Math 131 Solution Set 1 Dustin Cartwright February 6, 2003 1.

1 2 Determine which of the following statements are true for all sets A, B, C, and D. If an equality fails, determine whether the statement becomes true if the equals symbol is replaced by one or the other of the inclusion symbols or . (5 points each) (p) (A B) (C D) = (A C B C) A D True. Suppose x (A B) (C D), and x = (a, c), a (A B), c (C D). Then x is also in A C. But it is not in B C, because a / B, and it is not in A D, because c / D, so it is in (A C B C) A D. Conversely, suppose x (A C B C) A D, and x = (a, c), a A, c C. If a is in B, then x is in B C, which is a contradiction. Similarly, if c is in D, then x would be in A D, which is also a contradiction. Thus, a A B and c C D, so x (A B) (C D). (q) (A B) (C D) = (A C) (B D) False. However the inclusion: (A B) (C D) (A C) (B D) holds. Suppose x = (a, b) (A C) (B D). Then a / C, so x / C D. But since x A B, x must be in (A B) (C D). (One example where the full equality does not hold: A = {1} B = {2} C = 0 / D = {2} Then (A B) (C D) = {1 2} 0 / = {(1, 2)} and (A C) (B D) = {1} 0 / = {})

(c) x

AA

A x A for at least one A A

True, because x A for ever A A . This is equivalent to the converse above. The converse is false, because x must be in every A A in order to be in the intersection, not just one. 1.1 7 Given sets A, B, and C, express each of the following sets in terms of A, B, and C, using the symbols , , and . (5 points) D = {x | x A and (x B or x C)} E = {x | (x A and x B) or x C} F = {x | x A and (x B x C)} These can be written as: D = A (B C) E = (A B) C F = (A C) (A B) = A (B C)

1.1 10 Let R denote the set of real numbers. For each of the following subsets of R R, determine whether it is equal to the cartesian product of two subsets of R. (5 points each) (c) {(x, y) | y > x} No. For example, (0, 1) and (3, 4) are both in the set, but (3, 1) is not, so it cannot be the result of a Cartesian product. (d) {(x, y) | x is not an integer and y is an integer} Yes. It is equal to {x R | x is not an integer} {y R | y is an integer}. 1.2 1 Let f : A B. Let A0 A and B0 B. (a) Show that A0 f 1 ( f (A0 )) and that equality holds if f is injective. (5 points) Suppose x A0 . Then f (x) f (A0 ), which means that, by the denition of inverse image, x must be in f 1 ( f (A0 )). Now suppose f is injective. If x f 1 ( f (A0 )), then f (x) f (A0 ), so there must be some y A0 such that f (y) = f (x). But f is injective, so x = y A0 . Therefore, A0 = f 1 ( f (A0 )). 1

1.1 5 Let A be a nonempty collection of sets. Determine the truth of each of the following statements and of their converses. (5 points each) (b) x
AA

A x A for every A A

False. x only has to be in one A A The converse is true.

(b) Show that f ( f 1 (B0 )) B0 and that equality holds if f is surjective. (5 points) If y f ( f 1 (B0 )), then y = f (x) for some x f 1 (B0 ). By denition, then, f (x) B0 , so y = f (x) B0 . Now suppose f is surjective. Then if y B0 , y = f (x) for some x A, by surjectivity. Thus, x f 1 (B0 ), and so y f ( f 1 (B0 )). Therefore, f ( f 1 (B0 )) = B0 . 1.2 5 Given f : A B, we say that a function g : B A is a left inverse for f if g f = iA ; and we say that h : B A is a right inverse for f if f h = iB . (a) Show that if f has a left inverse, f is injective; and if f has a right inverse, f is surjective. (5 points) Suppose f has a left inverse, g, and f (x) = f (y). Then g( f (x)) = g( f (y)), so x = y. Thus f is injective. Suppose f has a right inverse. Then for any y B, let x = g(y) A. Thus, f (x) = f (g(y)) = y, so f is surjective. (b) Give an example of a function that has a left inverse but no right inverse. (2.5 points) Let f : {0} R be dened so that f (0) = 0. Then, g : R {0} is a left inverse, but f has no right inverse, because it is not surjective (by part (a)). (c) Give an example of a function that has a right inverse but no left inverse. (2.5 points) The function g from above has a left inverse, f , but it has no right inverse, because it is not injective (by part (a)). (d) Can a function have more than one left inverse? More than one right inverse? (5 points) Yes and yes. The function f : R R dened by f (x) = ex has the left inverses g : R R and g : R R dened in the following ways: g(x) = g (x) = ln(x) if x > 0 0 if x 0 ln(x) if x > 0 1 if x 0

By part (a), f is surjective, and injective, and thus bijective. Also, g f h = g f h iA h = g iB h = g Thus, g=h= f 1 . 1.3 6 Dene a relation on the plane by setting (x0 , y0 ) < (x1 , y1 )
2 < y x2 , or y x2 = y x2 and if either y0 x0 1 0 1 1 0 1 x0 < x1 . Show that this is an order relation on the plane, and describe it geometrically. (10 points)

Comparability. Suppose (x0 , y0 ) = (x1 , y1 ). By the comparability of real numbers, we have three possibilities: ei2 is less than, greater than, or equal to y x2 . ther y0 x0 1 1 In the rst two cases, (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ) are comparable. In the last case, again, we have three possibilities: x0 < x1 , x1 < x0 , or x0 = x1 . Again, in the rst two cases, (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ) are comparable. In the last case, we case we can substitute x0 = x1 to get
2 2 y0 x0 = y1 x0

y0 = y1 Thus, (x0 , y0 ) = (x1 , y1 ), which contradicts our hypothesis. Nonreexivity. Clearly, both y x2 < y x2 and x < x are always false, so (x, y) is never less than itself. Transitivity. Suppose (x0 , y0 ) < (x1 , y1 ) and (x1 , y1 ) < (x2 , y2 ). If one of these equalities is justied by the rst 2 < y x2 , or y x2 < y x2 , condition, i.e. either y0 x0 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 then y0 x0 < y2 x2 , so (x0 , y0 ) < (x2 , y2 ). On the 2 = y x2 = y x2 , then in orother hand, if y0 x0 1 2 1 2 der for the order relation to hold, x0 < x1 < x2 , so again (x0 , y0 ) < (x2 , y2 ). Each point in the plane lies on exactly one parabola y x2 = a. A point is greater than another point in this system if its parabola is further in the positive y direction. Ties are broken using the x coordinate. Another way to think of this is the ordinary dictionary order after a transformation T (x, y) = (y x2 , x). 1.3 9 Check that the dictionary order is an order relation. (10 points) Suppose A and B are ordered sets, and consider the dictionary ordering on A B. 2

The function g from part (b) has multiple left inverses. In fact any function from {0} to R is a right inverse of g. (e) Show that if f has both a left inverse g and a right inverse h, then f is bijective and g = h = f 1 . (5 points)

Comparability. Suppose (a0 , b0 ) = (a1 , b1 ). Then if a0 < a1 or a1 < a0 , then the two elements are comparable. If not, then a0 must be equal to a1 . But, since (a0 , b0 ) = (a1 , b1 ), b0 cannot equal b1 . Thus, b0 and b1 are comparable, so (a0 , b0 ) and (a1 , b1 ) are comparable. Nonreexivity. Fix any (a, b) A B. Then a is not less than to a, and b is not less than to b, so (a, b) can not be less than itself. Transitivity. Suppose (a0 , b0 ) < (a1 , b1 ) < (a2 , b2 ). Note that a0 a1 a2 . If either a0 < a1 or a1 < a2 , then a0 < a2 , so (a0 , b0 ) < (a2 , b2 ). If not, then a0 = a1 = a2 , so b0 must be less than b1 , which must be less than b2 . Thus, b0 < b2 , so (a0 , b0 ) < (a2 , b2 ). 1.3 13 Prove the following: If an ordered set A has the least upper bound property, then it has the greatest lower bound property. (10 points) Let B be any non-empty subset of A which has a lower bound. Dene C to be the set of all elements in A which are lower bounds for A. Since B has a lower bound, C is non-empty. Since B is non-empty, say it has an element x, then C has an upper bound, namely x. Thus, by hypothesis, C has a least upper bound, call this b. I claim that this is a greatest lower bound for B. If x B such that x < b, the x would have to be an upper bound for C, so b would not be a least upper bound for C, which is a contradiction. Thus b is a lower bound for B. Furthermore, since b is greater than or equal to all elements of C, it is the greatest lower bound. 1.3 15(b) Does [0, 1] [0, 1] in the dictionary order have the least upper bound property? What about [0, 1] [0, 1)? What about [0, 1) [0, 1]? (10 points) We assume the results from part a. [0, 1] [0, 1] has the least upper bound property. Let A be a subset of [0, 1] [0, 1] which has an upper bound, say (x0 , y0 ). Let B = {x | (x, y) A} [0, 1]. Then B has an upper bound, x0 , so B has a least upper bound, and call this xb . Note that this means that if (x, y) is an upper bound for A, then x must be greater than or equal to xb . Let C = {y | (xb , y) A}. If C is empty, then (xb , 0) is a least upper bound for A. If C is not empty, then 1 is an upper bound, so it has a least upper bound, call this yb . Then (xb , yb ) is the least upper bound. Suppose (x, y) A. Then x xb by the construction of xb , and if x = xb , y yb , meaning (xb , yb ) is a lower bound. Also, for any (x, y) < (xb , yb ), either x < xb , in which case x B, x < x < xb , and thus (x , y ) A such that (x, y) < (x , y ) < (xb , yb ), or x = xb and y < yb , in which case y 3

C such that (xb , y) < (xb , y ) < (xb , yb ). In either case, (x, y) cannot be a lower bound. [0, 1] [0, 1) does not have the least upper bound property. Let A = [0, .5] [0, 1). This has an upper bound, for example (.75, 0). However, suppose (xb , yb ) is any upper bound for A. If xb .5, then we can pick a y such that yb < y < 1, and then (xb , y) A, so (xb , yb ) cannot be an upper bound. On the other hand, if xb > .5, then we can pick xb such that .5 < xb < xb , and then (xb , 0) is a smaller upper bound for A. Therefore (xb , yb ) cannot be the least upper bound for A. [0, 1) [0, 1] has the least upper bound property. The proof is the same as for [0, 1] [0, 1]. (In fact, if X is any ordered set with the least upper bound property, then X [0, 1] in the dictionary order has the least upper bound property. Even more generally, if X is an ordered set with the least upper bound property, and Y is an ordered set with the least upper bound property, which contains both a largest and a smallest element, then X Y in the dictionary order has the least upper bound property.) 1.7 3 Let X be the two element set {0, 1}. Show there is a bijective correspondence between the set P (Z+ ) and the cartesian product X . (10 points) By denition X is the same as the set of all functions Z+ X . Dene the bijection in the following way: P (Z+ ) X A Z+ f 1 ({1}) f (x) = 0 if x A 1 if x A

f : Z+ X

It should be clear that each map is the two-sided inverse of the other, and so each is a bijection (by 1.2 problem 5(e)). 1.7 5 Determine, for each of the following sets, whether or not it is countable. Justify you answers. (5 points each) (e) The set E of all functions f : Z+ {0, 1}. The set E is the same as X , which is uncountable, as proved in Theorem 7.7. (h) The set H of all functions f : Z+ Z+ that are eventually constant. The set H is countable. Dene Hn,m to be the set of functions f : Z+ Z+ such that f (i) = m for all i > n. Then each Hn,m is countable because it is in bijective correspondence with the set of functions f : {1 . . . n} Z, which is

the same as Zn , which is countable by Theorem 7.6. Furthermore each element of H is in some Hn,m , or, in other words, H is the union of all the Hn,m , for all n 1, m 1. But the Hn,m are indexed by Z+ Z+ , so H is the countable union of countable sets, so it is countable. 1.7 6(a) Show that if B A and if there is an injection f : A B then A and B have the same cardinality. (10 points) As the hint says, dene A1 = A, B1 = B, An = f (An1 ), and Bn = f (Bn1 ), for n > 1. Then B A, so B1 A1 , and also, the image of f is contained in B, so A2 B1 . Applying f to these equations gives A3 B2 A2 , and in general (by induction), An+1 Bn An . Dene D = n=1 An Bn , and h(x) = f (x) if x D x otherwise

Note that if x B, then x A1 B1 , so h(x) = f (x) B. If x B, then either h(x) = x B, or h(x) = f (x) B. Thus, h really is a map to B. I claim that h is surjective. Let y be any element of B. First suppose y An Bn for some n. Because B1 = B, then n cannot be 1. Thus y is in A2 , which is the image of f . Let x be the unique element of A such that f (x) = y. Then x An1 Bn1 , so h(x) = f (x) = y. Now suppose y D. Then x = y, and h(x) = x = y. I claim that h is injective. Suppose h(x1 ) = h(x2 ). If x1 , and x2 are both in D, then f (x1 ) = h(x1 ) = h(x2 ) = f (x2 ), so x1 = x2 . If x1 , and x2 are both not in D, then again x1 = h(x1 ) = h(x2 ) = x2 . Finally, suppose x1 D, x2 D, so that we have f (x1 ) = x2 . If x1 An , then x2 = f (x1 ) An+1 , so x2 must be contained in Bn+1 . However, f is injective, so x1 must be in Bn , which is a contradiction. Therefore h is a bjiection between A and B. 1.7 6(b) Theorem (Schroeder-Bernstein theorem). If there are injections f : A C and g : C A, then A and C have the same cardinality. (5 points) Let B = Im(g) A. The function g can be considered as a bijection from C to B, so these have the same cardinality. Then apply part (a) to the function g f : A B A to get that A and B have the same cardinality. Therefore, A and C have the same cardinality.