b
a
denotes the Tafel slope of the anodic reaction
b
c
denotes the Tafel slope of the cathodic reaction
i
corr
denotes the corrosion current

0 E
i
E
A
|
.
|
\
|
A
A
is the polarisation resistance.

In order to measure precise corrosion rates it is necessary to know the values of the Tafel
slopes b
a
and b
c
, but it has been shown that an estimate of the corrosion rate within a factor of
two can be obtained even if the Tafel slopes are not known. The above equation is valid
provided that E lies in the range 5-20 mV. Experimentally the simplest circuit for measuring
polarisation resistance involves a two-electrode probe.

A limitation of this method is that it can be applied only in a conducting medium (maximum
resistivity 10
5
ohm cm). Somewhat higher resistivities can be tolerated if a three-electrode
probe is used. This can be a problem in concrete that has dried out to a very low moisture
content, because dry concrete has a high resistivity.

Monitoring by AC impedance measurement

This method is being developed in the laboratory. It shows promise for use on steel in
concrete and has the advantage that it is independent of the resistivity of the concrete.

Application to in situ measurement

All four methods can be applied in situ, but methods B and C require wired probes to be cast
in suitable positions in the concrete. This is preferable also for method D. Method A can be
applied to existing structures provided that electrical connection can be made to the
reinforcement.

For future designs of structures that may be at hazard (for reasons given under the heading
When corrosion is a hazard), full consideration should be given to casting-in suitably wired
probes on which measurements can be made. Owners of existing structures should consider
using method A to find out if corrosion is occurring.

PROTECTION OF REINFORCEMENT AND REPAIR

Designers of structures that may be at hazard are urged to consider protecting the
reinforcement or using a corrosion-resistant reinforcement, such as austenitic stainless steel.
Publisher:
Publication Place:
Publication Date: Start Page: End Page: Language:
Assigned Organisational Unit(s):
Kalicka, Malgorzata
Acoustic Emission in Structural Health Monitoring - corrosion detecting in post-tensioned girders
Technical University of Denmark, Dept. of Civil Engineering
Fisher, Gregor; Geiker, Mette; Hededal, Ole; Ottosen, Lisbeth; Stang, Henrik
8th International PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering
8th International PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering
Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
June 20-23, 2010
03353
2010 611 616 English
Editor(s)
Book Title:
Event Name:
Event Location:
Event Date:
8
th
fib PhD Symposium in Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark June 20 23, 2010
1
Acoustic Emission in Structural Health Monitoring -
corrosion detecting
in post-tensioned girders
MALGORZATA KALICKA AND THOMAS VOGEL
Institute of Structural Engineering, ETH Zurich
8093 Zurich, Switzerland
kalicka@ibk.baug.ethz.ch
Abstract
The aim of this work was applying the acoustic emission monitoring technique for evaluation
of corrosion processes of steel tendons in post-tensioned concrete girders. Deteriorations and
especially wire breaks, caused by corrosion of tendons, may result in disintegration of a whole
structure. Detection and evaluation of corrosion processes in concrete girders is technically
difficult and appropriate methods are still under development.
1. Introduction
Corrosion of reinforcement is a serious problem in engineering structures and is most difficult
to discover in its early stage of development, especially because early initiation and
development appear inside of a structure, out of visibility. We are not aware of consequences,
when it is not possible to discover products of corrosion. Corrosion causes the deterioration of
concrete and reduction of steel reinforcements cross section As a result a collapse of a
structure may occur. Detection and evaluation of an early stage corrosion processes is
complicated and mostly destructive.
The experiments presented in this paper were executed at University Paul Sabatier in
Toulouse, France during a master project. These tests were carried out to determine a more
sufficient detection technique for recognition and evaluation of corrosion initiation processes.
Acoustic Emission (AE) has been applied as a main monitoring method. AE is the elastic
energy spontaneously released by materials when they undergo deformation [1]. AE signals
are generated during deterioration initiation and development. This non-destructive method
has been chosen due to many advantages like damage/deterioration localization, global
monitoring covering the whole structure, only active damage/deterioration registration,
monitoring under service conditions and finally damage/deterioration development intensity
evaluation. AE monitoring was performed to detect the acoustic signals corresponding to
accelerated corrosion processes.
In this study the corrosion processes of reinforcement of post tensioned tendons in
concrete beams were examined. The laboratory tests have been performed on two post
tensioned girders, which were of the same geometry. In one of beams, the tendon was treated
with an acid attack for two weeks prior to the bending tests, while the second served as a
reference without an acid treatment. Both of the beams were loaded in cycles up to failure in
four point bending. The recorded data has been analysed with NOESIS Pattern Recognition
Analysis. The results gained from this analysis provide some information considering sources
of AE, which are the destructive processes.
8
th
2
1.1 Testing samples
For the purpose of this research, two 3 m long post tensioned concrete beams (see Figure 1a)
were constructed. The rectangular cross section of the beams measures 15x28 cm. Both
tendons were tensioned with the same force of 75 kN. In each girder, a plastic hollow box
(90x80x30 mm) had been encased on tendons to aggravate the corrosion process (see
Figure 1b). Only one of the girders was treated with an acid (NH
4

Figure 1: (a) Post tensioned 3 m long beams after 28 days of maturing; (b) The P2 beam
with the exposed tendon before applying the acid, during acid treatment.
SCN) for two weeks.
Bending tests were undertaken on both girders i.e. P1 without acid treatment and P2 with the
corroding tendon. During all of the experiment stages, AE monitoring was carried out.

1.2 Monitoring equipment
As the main monitoring system the SAMOS was used, which is a sensor based acoustic
multichannel operation system containing a PCI-8 card [2].
For the monitoring, two types of AE piezoelectric sensors were used. On concrete surface,
the Vallen Systems GmbH [3] VS30-V sensors with the mean frequency value of 55 kHz,
high sensitivity low frequency were applied. This type of AE sensors are optimized for testing
tank floors and other engineering structures as well as for leak detection. At the surface of the
tendons, WD low sensitivity high frequency PAC Ltd. [2] AE sensors were positioned.
For the parametric measurements, a displacement sensor and a load cell were connected to
the SAMOS system.
For data acquisition, the AEWin, fully compatible with PACs standard (DTA) data files,
Data Acquisition and Replay program was utilized [2].
The bending tests were performed on a testing stand SINTCO with a loading capacity up
to 600 kN.
1.3 Experiments stages
The experiment of two geometrically similar beams was performed to discover the influence
of an aggressive chemical environment on the development of acoustic signals. The
experiments were carried out in three main stages i.e. bending test of beam P1, corrosion
monitoring of beam P2 followed by bending test. Both beams were loaded in cycles up to
failure in four point bending.
1.3.1 Corrosion monitoring (P2)
This part of the experiment was undertaken to discover initiation and development of
corrosion processes on post-tensioned tendon by AE monitoring. The moment of corrosion
initiation is very difficult to recognize.
8
th
3
During the corrosion monitoring, the tendon of beam P2 was treated with an acid with two
different chemical solutions: NH
4
SCN (200 g/800 ml) i.e. solution 1, during the first week
and NH
4
1.3.2 Bending tests (P1, P2)
SCN (400 g/800 ml) i.e. solution 2, during the second week of the monitoring.
During the test, AE was acquired and no load was applied.
The beams P1, P2 were loaded up to failure in seven cycles (see Figure 2):
Cycle 1: 0 35 kN
Cycle 2: 0 40 kN
Cycle 3: 0 40 kN
Cycle 4: 0 50 kN
Cycle 5: 0 50 kN
Cycle 6: 0 60 kN
Cycle 7: 0 105 kN.

Figure 2: Bending test: Loading cycles vs. Time.
The loading levels 40 kN and 50 kN were repeated to study the Kaiser Effect i.e.
2. Analysis of the acoustic signals
an effect,
in which acoustic emissions are not observed during the reloading of a material until the stress
exceeds its previous high value.
The following analysis focuses on the AE signals classification to recognize destructive
processes in post-tensioned concrete girders. For the AE signal analysis, the NOESIS
Unsupervised Pattern Recognition (UPR) analysis was used. Signals, collected during the
mechanical and chemical parts of the experiments, were filtered i.e. removing correlated
parameters, and classified by the unsupervised k-Means statistic with a different purposed
number of classes.
In the presented signal patterns, results with an assumed number of classes (see Figure 3 -
4), which represent different destructive processes taking place during the bending tests and
corrosion monitoring, are revealed. The results from the tests of the two post tensioned
concrete beams, which were loaded up to failure under neutral environmental conditions
(laboratory conditions), are presented in the next diagrams i.e. signal strength vs. time. It
should be noted, that in the higher load cycles, the activity of acoustic emission was registered
during both loading and unloading. High activity during unloading proves the presence of
concrete cracking i.e. opening and closure of cracks. In regular service of structures, this
defect allows corrosive agents to penetrate a structure.
105
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
L
o
a
d

[
k
N
]
Time [sec]
Loading cycles
8
th
4
The failure of beam P1 revealed plastic deformations and tendon break and is represented
by AE signals in the last loading cycle 7. The development of destructive processes in the
concrete took place during prior loading cycles (see corresponding signals to the loading cycle
4, cycle 5 and cycle 6 on the Figure 3, 4). Beam P2, which was treated previously with a
corrosive component, was loaded up to failure in the same loading cycles as beam P1.
The results, which are shown on Figure 4, do not show any larger variation (compared to
beam P1 bending tests results), which could clearly indicate the degradation of the tendons
state due to corrosion.
Beam P2 reached its ultimate load

Figure 3: Beam P1 - AE classified signals during the loading cycles 1 to 7. AE signal
classification by the UPR method with 8 classes. AE signals not normalized.
by transfer cracking of the concrete and yielding of the
tendon. These events produced high signal energy.

Figure 4: Beam P2 - AE classified signals during the loading cycles 1 to 7. AE signal
classification by UPR method with 8 classes. AE signals not normalized.
The tendon of beam P2 was treated with an aggressive corrosive component prior to the
bending test. During the corrosion monitoring, acoustic signals were registered. The results
from Day 8 are presented on Figure 5. The stronger AE activity appeared periodically,
approximately every 50 000 sec. Between bursting events, registered signals appeared to have
a regular and weak emission above the established threshold. The level of signal strength
during bursts of corrosion products is nearly two times lower than the signals registered
during the bending tests.
8
th
5

Figure 5: Beam P2, Day 8 Corrosion monitoring. AE signals strength vs. time; data not
classified.
3. Conclusions
After seven days of monitoring, the corrosive solution was increased. The monitoring was
continued during the following week. The energy of signals has not increased significantly,
which means that raising the intensity of corrosive component did not result in an increase of
the signals energy. Periodical emissions activity may be caused by two main processes:
bursting of corrosion products, which was previously observed during monitoring of steel
tanks by Kielce University of Technology (KUT) in Poland, and/or caused by displacement of
tendon due to loss of steel bar cross section in the corroded area.
Signals registered during initiation and development of corrosion processes show an
intermitted nature. The corrosion intensity variation is detectable based on the AE activity.
However, the signal strength of the registered data during corrosion monitoring is at least
twice lower than the signal strength produced by the destructive processes during the bending
tests. Due to a short term of an acid treatment of the tendon, the aggressive environment did
not clearly influence the beams strength in this experiment.
As assumed at the beginning, AE has clearly detected signals coming from corrosion
initiation and development, which produces weak signals, compared to processes like
concrete cracking or wire breaking. However, this phenomenon has been detected in
controlled laboratory conditions without any external loading. It would be very difficult to
separate corrosion signals from so called noise signals in regular field monitoring conditions.
Due to this fact, further AE is not preferred for corrosion in-situ monitoring.
4. Future research
These experiments have been performed as a part of a research on structural health condition
monitoring by acoustic emission. The main aim is to discover and recognize the acoustic
signals leading to failure/collapse of a structure. This research has been studied previously at
KUT, where laboratory tests on samples, beams, full scale girders and field monitoring on
prestressed concrete bridges have been performed [4, 5].
The next step of the research would be developing an overall structural health monitoring
for prestressed and post-tensioned concrete bridges. The monitoring should also concern an
influence of loading/traffic variation, and environmental conditions on acoustic signals
activity.
8
th
6
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank ProIessor Leszek Golaski Irom Kielce University oI Technology Ior
great support and fruitful discussion.
I would also like to thank Professor Jean-Paul Balayssac from University Paul Sabatier,
Toulouse, who as my advisor supported this research at the Laboratory LMDC Toulouse.
References

[1] American Society for Non-destructive Testing, Acoustic Emission Testing,
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third Edition, vol. 6.
[2] Physical Acoustic Ltd., home page: http://www.pacndt.com.

[3] Vallen Systeme GmbH, home page: http://www.vallen.de.
[4] L. Golaski, G. Swit, M. Kalicka, K. Ono, 'Acoustic Emission Behavior of Prestressed
Concrete Girders during Proof Loading
[5] M. Kalicka,
, Journal of Acoustic Emission, vol. 24, 2007,
pp. 187-195.
Health Assessment of Prestressed Girder by Deterioration Processes
Evaluation

, ICT for Bridges and Construction Practice, extended abstract, IABSE
conference, Helsinki, June 2008, pp. 144-145.

PHILIPPINE ENGINEERING JOURNAL
PEJ 2007; Vol. 28, No. 2:29-44

Received: November 13, 2009

Copyright 2007 Philippine Engineering Journal Revised: November 27, 2009
Accepted: December 17, 2009
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PREDICTION MODELS
OF TIME-TO-INITIATE-CORROSION IN REINFORCED
CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Norbert S. Que
1

Institute of Civil Engineering, University of the Philippines Diliman

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the history and development of mathematical models for the
prediction of time to initiate corrosion of reinforced concrete exposed to chlorides in marine
environment. Emphasis is given to prediction models (empirical and mathematical) that consider
Ficks 2nd law of diffusion as the theoretical basis. Since repair and rehabilitation of corroded
reinforced concrete marine structures draw significant portion of the budget for infrastructures, the
capability to accurately predict deterioration levels due to chloride attack, especially the time-to-
initiate corrosion, in reinforced concrete structures exposed to chloride-induced corrosion can
translate to major economic savings and possible extension of service life of a member or a
structure.
Keywords : Chloride, Marine Environment, Ficks 2
nd
Law, Reinforced Concrete, Corrosion

1. INTRODUCTION
A reinforced concrete structure exposed to water containing soluble salt (e.g. NaCl)
imposes high risk of penetration of ions (in this case chloride Cl- and Sodium Na+) into
concrete (HETEK, 1997a). Chloride ion penetration is a major concern on durability
issues and service life design of reinforced concrete structures in the marine environment.
Among structures vulnerable to chloride attack include ports, bridges and other marine
infrastructures. The economic importance played by these structures demands careful
attention in the study of chloride ion penetration phenomena so as to minimize its
damaging effects and extend the service life of these important structures.
The penetration of chloride ions into the concrete material is through a system of
capillary pores dominated mainly by diffusion and capillary absorption. When the
amount of chloride deposited onto the surface of the reinforcing bar reaches a critical
value between 0.2% and 0.6% by weight of cement, corrosion process is assumed to start.
The time elapse from the construction of the structure up to this point is referred to as the
time to initiate corrosion.

_____________________
*Correspondence to: Institute of Civil Engineering, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101
PHILIPPINES. email:cunedizon@yahoo.com

N.S.QUE

Copyright 2007 Philippine Engineering Journal Phil. Engg. J. 2007; 28:29-44

30

Corrosion of steel reinforcing bars is generally accepted as electrochemical in nature.
The naturally occurring alkaline environment in concrete forms a thin passive film
around the surface of reinforcing steel bars which serves as a barrier against carbonation
induced corrosion and chloride induced corrosion. For marine exposed structures, the
gradual penetration of chloride ions into the concrete structure will eventually lead to the
weakening of the passive film where depassivation process starts. Figure 1 illustrates a
chloride induced corrosion process.

Fig. 1. Chloride induced corrosion process (Keller 2004)

A notch-like shape corrosion that affects rebar locally is formed after the passive film is
destroyed by the penetration of chloride ions. The expansion of rust around the
reinforcing bar will cause cracking and spalling of concrete. Service life of a structure is
often equated when cracking due to corrosion occurs.
A conceptual model for service life prediction of corroded reinforced concrete
structure as developed by Tuutti (1980) is shown in Figure 2. As the figure shows, there
are two distinct stages in the evolution of deterioration caused by chloride corrosion. The
first is the initiation period at which the chloride threshold value is reached at the
concrete-steel interface to activate corrosion. The second is the propagation period which
represents the period between corrosion initiation and cracking of concrete.

Fig 2. Tuutti (1980) service life model of corroded structures
Time
initiation period propagation
D
e
g
r
e
e

o
f

C
i

service life
HISTORY OF PREDICTION MODELS OF TIME

Copyright 2007 Philippine Engineering Journal Phil. Engg. J. 2007; 28: 29-44
31

When cracking occurs, formation of rust oxide accelerates growing to a sufficient
size affecting the stress-strain property of the steel on the corroding site and the near
vicinity (HETEK, 1997a). Based on corrosion theories, when only 8% of the approximate
area has corroded, the steel can no longer be treated as linear-elastic, ideal plastic
material.
Progressing corrosion will continue to consume the affected steel area reducing the
area of the steel section until it reaches a critical level where it may no longer be able to
resist loads as required by design. This may cause the structure or a structural member to
act in ductile manner since the steel strength capacity has been significantly reduced. It
may even be more threatening if the affected area is a critical section of a structural
member.
Inspection of reinforced concrete structures in marine environment is important. The
use of NDT techniques in combination with coring may enable one to detect the early
onset of corrosion where appropriate steps may be taken to slow down the corrosion
process. Such inspection procedures, however, are quite costly as they require experts to
conduct the tests and interpret the results.
To wait for the appearance of visible signs of corrosion in a structure such as rust
stains and/or cracks before repair will be conducted is not cost effective. The presence of
such visible signs is indicative of an advanced stage of corrosion which may require a
thorough investigation of the entire structure in order to properly assess the type of repair
or rehabilitation needed for the corroded structure.
The use of prediction models, specifically, the time to initiate corrosion can provide
useful information regarding the early onset of corrosion which allows one to
appropriately schedule the required maintenance.

2. PREDICTION MODELS

2.1 Ficks 2
nd
Law of Diffusion
Most of the existing mathematical models on the diffusion of chloride into concrete that
predict chloride concentration as functions of time and depth, and time to initiate
corrosion are based on Ficks 2nd law of diffusion. The differential equation is expressed
as
2
2
*
x
C
D
t
C
c
c
=
c
c
(1)

In this expression, only four parameters are involved, namely, C for chloride
concentration, D for diffusion coefficient, x for depth referred from the concrete surface,
and time t.
Solution to this one-dimensional diffusion problem depends on boundary conditions
and certain simplifying assumptions. Those who first attempted to create a model based
on equation (1), to simplify an inherently difficult problem, assumed that the diffusion
parameter and the surface chloride content C
s
are constants. The following boundary and
initial conditions are specified as:
N.S.QUE


32

2.2 Constant Chloride Diffusivity Case
Many authors came up with the general solution below considering constant diffusivity.
With C
sa
& D treated as constants, Ficks 2nd law described by (1) leads to the following
solution:
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
a ex
i sa i
D t t
x
erfc C C C t x C
) ( 4
) ( ) , (
(2a)

where:
C (x,t) = chloride concentration at any time t and depth x
C
i
= initial chloride concentration (constant thru depth).
C
sa
= chloride concentration at concrete surface (constant)
D
a
= apparent diffusion coefficient (constant)
x = depth referred from surface
t = time of inspection / time in consideration
If the initial surface chloride concentration is zero, then Equation (2a) can be rewritten as:

(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Dt
x
erf C t x C
s
2
1 ) , ( (2b)

(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Dt
x
erfc C t x C
s
2
) , ( (2c)

Equation (2b) (Zhang, J.Y. and Lounis, Z., 2006) is famously known as the error function
solution and is widely referred to by journals and books. Equation (2c) is just another
form of equation (2b) using the error-function complement.
From this solution, considering constant diffusivity, the depth of chloride ingress and
time to initiate corrosion can be evaluated or derived. Authors who have proposed
prediction models of this case are Collepardi, et. al. (1972), Tuutti (1982), Browne
(1980), and Poulsen (1990).
It had been shown, however, that models based on the assumption that chloride
diffusivity is constant had exhibited gross errors. Experts found that this concepts
applicability is limited to old structures and concrete samples with very long exposure
time. This is due to the fact that at significantly longer chloride exposure, concretes
chloride diffusivity exhibits a constant behavior.

2.3 Time-Dependent Chloride Diffusivity
Laboratory tests & field experiments had established that chloride ingress into concrete is
time dependent. Diffusion of chloride into concrete decreases with time and this behavior
can be mathematically captured using a power function equation. Since the amount of

33
chloride at any depth x of the structure depends on the diffusion rate, the concentration of
chloride also varies with time. It was found out that chloride concentration increases with
the increased exposure of a reinforced concrete member to a chloride-rich environment.
In light of the observations from laboratory tests and field experiments, a more realistic
model to predict chloride ingress into concrete was formulated which takes into account
the time dependence of chloride diffusivity.

Poulsen (1993) derived an expression for a time-dependent diffusion coefficient (D
a
) as,
t t d D
t
D
t
a
}
=
0
) (
1
(3)

It should be noted the D
a
is not the true diffusion coefficient.

Through the years, researchers had come to formulate varying expressions for the
apparent diffusion coefficient. A power function for D
a
, however, became widely used
and expressed generically as:
a
o
o a
t
t
D D
|
|
.
|
\
|
= (4)

Where D
o
is the diffusion coefficient at time t
o
and a is an aging factor.

Mangat and Molloy (1994) proposed an expression in the form of equation (4) given by:

m
a
t D D

=
1
(5)

where D
a
is the diffusion coefficient after exposure time t, D
1
is the diffusion coefficient
at one year, if t is expressed in year, and m is a material constant. The material constant m
may be estimated as a function of the the water-cement ratio as:

6 . 0 5 . 2 c w (6)

Takewaka and Mastumoto (1988) and Maage, et. al. (1993) used a variation of the
equation presented in (4) to model to the time dependence of the diffusion coefficient
expressed as:
o
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
ex
aex a
t
t
D D
(7)

where D
aex
is the apparent diffusion coefficient at the time of first exposure, t
ex
is the time
of first exposure and is an aging factor. For ordinary concrete with 0.25 w/c < 0.60,
one may use Poulsens (HETEK, 1997b) proposed expression for given by:
N.S.QUE


34
( )
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
5 . 2
2
/
1 . 0
exp 1 . 0
19 . 0
/
exp
c w
c w
o
(8)

The time dependency of chloride diffusion coefficient is considered to be the effect of
a complex physical phenomenon during chloride ingress and the varying intensity of
chloride exposure environment (HETEK, 1996; HETEK, 1997b).
It is not only the diffusion coefficient that varies with time. Surface chloride
concentration is also claimed to vary with time. Uji et al. (1990), among other researchers
suggested that the surface chloride concentration should be proportional to the square
root of time expressed as:

5 . 0
1
) ( t S t C
sa
=
(9)
where:

S
1
= surface chloride concentration after year 1 of exposure
t = time of exposure (years)

To satisfy the boundary conditions, equation (9) was re-written as:

i sa
C C =
for 0 s t s t
ex
(10)
ex in i
t t S C + =
1

for t > t
ex

where:

C
i
= equally distributed initial concentration of chloride
t
ex
= time of exposure
t
in
= time of inspection

It was highlighted in HETEK (1996) and HETEK (1997b) that in cases where C
sa
is a
function of time, the error function erf is not the solution of Ficks 2
nd
law. However, the
error function is still widely used in practice to find C
sa
& D
a
from chloride profiles using
regression analysis.
For special cases, a solution for Ficks 2
nd
law with chloride diffusivity as a function
of time was presented in HETEK (1996). A solution was presented given that D
ao
is
constant, D
a
is a function of time, and the chloride concentration, C(x,t) is of the form

p
sa
t S t C
1
) ( = (11)

) ( ) , (
1
z t S t x C
p
p
+ = (12)

ao
tD
x
z
4
=
(13)


35

For p = 0, Equation (11) reduces to the basic and well-known error function solution,
equation (2b). In general, with C
sa
obeying the form of equation (9), Equation (11) can be
expressed as:

) ( ) (exp( ) , (
2
1
z erfc z z t t S C t x C
ex i
t + = (14)

The Mejlbro function,
p
, is defined as:
=
+
+
+ I
+ I
= +
0 0
1 2 2
)! 1 2 (
) 2 ( ) 5 . 0 (
) 5 . 0 (
) 1 (
)! 2 (
) 2 (
) (
n n
n n n n
p
n
z p
p
p
n
z p
z
(15)

A number of models for the prediction of time to initiate corrosion is summarized in
Table 1. Time dependent diffusivity models are discussed in the following section.

3. TIME DEPENDENT DIFFUSIVITY MODELS TO PREDICT THE TIME-TO-
INITIATE CORROSION

3.1 Anacta Model
Anacta (2009) proposed a model that computes for time-to-initiate corrosion. The model
takes into account environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall and humidity. It
also takes into account the influence of duration of exposure.
A model to compute for depth of chloride ingress was also formulated which was
utilized in computing for the time-to-initiate corrosion. The expression to compute for the
depth of chloride ingress model is:

t D S x
c c
2 =
(16)

N.S.QUE


36

Table 1. Time-to-initiate corrosion prediction models
Model Equation Basis Remarks
A.ConstantDiffusivityModels
Bazant
(1979)
2
0
1
2
1
4
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
C
C
erf
D
x
t
cr
c
c
ic
Ficks 2nd
law
Oneofthefirstmodel
created.
Yamamoto
(1995)
( )
2
0
1
/ 1 2
1
(
C C erf
x
D
t
cr
c
c
ic

Ficks 2nd
law
Clear
(1976)
( ) | |
42 . 0
22 . 1
/
129
s
c
ic
C c w
x
t
= Empirical
B.TimeDependentDiffusivityModels
Anacta
(2009)
2
2
(
=
S
x
D
f
t
c
c
s
ic

Ficks 2nd
law
Considerslocalenviand
matlimpact.
Poulsen
Mejlbro
(2006)
o
o
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
2
1
2
) (
1
5 . 0
cr p
aex ex
c
ex ic
y inv
D t
x
t t

Ficks 2nd
law
Hetek.
TangNilsson
(1992)
) (
) (
) (
,
1 ,
,
diff Q
total Q
total Q
j i
j i
j i
A
+
=

Numerical ClinConc/submerged

is a shape factor for depth of chloride ingress and is an exponential constant obtained
from curve fitting. The chloride diffusion coefficient, which is function of material and
environmental parameters is given as:

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
4 3 2 1 ,
R f RH f T f t f D D
rmt c c
=
(18)
where D
c,rmt
is the reference chloride diffusion coefficient taken from the rapid migration
test. The different factors f
i
are defined as follows:

37

n
ref
t
t
k t f
|
|
.
|
\
|
= ) (
1
(19)

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
T T G
E
T f
ref
1 1
exp ) (
2
(20)

(
(
+ =
4
4
3
) 1 (
) 1 (
1 ) (
ref
RH
RH
RH f (21)

5 . 1
4
5000
1 ) ( |
.
|
\
|
=
R
R f (22)

where f
1
(t), f
2
(t), f
3
(t), and f
4
(t) are factors representing the influence of duration of
exposure, influence of temperature, influence of relative humidity, and influence of
rainfall, respectively.
To determine the time at which chloride ions will reach the depth of the reinforcing
bars, equation (16) is used where the depth of chloride ingress is set equal to the concrete
cover depth. The computed time, t, will be used to calculate the shape factor (S) and the
diffusion coefficient (D
c
) which is one of the parameters in computing for the time-to-
initiate corrosion.
2
2
(
=
S
x
D
f
t
c
c
s
ic
(23)
ref ic s
t f
,
316 . 0 = (24)
where:
t
ic
= time to initiate corrosion (years)
t
ic, ref
= reference time-to-initiate corrosion derived from laboratory experiments (days)
x
c
= concrete cover thickness (mm)
f
s
= reinforcement factor
= curve-fitting parameter due to effect of corrosion

The advantage of using Anactas prediction model is the applicability of local data
available for validation purposes which considers the influence of local environmental
factors and materials.
The influences of local materials were indirectly considered in some of the
parameters included in the model. The parameter o, which is used in computing for the
shape factor S, is derived by curve-fitting the chloride ingress v.s. time curve. The
chloride ingress v.s. time curve has been performed on materials of varying w/c ratio &
fly ash content. Other parameters like k & n, used in calculating f
1
(age factor), were
determined by curve fitting, thus, it reflects the influence of local materials on chloride
ingress into concrete indirectly.

N.S.QUE


38
The procedure in predicting the time to initiate corrosion using this model basically
involves 3 steps:
(1) Equate equation (16) to a given concrete cover depth, x
c
, and solve for t,
(2) The computed t will then be used to calculate for the shape factor, S, and diffusion
coefficient using equations (17) & (18), respectively,
(3) Once D
c
is known, the time to initiate corrosion can then be computed using equation
(23)

To be able to use this model, one must have the data for the following:
(1) Rapid migration test (reference diffusion coefficient is obtained from this),
(2) Plot of chloride ingress v.s. time (for determination of values of o), and
(3) Environmental Data (rainfall & relative humidity can be taken from PAG-ASA)

However, this model has been limited to marine concrete or concrete samples
exposed under the tidal zone environment. Study has yet to be done if the same model
can be applied for marine concrete & concrete samples exposed under different exposure
conditions. This could be a topic of research for future development of the model.
Since the Anacta model to predict the time-to-initiate corrosion is dependent on
material and environmental factors, massive verification studies have to be carried out
using both laboratory and field tests to validate the model. The prediction equations, due
to the presence of curve fitting parameters such as , k, and n are not expected to change
in form as more tests will be conducted for validation.
3.2 Mejlbro-Poulsen (Hetek) Model

Mejlbro-Poulsen model is based on the assumption that the flow of chloride into concrete
is proportional to the gradient of chloride concentration in the concrete, or basically the
Ficks law. Its applicability assumes that the following conditions are met:
- D
a
(apparent diffusion coefficient) is time-dependent
- C
sa
(chloride concentration of the exposed surface) is time-dependent
- C
i
initial chloride concentration is constant (independent of time & distance from
surface)

The apparent diffusion coefficient considered for this model is assumed to have taken the
form of a power function (7):

o
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
t
D t D
ex
aex a
) (
Mejlbro has mathematically derived that the surface chloride concentration takes the
following form:

( ) | |
p
a ex i sa
t D t t S C C ) ( * ) + = (25)
With these two relationships, and the assumptions mentioned above, Mejlbro and Poulsen
came up with the following prediction of chloride concentration at any time t and at any
depth from the surface of concrete, expressed as:
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
) ( 4
* ) ( ) , (
t D t t
x
C C C t x C
a ex
p i sa i
(26)

39
where:
C(x,t) = chloride concentration at any depth and time
C
i
= initial chloride concentration
C
sa
= achieved surface chloride concentration
D
a
(t) = achieved diffusion coefficient (function of time)
t
ex
= time of first exposure to chlorides
t = time of inspection
+
p
= Mejlbro function, as described by equation (15)

Vast studies conducted by Hetek Group enabled them to come up with tables and
factors to determine the decisive parameters used in the prediction model. These include
the parameters D
aex
, o, S
p
, p which are expressed in terms of diffusion coefficient at year
1 & year 100, and chloride concentrations at year 1 & year 100.

The procedure in using the Mejlbro-Poulsens model (Hetek, 1997b) involves:
(1) The determination of year 1 & year 100 diffusion coefficients and chloride
concentrations
(2) D
1
& D
100
parameters are then used to solve for the decisive parameters
(3) Once the decisive parameters are known, D
a
& C
sa
can be determined
(4) D
a
& C
sa
will then be substituted to equation (26) to predict chloride concentration at
any time & depth
To predict the time to initiate corrosion, when the decisive parameters are known,
equation (26) has to be re-written as follows;

) (
5 . 0
) , (
2
z
D t
x
S C t x C
p
p
aex ex
p i
A
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = (27)
) ( ) , (
2
z z S C t x C
p
p
p i
A + = (28)

where:

p
p
p
z
z
z
2
) (
) (
+
= A (29)
aex ex
D t
x
z
=
t
5 . 0
(30)

Equating x = x
c
(i.e. making the depth equal to the cover depth), the initiation time can
then be solved by the following steps:
) (
5 . 0
2
cr p
p
aex ex
c
p i cr
z
D t
x
S C C A
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = (31)
N.S.QUE


40
aex ex cr
cr
D t
c
z
=
t
5 . 0
(32)

o o o
t

|
|
.
|
\
|
~
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1 1
ex
cr
cr
ex
ex
cr
cr
t
t
t
t
t
t
(33)
) (
cr p cr
y inv z A = (34)
p
aex ex
p
i r
cr
c
D t
S
C C
y
2
5 . 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
= (35)
o
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
=
1
2
) (
5 . 0
cr p aex ex
ex ic
y inv D t
c
t t (36)

Equation (36) is the time to initiate corrosion equation and is measured from the time
of mixing. Note that the above derivation has been shown in Hetek Report No. 83 (Hetek,
1997b).
The highlight of Hetek Model is its applicability for three different exposure types,
namely, submerged, splash & atmospheric. Calculation of time-to-initiate corrosion can
also be performed using a diagram method Hetek (1996) since tables and graphs obtained
from studies are available. However, these tables, graphs, and even, the tabulated
efficiency factors (used in computing for D
1
& D
100
parameters) were localized and
highly dependent on the experiment performed by Hetek. Its application here in the
Philippines has yet to be verified.

3.3 Tang/ ClinConc Model
This corrosion prediction model has been developed by Tang (1996, 2007, 2008) utilizing
the concept of finite-difference numerical method. Among the highlights of this
prediction model is its use of experimental data as input thus, limiting the reliance of
prediction to various curve-fitting procedures employed by other models.
However, the model is hampered by its limitation to be applicable only for structures
exposed to chloride under submerged setting (it models only the pure diffusion of
chloride transport into concrete).

Basically, the prediction equation is expressed as:

) ( ) ( ) (
, 1 , ,
diff Q total Q total Q
j i j i j i
A + =

(37)


41
j
j i j i j i
j i
j i j i
t
x
c c c
D
diff A diff Q
A
(
A
+
= A
+
2
1 , 1 1 , 1 , 1
,
, ,
2
* ) ( ) (
(38)
= =
air n capillary
W
m
diff A c
c 75 . 0 1 ) ( (39)
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (@ ) (
, i j j D o o j i
x f t g T f T D Cl D = (40)

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
c
gel
b o CTH o o
W
K T D T D 1 ) (@ ) (@ (41)
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
T T R
E
o o
o
D
o
D
e
T D
D
T f
1 1
) (@
) ( (42)
t
t
t
t g
o
|
|
.
|
\
|
= ) ( if t<t
o
(43)
1 = if t>t
o

( )
x
s
x
x
x f
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = 1 ) ( if x<x
s
(44)
1 = if x>x
s

As we can see from above set of expressions, the required parameters for equations
(37) and (38) are all given and can be obtained mathematically (or experimentally). Only
the expressions for c
i,j
are not provided. Similar to other finite difference calculations,
this has to be computed progressively with the initial values obtained from initial &
boundary conditions.
The computed total chloride concentration above based on ClinConc model can also
be decomposed into free and bound chlorides part. Tang & Nilsson (1992) utilized
the concept of mass-balance equation to decompose total chlorides into parts.
4. CONCLUSION
As we can see from above set of expressions, the required parameters for equations (37)
and (38) are all given and can be obtained mathematically (or experimentally). Only the
expressions for c
i,j
are not provided. Similar to other finite difference calculations, this
has to be computed progressively with the initial values obtained from initial & boundary
conditions.
N.S.QUE


42
The computed total chloride concentration above based on ClinConc model can also
be decomposed into free and bound chlorides part. Tang & Nilsson (1992) utilized
the concept of mass-balance equation to decompose total chlorides into parts.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author would like to acknowledge the Engineering Research and Development for
Technology - Department of Science and Technology (ERDT-DOST) for funding the
research under the Environment and Infrastructure Track of the ERDT program. He
would also like to acknowledge his research assistants, namely, Mr. Richard de Jesus and
Mr. Rogers Perdiguerra.

APPENDIX
Definition of Terms
= exponential constant determined from curve-fitting
C(x,t) = chloride concentration at any depth and time
C
cr
= critical chloride concentration (chloride threshold value)
C
i
= initial chloride concentration (assumed to be equally distributed thru depth)
C
o
= initial chloride concentration
C
s
= surface chloride concentration
C
sa
= achieved surface chloride concentration
D
a
(t) = achieved diffusion coefficient (function of time)
D
aex
= apparent diffusion coefficient at time of 1
st
exposure to chlorides
D
c
= diffusion coefficient
D
c,rmt
= reference cl diffusion coefficient (from migration test)
D
i
= effective diffusion coefficient at t = 1 sec
E = activation energy of cl diffusion process (kJ/mol) (~10 to 50 kJ/mol)
= curve-fitting parameter due to effect of corrosion
f
s
= corrosion factor / reinforcement factor
G = universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol K)
m = material constant, equal to 2.5 w/c 0.6 (Mangat)
n = empirical exponent depending on matl properties (from curve-fitting)
p = Mejlbro factor (p
0
= 1, p
1
= p, p
2
= p x (p-1),.., p
n
= p (p-1) .. (p-n+1))
= 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0,
Q
i,j
= Chloride concentration at point i, j-1 (Tang & Nilsson)
Q
i,j-1
= Chloride concentration at point i, j (Tang & Nilsson)
Q
i,j
= increase in Chloride concentration (Tang & Nilsson)
R = rainfall intensity (mm)
RH = actual relative humidity in concrete (%)
RH
ref
= reference relative humidity in concrete (%)
S = shape factor
S
1
= surface chloride concentration after year 1 of exposure
t = duration of exposure (years)
t
ic
= time to initiate corrosion
t
ic, ref
= reference time-to-initiate corrosion derived from lab expt (days)
t
ex
= time of 1
st
exposure to chloride
t
ref
= time when D
ref
was computed (28days)
T = actual absolute temperature in concrete (K)
T
ref
= reference temperature at which D
c,rmt
is determined (296K)
w/c = water to cement ratio

43
x
c
= concrete cover thickness
x
c
= depth of chloride penetration (mm)
+
p
= Mejlbro function, as described by Equation (12)
REFERENCES

1. Anacta, E. (2009), Modelling the Depth of Chloride Ingress and Time-to-Initiate
Corrosion of RC exposed to Marine Environment, Ph.D. Dissertation, Institute of
Civil Engineering, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City.
1. Bazant, Z.P. (1979). Physica model for steel corrosion in sea structures theory,
Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 105, pp. 1137-1153.
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design, inspection, and repair of offshore and coastal structures, Proceedings of the
International Conference on Performance of Concrete in Marine Environment, ACI
SP-65, pp. 169-203.
3. Clear, K.C. (1976). Time-to-corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete slabs,
FHWA-RD-76-70, Washington, DC.
4. Collepordi, M., Marcialis, A. and Tuniziani, R. (1972). Penetration of chloride ions
into cement pastes and concretes, Journal of American Ceramic Society, Vol. 55, pp.
534-535.
5. Hetek (1996), Chloride Penetration into Concrete, State of the Art, Report No. 53,
Road Directorate, Denmark.
6. Hetek (1997a). Chloride Penetration into Concrete Manual. Report No. 123, Road
Directorate, Denmark.
7. Hetek (1997b). A system for Estimation of Chloride Ingress into Concrete
Theoretical Background Report no. 83, Road Directorate, Denmark.
8. Keller, W. J. (2004). Effect of Environmental Conditions and Structural Design on
Linear Cracking in Virginia Bridge Decks, MS Thesis, Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
9. Maage, M., Helland, S. and Carlsen, J.E. (1993). Chloride penetration in high
performance concrete exposed to marine environment, in: Symposium on
Utilization of High Strength Concrete, Lillehammer, Norway, p. 838.
10. Mangat, P.S., and Molloy, B.T. (1994). Predicting of long term chloride concentration
in concrete, Materials and Structures, Vol. 27, pp. 338-346.
11. Poulsen, E. (1990). The chloride diffusion characteristics of concrete: approximate
determination by linear regression analysis, Nordic Concrete Research No. 1, Nordic
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12. Poulsen, E. (1993). On a model of chloride ingress into concrete having time-
dependent diffusion coefficient, in: Chloride Penetration into Concrete Structure,
Nordic Miniseminar, Sweden, pp. 298-309.
13. Poulsen, E., and Mejlbro, L. (2006). Diffusion of chloride in concrete theory and
application, Taylor and Francis, New York, New York.
14. Takewaka, K. and Mastumoto, S. (1988). Quality and cover thickness of concrete
based on the estimation of chloride penetration in marine environments, in: Second
International Conference on Concrete in Marine Environment, ACI SP 109, pp. 381-
400.
15. Tang, L. (1996). Chloride transport in concrete-measurement and prediction, Ph.D.
Thesis, Department of Building Materials, Chalmes University of Technology,
Gothenburg, Sweden.
16. Tang, L. (2008). Engineering expression of the ClinConc model for prediction of free
N.S.QUE


44
and total chloride ingress in submerged marine concrete, Cement and Concrete
Research 2008, Vol. 38, pp. 1092-1097.
17. Tang L, Gulikers J. (2007), On the Mathematics of Time-Dependent Achieve
Diffusion Coefficient in Concrete, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 37, pp. 589-
595.
18. Tang, L.P., and Nilsson, L.O. (1992). Rapid determination of chloride diffusivity in
concrete by applying an electrical field, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 89(1), pp. 49-53.
19. Tuutti, K. (1980). Service life of structures with regard to corrosion of embedded
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Insight Vol 51 No 3 March 2009 151

GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

Received: November 13, 2009

HISTORY OF PREDICTION MODELS OF TIME

3.2 Mejlbro-Poulsen (Hetek) Model

Basically, the prediction equation is expressed as:

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