Vertex

Vertex (curve)

An ellipse (red) and its evolute (blue). The dots are the vertices of the curve, each corresponding to a cusp on the evolute. In the geometry of curves a vertex is a point of where the first derivative of curvature is zero. This is typically a local maximum or minimum of curvature. Other special cases may occur, for instance when the second derivative is also zero, or when the curvature is constant. For a circle which has constant curvature, every point is a vertex. The four-vertex theorem states that every closed curve must have at least four vertices. Vertices are points where the curve has 4-point contact with the osculating circle at that point. The evolute of a curve will have a cusp when the curve has a vertex. The symmetry set has endpoints at the cusps corresponding to the vertices, and the medial axis, a subset of the symmetry set also has its endpoints in the cusps. If a curve is bilaterally symmetric, it will have a vertex at the point or points where the axis of symmetry crosses the curve. Thus, the notion of a vertex for a curve is closely related to that of an optical vertex, the point where an optical axis crosses a lens surface.

Vertex (graph theory)

A graph with 6 vertices and 7 edges where the vertex no 6 on the far-left is a leaf vertex or a pendant vertex. In graph theory, a vertex (plural vertices) or node is the fundamental unit out of which graphs are formed: an undirected graph consists of a set of vertices and a set of edges (unordered pairs of vertices), while a directed graph consists of a set of vertices and a set of arcs (ordered pairs of vertices). From the point of view of graph theory, vertices are treated as featureless and indivisible objects, although they may have additional structure depending on the application from which the graph arises; for instance, a semantic network is a graph in which the vertices represent concepts or classes of objects. The two vertices forming an edge are said to be its endpoints, and the edge is said to be incident to the vertices. A vertex w is said to be adjacent to another vertex v if the graph contains an edge (v,w). The neighborhood of a vertex v is an induced subgraph of the graph, formed by all vertices adjacent to v. The degree of a vertex in a graph is the number of edges incident to it. An isolated vertex is a vertex with degree zero; that is, a vertex that is not an endpoint of any edge. A leaf vertex (also pendant vertex) is a vertex with degree one. In a directed graph, one can distinguish the outdegree (number of outgoing edges) from the indegree (number of incoming edges); a source vertex is a vertex with indegree zero, while a sink vertex is a vertex with outdegree zero. A cut vertex is a vertex the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph; a vertex separator is a collection of vertices the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph into small pieces. A k-vertex-connected graph is a graph in which removing fewer than k vertices always leaves the remaining graph connected. An independent set is a set of vertices no two of which are adjacent, and a vertex cover is a set of vertices that includes the endpoint of each edge in the graph. The vertex space of a graph is a vector space having a set of basis vectors corresponding with the graph's vertices. A graph is vertex-transitive if it has symmetries that map any vertex to any other vertex. In the context of graph enumeration and graph isomorphism it is important to distinguish between labeled vertices and unlabeled vertices. A labeled vertex is a vertex that is associated with extra information that enables it to be distinguished from other labeled vertices; two graphs can be considered isomorphic only if the correspondence between their vertices pairs up vertices with

equal labels. An unlabeled vertex is one that can be substituted for any other vertex based only on its adjacencies in the graph and not based on any additional information. Vertices in graphs are analogous to, but not the same as, vertices of polyhedra: the skeleton of a polyhedron forms a graph, the vertices of which are the vertices of the polyhedron, but polyhedron vertices have additional structure (their geometric location) that is not assumed to be present in graph theory. The vertex figure of a vertex in a polyhedron is analogous to the neighborhood of a vertex in a graph. In a directed graph, the forward star of a node u is defined as its outgoing edges. In a Graph G with the set of vertices V and the set of edges E, the forward star of u can be described as
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Graph

Regardless of the format, the graph of a quadratic function is a parabola (as shown above).

If If

(or is a positive number), the parabola opens upward. (or is a negative number), the parabola opens downward.

The coefficient a controls the speed of increase (or decrease) of the quadratic function from the vertex, bigger positive a makes the function increase faster and the graph appear more closed. The coefficients b and a together control the axis of symmetry of the parabola (also the xcoordinate of the vertex) which is at x = -b/2a. The coefficient b alone is the declivity of the parabola as it crosses the y-axis. The coefficient c controls the height of the parabola, more specifically, it is the point where the parabola crosses the y-axis.
xintercepts

Inspection of the factored form shows that the x-intercepts of the graph are given by the roots of the quadratic function. These are simply the x-coordinates for which the function equals zero.
Vertex

The vertex of a parabola is the place where it turns, hence, it's also called the turning point. If the quadratic function is in vertex form, the vertex is . By the method of completing the square, one can turn the general form

into

so the vertex of the parabola in the general form is

If the quadratic function is in factored form

the average of the two roots, i.e.,

is the x-coordinate of the vertex, and hence the vertex is

The vertex is also the maximum point if The vertical line

or the minimum point if

that passes through the vertex is also the axis of symmetry of the parabola. Each parabola is symmetric about a vertical line called the axis of symmetry. This vertical line goes through the vertex. Think of it as a mirrored image about this vertical line.

The next three graphs illustrate the different aspects of the graph of a quadratic

function or parabola.

The following is the graph of the function

I want you to note a few things about this graph:

First of all, see how the vertex is the lowest point on the graph. It is either going to be the lowest or highest point on the graph of a quadratic function. Second, look at the axis of symmetry. It is not actually part of the graph itself, but is important in that the parabola creates a mirrored image about it. Note how it is symmetric about the axis of symmetry. Also, note how it goes through the vertex. Third, note how there is one y-intercept but no x-intercept. The quadratic function can have no, one or two x-intercepts.

The following is the graph of the

function

I want you to note a few things about this graph:

First of all, see how the vertex is the lowest point on the graph. It is either going to be the lowest or highest point on the graph of a quadratic function. Second, look at the axis of symmetry. It is not actually part of the graph itself, but is important in that the parabola creates a mirrored image about it. Note how it is symmetric about the axis of symmetry. Also, note how it goes through the vertex.

Third, note how there is one y-intercept and one x-intercept. The quadratic function can have no, one or two x-intercepts.

The following is graph of the function :

the

I want you to note a few things about this graph:

First of all, see how the vertex is the highest point on the graph. It is either going to be the lowest or highest point on the graph of a quadratic function. Second, look at the axis of symmetry. It is not actually part of the graph itself, but is important in that the parabola creates a mirrored image about it. Note how it is symmetric about the axis of symmetry. Also, note how it goes through the vertex. Third, note how there is one y-intercept and two x-intercepts. The quadratic function can have no, one or two x-intercepts.

Maximum and minimum points

Using calculus, the vertex point, being a maximum or minimum of the function, can be obtained by finding the roots of the derivative:

giving

with the corresponding function value

so again the vertex point coordinates can be expressed as

The square root of a quadratic function

The square root of a quadratic function gives rise either to an ellipse or to a hyperbola.If then the equation describes a hyperbola. The axis of the hyperbola is determined by the ordinate of the minimum point of the corresponding parabola . If the ordinate is negative, then the hyperbola's axis is horizontal. If the ordinate is positive, then the hyperbola's axis is vertical. If then the equation describes either an ellipse or nothing at all. If the ordinate of the maximum point of the corresponding parabola is positive, then its square root describes an ellipse, but if the ordinate is negative then it describes an empty locus of points.
Example: Find the vertex of the graph of each function and identify it as a minimum or maximum point. a) f(x) = -(x + 2)2 - 1 b) f(x) = -x2 + 2 c) f(x) = 2(x - 3)2

a) f(x) = -(x + 2)2 - 1 = -(x - (-2))2 - 1 a = -1 , h = -2 and k = -1. The vertex is at (-2,-1) and it is a maximum point since a is negative. b) f(x) = -x2 + 2 = -(x - 0)2 + 2 a = -1 , h = 0 and k = 2. The vertex is at (0,2) and it is a maximum point since a is negative. c) f(x) = 2(x - 3)2 = 2(x - 3))2 + 0 a = 2 , h = 3 and k = 0. The vertex is at (3,0) and it is a minimum point since a is positive.

B - x intercepts of the graph of a quadratic function in standard form

The x intercepts of the graph of a quadratic function f given by f(x) = a(x - h)2 + k are the real solutions, if they exist, of the quadratic equation a(x - h)2 + k = 0

a(x - h)2 = -k add -k to both sides (x - h)2 = -k/a divide both sides by a The above equation has real solutions if -k/a is positive or zero. The solutions are given by x1 = h + sqrt(-k/a) x2 = h - sqrt(-k/a) Example: Find the x intercepts for the graph of each function given below a) f(x) = -2(x - 3)2 + 2 b) g(x) = -(x + 2)2 c) h(x) = 4(x - 1)2 + 5 a) To find the x intercepts, we solve -2(x - 3)2 + 2 = 0 -2(x - 3)2 = -2

(x - 3)2 = 1 two real solutions x1 = 3 + sqrt(1) = 4 and x2 = 3 - sqrt(1) = 2 The graph of function in part a) has two x intercepts are at the points (4,0) and (2,0) b) We solve -(x + 2)2 = 0 one repeated real solution x1 = - 2 The graph of function in part b) has one x intercept at (-2,0). c) We solve 4(x - 1)2 + 5 = 0 -k/a = -5/4 is negative. The above equation has no real solutions and the graph of function h has no x intercept.

C - From vertex form to general form with a, b and c.

Rewriting the vertex form of a quadratic function into the general form is carried out by expanding the square in the vertex form and grouping like terms. Example: Rewrite f(x) = -(x - 2) 2 - 4 into general form with coefficients a, b and c. Expand the square if f(x) and group like terms f(x) = -(x - 2) 2 - 4 = -(x 2 -4 x + 4) - 4 = - x2 + 4 x 8

recommendation
In algebraic geometry, the parabola is generalized by the rational normal curves, which have coordinates the standard parabola is the case n = 2, and the case n = 3 is known as the twisted cubic. A further generalization is given by the Veronese variety, when there are more than one input variable. In the theory of quadratic forms, the parabola is the graph of the quadratic form x2 (or other scalings), while the elliptic paraboloid is the graph of the positive-definite quadratic form x2 + y2 (or scalings) and the hyperbolic paraboloid is the graph of the indefinite quadratic form x2 y2. Generalizations to more variables yield further such objects.

Reference
Harary, F. Graph Theory. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1994. Skiena, S. Implementing Discrete Mathematics: Combinatorics and Graph Theory with Mathematica. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1990. Sloane, N. J. A. Sequences A000169/M1946, A055542, A055544, A055545, and A095340 i Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2001). Introduction to Algorithms. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press and McGraw-Hill. pp. 10241027. ISBN 0-262-03293-7.