1.

Equivalence in translation
Formal equivalence 'focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content'(aims to allow the reader to understand as much of the SL context as possible), unlike dynamic equivalence which is based upon 'the principle of equivalent effect'

linguistic- if there is homogeneity on the linguistic level (e.g. word-for-word TR); when the translator starts analyzing the ST s/he looks at the words as single units in order to find a direct 'equivalent' term in the TL paradigmatic(grammatical)- grammatical rules may vary across languages and this may pose some problems in terms of finding a direct correspondence in the TL(problems may appear with number, tense and aspects, voice, person and gender.) stylistic(pragmatic)- The role of the translator is to recreate the author's intention in another culture in such a way that enables the TC reader to understand it clearly. textual (syntagmatic)- The translator will be guided by three main factors, that is, the target
audience, the purpose of the translation and the text type.

2. Unit of translation
the unit of translation is a minimal source language unit which has a TL correspondence. This fact means that UT may be represented by a unit of any language level: morpheme word word combination sentence the entire text

Recommendations in identifying TU: while identifying the status and parameters of the UT we should segment the text into longer and shorter fragments or a segment equaling to the text itself. The most important criteria reside in the contextual independence: the more contextually independent the word is the higher the probability that this is a minimal segment. However, if the word has more or less features that depend on a smaller or larger context, then the t-or should make up an intertextual unit including all or, at least, the most important components of the entire chain. if the word depends on the near or narrow context, then the TU is represented by a word combination or a simple sentence which comprises the given word. if a word depends on a number of textual components, including the extratextual ones, then the TU is represented by the complex sentence. if a word depends on a multitude of textual components, including the extratextual ones, then the UT is represented by the Text. if a word depends on extratextual conditions, then the t-or should

3. Role of context. Translating context free words and context bound words. The most essential role played by the context is decoding the polysemy of linguistic units. It cancels all the meanings of one unit, except one. Thus, context gives a certain language unit the monosemantic character and allows selecting one out of a number of existing equivalents of a given unit. The general notion of the context includes: Narrow context (micro-context): the context of the sentence (Syntactical context- a syntactical construction where a given word, word combination or subordinate clauses

are used; Lexical context- a totality of concrete lexical units, words, and set expressions among which the given unit is encountered.) Broad context (macro-context): the language environment of the given unit exceeding the limits of the sentence; this is the textual context

Context-free words are mainly found among proper and geographical names, titles of magazines and newspapers, names of various firms, organizations, ships, aircraft and the like, as well as among technical terms used by experts in all fields of human endeavor.
Context bound words. Most of the words are polysemantic, that is, they have several meanings. As a rule, the word is used in the sentence in one of its meanings and the context must show what meaning has been selected by the speaker and cut off all other meanings irrelevant for the particular act of communication.

4. Types of realia. Translating realia Realia are words and expressions for culture-specific material things. Types and examples of realia Geography

physical geography: tornado, tsunami geographic objects tied to mans activity: polder endemic species: kiwi, koala

Ethnography

everyday life: paprika, spaghetti, sombrero, jeans work: carabinieri, concierge art and culture: geisha, ramadan, Santa Claus ethnic characterizations: cockney, Fritz, yankee measures and money: mile, kilometer, hectare

Politics and society

administrative divisions: region, department, state, county organs and functions: forum, senate, chancellor, tzar, pharaoh political and social life: Ku Klux Klan, lord, bolshevik, samurai, union jack military realia: AK-47, katyusha, cuirassier

Strategies for rendering realia

1. Transcription is transmission of sounds of a foreign language (usually proper name, geographic name, scientific term) using the letters of the alphabet of the receiving culture. 2. Transliterarion is on the other hand transmission of letters of a foreign word using the letters of the alphabet of the receiving culture. 3. Calque or loan translation refers to the rendering of each element of the source-text word or phrase into the target language literally. The term calque is essentially used with new formations that enter a language as direct translation. According to Pedersen, this strategy or what he terms as direct translation could hardly be used on proper names, but it is not uncommon for rendering the names of companies, official institutions, technical gadgetry etc. 4. Half-calques: German Dritte Reich is in Russian tretij rejh, in English Third Reich, in Romanian al Treilea Reich. 5. Appropriation, i.e. of adaptation of foreign realia: a word in the receiving language is created that, however, fundamentally is worn over the frame - even from a phonemic point of view - of the original word. 6. Cultural Adaptation

Cultural adaptation refers to the replacing of the unfamiliar with familiar. This strategy can be used for, for instance, existing proper names of places and persons. R. Leppihalme This strategy means transferring the connotations and association of the realia element by using target-cultural functional equivalents, thus choosing domestication over foreignisation Cultural adaptation goes beyond language translation. The translation process is aimed at ensuring that the words and phrases in both language versions have similar connotative and denotative meanings (semantic equivalence). Lassi- popular and traditional yogurt-based drink of the Indian subcontinent.

8. Approximate translation of realia that, according to Vlahov and Florin, is the most popular. This approach allows to translate the material content of an expression at least in a vague way, but the color is nearly always lost, because instead of the connotation prescribed by the author's strategy, we have an expression necessarily deprived of that intended connotation, having a neutral style. Within such approach there are some subtypes: 8.1. Substitution with a generic expression of broader meaning is resorting to the noted translation principle of generalization. The approach is indicated whenever the translator arbitrarily decides not to translate the local color, knowing that in this way he can give an idea of the objective, material reference. 8.2. Substitution with a functional analogue. The definition of this strategy is very poor, because it merely says that the substituted element arouses a similar reaction in the receiving culture reader to the one aroused by the prototext on the source culture reader. Speaking of aroused reactions is very dangerous, because there is neither objective confirmation nor the possibility of distinguishing the reactions of one reader from those of another, there is a supposition on a sort of standard reader. 8.3. Description, explanation and interpretation of the realia elements instead of realia, a periphrasis is introduced explicitating the denotative content.

Explicitation as the technique of making information that is implicit in the source text explicit in the target text. Explicitation is, in fact not one kind of operation, but a broader concept (Klaudy). 8.4 Contextual translation of the realia. Realia elements are substituted with words that, in the context and co-text in which they are placed in the original, explain the sense of such a collocation. Instead of translating the lexical meaning, the systemic, relational meaning is translated, that would be, naturally, vane to search for in the dictionary. This option is followed when the translator thinks that the context is the dominating factor in a given message. The example reported by Vlahov and Florin is the Russian sentence 9. Deletion---the meaning of the source cultural term is too obscure and the translator does not know it. 10. Addition - to distinguish the gloss by marking it as such (footnote, endnote, glossary, commentary): 5. Pragmatic aspect in translation The pragmatic implications of a word are an important part of its meaning that produces a certain effect upon the Receptor. Of even greater significance is the pragmatic aspect of speech units. Every act of speech communication is meant for a certain Receptor, it is aimed at producing a certain effect upon him. In this respect any communication is an exercise in pragmatics. The ability to identify references to participants and entities is essential for drawing conclusions and maintaining the coherence of a text. A proper name or even a reference to a type of food or device which is unknown to the reader can disrupt the continuity of the text and obscure the relevance of any statement associated with it. This type of translation is called translation by cultural substitution. In other contexts the rendering of the pragmatic potential of the ST can be done by omitting certain structures which are unknown to the TT reader. Besides, pragmatic strategies can require generalisation. 6. Translation of false friends There are words in the source and target languages which are more or less similar in form. Nowadays international words became fundamental, indispensable and essential for all kinds of activity. Analyzing the international words from the point of view of their translation from English into Romanian one can distinguish the international words with complete coincidence of meanings in English and Romanian(malaria malaria, biology biologie, molecule molecula). Some terms of international circulation exclude each other in the process of bilingual communication. Such terms sometimes are translators false friends(actual 1) real, authentic 2)
efectiv. camera Rom. 1) aparat de fotografiat; 2) (constr.) camera; character rom. 1) caracter, 2) reputaie, 3) recomandare scris)

7. Translation of phraseological units Phraseological units are figurative set expressions often described as "idioms". They produce a considerable expressive effect for, besides conveying information, they appeal to the reader's emotions, his aesthetic perception, his literary and cultural associations. First, an idiom can be mistaken for a free word combination. Unlike free word combinations the meaning of which consists of the meanings of their elements, phraseological units are

combinations whose elements are so closely united from the semantic point of view, that the meaning of the whole does not depend on the meanings of their separate elements. Phraseological units and word combinations are similar in a way and this similarity may be full or partial. A partial similarity implies the use of one and the same word as a component not only of a word combination, but also of a phraseological unit. (A white house, face ; white lie
minciun spus n slujba unui scop nobil ) A full similarity implies that the word combination is used either as a free one or as a phraseological unit( To see the light- a vedea lumina / to see the light-a se nate; A hard case-caz dificil / a hard caseincorigibil) According to the ways of translating phraseological units into Romanian they may be devided into four groups: 1. full equivalent.( To lose ones head---a-i pierde capul; to play with fire a se juca cu focul) 2. partial equivalent.( To eat like a horse---a mnca ct apte; To lose face---a-i pierde prestigiul) 3. phraseological analogue- Phraseological units similar in sense with the English phraseological unit but translated by a different image into Romanian (To throw to the wolves---a gsi un ap ispitor ) 4. Phraseological units translated by a neuter vocabulary(To take a knock a suferi o nfrngere, To have a thin skin a fi sensibil) 5. Antonymic translation, i.e. when negative meaning in the English proverb is conveyed by a positive one in Romanian(Dont count your chickens before they are hatched / Toamna se numr bobocii.) 6. Translation through Explanation (proverbs)- The method consists in the fact that the translator should explain the meaning of the proverb which cannot be translated word-forword or which does not have any equivalent in the target language

8. Comparative stylistics
strategies for translating metaphors:

1. Reproducing the same image in the TL (ray of hope o raz de speran) 2. Replacing the image in the SL with standard TL image (a strategy used to translate proverbs( to have other fish to fry a avea alte treburi) 3. using a simile(the budget is thin-este la fel de srac ca un oarece de biseric) 4. using a simile plus sense(He is a high flier- o persoan cu ambiii nalte aa cum un aviator
vrea s ajung ct mai sus;)

5. Converting the metaphor to sense(To stop the bleeding a opri declinul, criza) 6. modifying the metaphor( The engine started quickly, to my relief, but loudly, roaring
to life / Spre uurarea mea motorul a pornit repede, cu un zgomot nfiortor -transposition)

7. omitting the metaphor in the translation.

9. Grammar aspect in translation

It is obvious that every word in the text is used in a particular form and all the words are arranged in sentences in a particular syntactic order. Sometimes, there can occur difficulties in translating passive voice or perfect tenses. 1. Transposition-The most common case of Transposition is the change of word order in the sentence structure.

The change of word order in the structure of Simple Sentence. The change of structural elements in the Composite Sentence. The change of sentence order in the text. 2. Substitution- Substitution is the most frequent and diverse kind of transformation. There are
two kinds of grammatical substitutions: Morphological Substitution and Syntactical Substitution. Morphological Substitution. It is subdivided into:

Part of Speech Substitution which means that one part of speech in ST, is substituted for another one in TT The Substitution of Grammatical meaning for Lexical one-aim of emphasizing

There are four types of the Syntactical Substitution:

The Composite Sentence is substituted by a Simple one Principal Clause is substituted by a Subordinate one or vice versa Subordination Coordination substitution, because Subordination is characteristic of mostly formal style, whereas Coordination dominates in colloquial one. Clauses bound syndetically are substituted by Asyndetic Construction. (Now dont talk while I think./Acum taceti-eu ma voi gandi)

10. Attributive groups in translation

There is a dissimilarity in the semantic structure of attributive groups in English and in Romanian. Translation problems: 1st group - broader semantic relationships between the attribute and the noun. Attribute may refer not only to some property of the object but also to its location, purpose, cause, etc. The translator has to make a thorough analysis of the context to find out what the meaning of the group is in each particular case. 2nd group - difficulties in handling multi-member attributive structures.( Eg. It was the period of the broad western hemisphere and world pre-war united people's front struggle against fascism) Sometimes, translating the meaning of an English attributive group into Romanian may involve a complete restructuring of the sentence.