DREDGERS AND ARCHAEOLOGY:

Shipfinds from the Slufter

rERlE VAN WE1 N, \1

DREDGERS A N D ARCHAEOLOGY
Shipfinds from the Slufter

J. Adams
A. F. L. van Holk
Th. J. Maarleveld

Archeologie onder water,

2e onderzoeksrapport
Ministerie van Welzijn,
Volksgezondheid en Cultuur

Alphen aan den Rijn

1990
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Grootschalige locatie voor de berging van

baggerspecie uit het benedenrivierengebied.

Initiative:
Gemeente Rotterdam
Rijkswaterstaat
Provincie Zuid-Holland
mei 1990
Two versions of this report, fitting in different series and
thus with different covers but otherwise indentical are
published by:

Projectorganisatie Grootschalige locatie

Gemeente Rotterdam
Rijkswaterstaat
Provincie Zuid-Holland

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Grootschalige locatie voor de berging van baggerspecie uit
het benedenrivierengebied

Correspondence:
Dienst van Gemeentewerken
Galvanistraat 15
Postbus 6633
3002 AP Rotterdam

Afdeling Archeologie Onder water

Ministerie van Welzijn, Volksgezondheid en Cultuur

as

OREDGERSANDARCHAEOLOGY
Shipfinds from the Slufter

ISBN 90-800467-1-X

This second version can be ordered by giro transfer of

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Summary
Samenvatting
Introduction

PRELIMINARY RESEARCH

1. Preliminary archaeological survey of t h e Slufter p r o j e c t

1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction to the area
1.3 Geological survey
1.4 Historical information
1.5 Potential for archaeological sites
1.6 Conclusions and a line of action
1.7 Changes in planning

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

1. Wrecksite S L 1
1.1 Circumstances of discovery
1.1.1 The first hit
1.1.2 Preliminary assessment
1.1.3 Adjustment of the order of sand extraction
1.1.4 On-site inspection
1.2 Description of the recovered remains
1.2.1 The ship
1.2.2 Ship's fittings
1.2.3 Associated finds
1.3 Analyses
1.3.1 Dendrochronological analysis
1.3.2 Caulking and luting materials
1.4 Evaluation
1.4.1 The site
1.4.2 The ship

2. Wrecksite S L 2
2.1 Circumstances of discovery
2.2 Description of the recovered remains
2.3 Analyses
2.4 Evaluative considerations

3. Wrecksite S L 3
3.1 Circumstances of discovery
3.2 Description of the recovered remains
3.3 Analyses
3.4 Conclusions
4. Wrecksite SL 4
4.1 Circumstances of discovery
4.1.1 The first hit
4.1.2 On-site inspection
4.1.3 Considerations and decisions
4.1.4 Clearance
4.1.5 Renewed considerations
4.2 Description of the recovered remains
4.2.1 The ship
4.2.2 Ship's fittings
4.2.3 Associated finds
4.3 Analyses
4.3.1 Wood species
4.3.2 Dendrochronological analysis
4.3.3 Caulking and luting materials
4.3.4 Copper alloys
4.3.5 Coal
4.4 Evaluation
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 The site
4.4.3 The ship and its construction
4.4.4 Developments in ship construction
4.4.5 Historical setting of ship and ship type
4.4.6 The cargo
4.4.7 Date of shipwreck
4.5 Conclusion

5. Wrecksite SL 5
5.1 Circumstances of discovery
5.2 Description of the recovered remains
5.3 Analyses
5.4 Discussion

6. Wrecksite SL 6

7. Miscellaneous finds

EVALUATION

1. Dredgers a n d archaeology

2. Objectives a n d planning

3. Prospects

4. G e n e r a l a p p r o a c h a n d limitations
4.1 Formal setting
4.2 Technical scope
4.3 Methods

5. Results
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Direct results
5.2.1 Shipping and shipbuilding
5.2.2 Wrecksites and site formation
5.2.3 Geology and geographical history
5.3 Experience

6. Recommendations
APPENDICES

Appendix I Introduction to dendrochronological analysis 157

Appendix I1 Selection of historical documents that are relevant to the study 161
of the ship at SL 4
Appendix 111 Conservation and artefact filing 167

Glossary 169

Verklarende woordenlijst 18 1

References 191

Acknowledgements 197
 SUMMARY
In September 1987 the Slufter, a large scale
disposal site for contaminated dredged
material adjacent to the Maasvlakte was put
into use. Its realization had taken eighteen
months of dredging and construction and
many years of preparation. Through its
realization the environmental problems of the
storage of contaminated material which must
continuously be dredged from the channels
and basins of the port of Rotterdam in order to
guarantee its accessability, were alleviated for
the mid term. This, however, was not its only
result. A work of this magnitude has many
side-effects. Most of these were thoroughly
studied in advance and an Environmental
Impact Statement [E.I.S.] was part of the
decision-making procedure. The present
report deals with archaeology, an aspect
which was not considered at the time but
which has been given ample consideration
since it was pointed to at the end of E.I.S.
procedure.
Realization of the Slufter inter alii implied
that 37 million m' of sediments which had
been deposited in the outer delta of the
RhineIMeuse estuary would be moved and
thus loose their original integrity. On the face
of it this may not seem very significant.
However such earth-moving will also
obliterate any data relating to the formation of
the area which can be derived from its
original stratigraphy as well as any data or
remains relating to its former use by man. It is
an aspect which will easily attract attention
whenever visible remains and monuments
outcrop at the surface but which is of equal
importance when the cultural heritage is
buried in deep sediments.
To accomodate for archaeology - for
preservation of the cultural heritage - in a
large-scale dredging project is not an easy
task. One of the main problems in planning is
that the cultural values involved are not
known in advance. Paradoxically it is just the
fact that any vestiges and remains are
undisturbed and thus unknown that
determines their potentially great value. In the
Slufter project this basic problem was
considerably reduced by a preliminary survey.
SUMMARY
It did not predict what would be found during
construction, but it indicated possibilities as
well as sensitive areas. On the one hand it
showed large sequences of sediments to be
archaeologically sterile, thereby considerably
reducing the extent of sediments deserving
archaeological attention. On the other hand it
opened the possibility to set priorities by
making the archaeological potential explicit.
A line of action deployed on the basis of this
preliminary survey set the terms for
appropriate action to various kinds of
discovery:
archaeological attention would be
focused on shipwreck-sites;
wreck-sites related to a navigation
channel which had passed North of
the area from medieval times onwards
were deemed to deserve more care
than wreck-sites relating to a channel
to the South which came into use in
the 18th century;
wreck-sites containing considerable
remains in structural cohesion were
deemed to deserve more attention
than dispersed sites;
all on-site archaeological work had to
be practicable and reasonable within
the limitations set by the construction
project;
it would be made possible by a
flexible approach to the order of
construction;
overall delays had to be avoided but
optimal opportunities for on-site
observations would be created by
tackling the most sensitive areas first.
In this dynamic set-up it was essential that a
quick assessment of any discovery could be
made by on-site archaeological staff.
The principle aim of the archaeological
endeavour was to document what would
otherwise be lost.
Although the preliminary survey and the line
of action were completed in advance of the
actual start of construction, no agreement had
been reached as to which authority was to
bear the extra cost of the archaeological
survey. A factor which indubitably explains
part of the reticence at this stage was the lack the Slufter was documentation, and
of tangible evidence referred to above. The documentation is its main result. This applies
municipality of Rotterdam provided the most to the sites mentioned in this summary as well
necessary means in advance after the first as to the other dispersed discoveries. Both the
wreck-sites had actually been found. scale of the project and the attempt to
While sketching the preparatory phase as well integrate measures for archaeological
as outlining the difficulties encountered the recording into its organisation are unusual.
present report is mainly concerned with the All in all it resulted in new information on
archaeological documentation and research as shipping and shipbuilding, wreck-sites and
such. In total six wreck-sites were discovered site formation as well as the geology and the
in the dredged area. One site [SL 21 might be geographical history of the area. All this
of medieval date, the others are younger. information would have been lost if no
Subsequent research proved three sites [SL 1, attempt had been made to document it.
SL 3, SL 51 to have formed after the same Although far from advertising dredging as an
wrecking event, even though they are over archaeological technique the report concludes
1 km apart. The remains discovered indicate a that dredgers and archaeology should not be
medium sized vessel which wrecked late in treated as two incompatible phenomena.
the 18th century. Its study and recording Wherever there are clear indications that [as
showed interesting detail in the construction yet unknown] archaeological values are
of this typical Dutch-built vessel. Part of its threatened by large scale marine engineering
fittings, rig and inventory could also be this should be taken into consideration. A
documented. preliminary survey, a clear line of action and
A slightly younger wreck was found at site priorities set in advance will make an effort
SL 4. It was preserved virtually complete and for archaeological documentation quite
must have gone down during or around the manageable and will considerably reduce the
1840's. In the light of its relative young date, risk of unanticipated discoveries. If sensitive
the complexity of excavating a complete ship areas are to be dredged the experience of the
and the priorities set in the line of action the Slufter-project has shown that flexibility and
site as such was abandoned archaeologically. a few basic requirements for timely
However the study of a large hull section assessment and recording may safeguard
which was raised during clearance operations valuable information. However, there should
proved most rewarding. It showed a vessel of be agreement in advance on the way in which
north-eastern English build engaged in the the unavoidable costs will be met.
coaltrade with Rotterdam. Although quite
common in its day it represents a class of
vessel on which historical data is far from
complete. Its study provides detailed and
accurate information on its construction.
Integration of these archaeological data in the
aggregate knowledge of early 19th century
shipbuilding and the collier-trade showed it to
be particularly rewarding with respect to
constructional detail and a better
understanding of long term development. For
one thing it provided information on aspects
that were never written down. For another it
provides a valuable means of cross-checking
between historical documentation where it
appears to be comprehensive and reality as
demonstrated by the archaeological remains.
It shows assertions to be generalisations or
simply incorrect. It also elucidates aspects
which are equivocal in the archival record.
By providing a clue to historical documents it
thus augments our knowledge of early 19th
century shipbuilding far more than one might
anticipate.
However the main purpose of the
archaeological work during the realization of

SUMMARY
 SAMENVATTING
Aan de westzijde van de Maasvlakte is in zee
de Slufter aangelegd, de grootschalige locatie
voor de berging van baggerspecie uit het
benedeizrivierengebied. Na vele jaren van
voorbereiding en achttien maanden baggeren
en bollwen kon deze stortplaats in september
1987 in gebrurk worden gesteld. Er is
daarmee voor de middellange termijn een
milieuhygieniscl~verantwoorde oplossing
gekomen voor de problemen van her-ging van
verontreinigd havenslib dat bij voortduring
uit de Rotterdamse havens moet worden
gebaggerd om deze op diepte te houden. Dat
is echter niet het enige resultaat, want een
werk van deze omvang heeft vele
neveneffecten. In de voorbereidingsfase zijn
veel van deze aspecten onder de loupe
genomen en in de besluitvormingsprocedure
was een milieu-effectrapportage [M.E.R.]
opgenomen. Het voorliggende rapport is
gewijd aan de archeologie. Dat is een aspect
dat indertijd buiten beschouwing is gebleven,
nlaar dat ruime aandacht heeft gekregerz sinds
het 01) 11et eind van de M.E.R.-procedure
onder de aandacht is gebracht.
De aanleg vaii de Slufter betekende onder
meer dat 37 miljoen m3sediment in de
voordelta vaii Rijn en Maas zou worden
vergraven en daarniee zijn oorspronkelijke
samenhang zou verliezen. Op het eerste
gezicht lijkt dat misschien niet zo bijzonder,
maar door dat graafwerk wordt ook alle
iiiforniatie uitgewist die men aan de
grondlagen kan ontlenen. Enerzijds gaat lzet
daarbij on? informatie over de opbouw en het
ontstaan vaii het gebied zelfen anderzijds om
spore11 en overblrj~selendie inzicht kunnen
verschaffen over de wijze waarop de mens het
gebied in vroeger tijd heeft gebruikt. Het zijn
aspecten die onmiddellijk in het oog springen
wanneer er overblijfselen en n~olzumentenaan
ket bodemoppervlak zichtbaar zijn, maar die
van even groot belang zijn wanneer het
cultureel erfgoed schuil gaat onder dikke
lagen sediment.
Bij grootschalige zandwinning rekening
houdeiz met de archeologie - met als doe1 het
cultureel erfgoed te behouden - is geen
gemakkeljke taak. Vooral het feit dat niet van
SAMENVATTING
te voren bekend is om welke culturele
waarden het gaat, maakt het bijzonder lastig.
Paradoxaal genoeg draagt juist het feit dat de
sporen en resten voorheen onberoerd zijn en
dus princ~pieelonbekend, in belangrijke mate
brj aan de potentiele archeologische waarde
van het gebied. Bij het Slufter-project is dit
zoveel mogelijk ondei-vangen door een
vooronderzoek. Hoewel niet in detail kon
worden voorspeld wat er gevonden zou
worden kon we1 worden aangegeven wat de
mogelijkheden waren en welke gebieden
bijzondere aandacht behoefden. Van grote
pakketten afzettingen kon worden vastgesteld
dat deze vanuit archeologisch oogpunt als
steriel konden worden beschouwd, waardoor
het aandachtsgebied aaizzienlijk kon worden
verkleind. Bovendien maakte het
vooi-onderzoek het mogelijk om prioriteiten re
stellen, doordat het inzicht gaf in het
archeologisch potentieel.
Op basis van het vooronderzoek werd een
plan van aanpak opgesteld, waarin bepaaald
werd wat er re doeri stond bij welk type
ontdekking:
de aandacht van archeologische zijde
zou worden beperkt tot
scheepsvondsten;
aan eventuele scheepsvondsten die in
verband konden wordeii gebracht met
de vaargeul die vanaf de
Middeleeuwen aan de noordzijde
lungs het gebied had gelopen zou
meer aandacht worden besteed dun
aan scheepsvondsten die verband
houden met de zuidelijk gelegen geul,
die in de 18e eeuw irz gebruik is
genomen;
er zou meer aandacht worden besteed
aan vindplaatsen met grote delen van
een scheepsromp, dun aan
vindplaatsen met verspreid, 10s
materiaal;
het archeologisch veldwerk diende
doeltreffend te zijn en praktisch
uitvoerbaar binnen de beperkingen
van het project;
het veldwerk zou mogelijk worden
gemaakt door plooibaarheid en
 flexibiliteit in de volgorde van de
. zandwinning;
vertraging in de totale uitvoering van
het werk diende te worden vermeden,
maar optimale condities voor het
doen van archeologische
waarnemingen zouden worden
geschapen door de belangrijkste
gebieden het eerste aan te pakken.
In deze clynamische benadering was het van
essentieel belang dat iedere ontdekking
onmiddellijk ter plaatse op waarde geschat
kon worden door archeologen. De
voornaamste doelstelling van de
archeologische inspanningen was om vast te
leggen wat anders verloren zou gaan.
Het vooronderzoek en het plan van aanpak
waren voltooid voordat met de aanleg werd
begonnen, maar er was geen
overeenstemming over de vraag welke
instelling de kosten zou moeten dragen die
met het archeologische onderzoek waren
gemoeid. De terughoudendheid die in dit
stadiunl werd betracht valt zonder twijjel
voor een deel te verklaren uit het feit dat
tastbare aanwijzingen ontbraken, een
prohleem waar hierboven a1 op werd
gewezen. Nadat de eerste historische schepen
daadwerkelijk waren gevonden heeft de
gemeetzte Rotterdam de meest noodzakelijke
financien ter heschikking gesteld.
Hoewel rle voorbereidingen, maar ook de
moeilijkheden die het hoofd moesten worden
geboden in grove lijnen worden geschetst is
dit rapport eerst en vooral gewijd aan de
archeologie zelf, de documentatie en het
onderzoek. In totaal werden tijdens het werk
op zes plaatsen sclzeepsresten gevonden. EE'n
van de vindplaatsen [SL 21 zoil middeleeuws
kunnen zijn, de overige zijn van later datum.
Het onderzoek heeft aangetoond dat drie
vindplaatsen [SL 1, SL 3 , SL 51 resten
bevatten van &inen hetzelfde schip, hoewel
zij meer dun een kilometer uiteen liggen. Het
gaat om een middelgroot schip clat op het
eind van de 18e eeuw moet zijn vergaan en
dat op typisch Nederlandse wijze is gebouwd.
Het onderzoek heeft hzerover interessante
details aan het licht gebracht. Ook konden
delen van de uitrusting, de tuigage en de
scheepsinventaris worden vastgelegd.
Van iets later datum is het schip dat op
vindplaats SL 4 werd aatzgetroffen. Het was
zo goed als volledig behouden en moet
omstreeks de jaren 1840 zijn gezonken. De
rela fief jonge datering, de problemen die
rijzen bij her opgraven van een compleet
schip en de prioriteiten die in het plan van
aanpak waren gesteld noopten ertoe de
SAMENVATTING
vindplaats archeologisch op te geven. Toen de
vindplaats vervolgens werd geruimd kwam
een groot rompfragment als E'E'n geheel hovetl
water en bleek het toch zeer de moeite waai-d
dit te bestuderen. Het gaat om een schip dat
in Noordoost-Engeland is gebouwd en dat
met kolen op Rotterdam voer.
Hoewel het indertijd een zeer alledaags schip
moet zijn geweest zijn de historlsche gegevens
over dit soort schepen verre van volledig.
Het onderzoek heeft gedetailleerde en
nauwkeurige gegevens opgeleverd over de
bouwwijze. Het combineren van deze
archeologische gegevens met hetgeen reeds
bekend is over 19e-eeuwse scheepsbouw en
kolenhandel bleek zeer verhelderend.
Enerzijds gaat het daarbij om zaken
waarover nooit geschreven is en bovendien
levert her waardevolle gegevens om de
uitgebreide historische docurnentatie te
toetsen aan de werkelijkheid, zoals die in de
archeologische overblijyselen besloten ligt.
Stellige beweringen blijken daarbij
generalisaties of domweg onjuist. Bovendien
werpt het onderzoek llcht op aspecten die uit
het archiefmateriaal otzduidelijk of cryptisch
naar voren komen. Doordat het op die wijze
een sleutel vormt tot historische documenten
draagt het veel meer bij tot onze kennis van
de 19e-eeuwse scheepsbouw dan men zou
verwachten.
Ondanks dit alles was de belangrijkste
doelstelling van het archeologisch onderzoek
tijdens de aanleg van de Slufter om vast te
leggen wat verloren zou gaan, en dat is ook
het voornaamste resultaat. Zowel de schaal
van het project als de poging om
archeologisch onderzoek in te passen in
planning en organisatie van baggerwerk zijtz
ongebruikelijk. Het heeft geresulteerd in
nieuwe gegevens over scheepvaart en
scheepsbouw, over schipbreuk en
wrakvorrnitzg en over de geologie en
geografische geschiedenis van het betreffencle
gebied. A1 die gegevens zouden zijn verloi-en
als de poging om ze vast te leggen acl~terwege
was gebleven.
Hoewel het zeker nief de bedoeling is om de
bagggertechniek als een bruikhare
archeologische opgravingsmethode te
propageren besluit het rapport met de stelling
dat zandzcligers en at-cheologie toch niet als
twee volstrekt onverenigbare grootheden
moeten worden gezlen. Wanneer er ergens
duiclelijke aanwijzingen zijn dat vooralst~og
onbekende archeologische waarden worden
bedi-eigd door grootschalige
waterbouwkundige projecten, dienf daaraan
de nodige aandacht te woi-den gegeven. Een
 vooronderzoek, een plan van aanpak en
duidelijk gestelde prioriteiten maken een
verantwoorde archeologische documentatie
beheersbaar. De kans dat men tijdens het
werk onvoorbereid wordt geconfronteerd met
archeologische ontdekkingen, waarvan
vertragingen van het project het gevolg
kunnen zijn, wordt daardoor aanzienlijk
verkleind. De ervaring van het Slufterproject
heeft geleerd dat, wanneer in potentieel
belangrijk sediment wordt gebaggerd,
~~aardevolle gegevens kunnen worden veilig
gesteld door eenflexibele opstelling en een
paar basisvoorzieningen om ontdekkingen
rijdig op hun ~ ~ a a r te
d eschatten. Van groot
belang is daarbij dat er op voorhand
overeenstemming is over definanciering.

SAMENVATTING
 INTRODUCTION
The present report is the result of
archaeological research carried out as part of
a large marine dredging project: the
realisation of a large-scale disposal site for
contaminated dredged material, the so-called
Slufter project. The site is situated to the West
of Rotterdam, adjacent to the Maasvlakte
[fig. 11.
Dredgers and archaeology do not combine
easily. Even on dry land the combination of
archaeological and engineering interests is not
always an easy one. Nevertheless a successful
tradition of incorporation of archaeology in
planning has developed [Klok 1987;
Maarleveld 19891. In a marine situation both
the scope of works, the machinery used and
the complexity of archaeological recording
tend to be bigger, and so are the difficulties
that are to be met.
It is thus quite understandable that
archaeology in a rescue situation under water
has so far largely remained untrodden ground.
Nevertheless the ever growing extent of
dredging activities and their utterly
destructive effects on archaeological deposits
are to be given serious consideration. In the
present project a discreet attempt has been
made to do so. As befits such an enterprise
strong emphasis was lain on recording what
would otherwise be lost. This implied a
flexible approach to any discoveries that were
made.
Slufter project
The accessibility of the port of Rotterdam has
to be guaranteed by continuous maintenance
of appropriate waterdepth in the Lower Rhine
reaches. Annually some 23 million m3 of
sludge is dredged from the channels and
basins. A substantial part of this, some
10 million m3, is so contaminated that it
would be irresponsible to dump it into the sea.
It has to be disposed of in another, more
controllable, way.
Ever since the beginning of the seventies
finding appropriate disposal locations on dry
land has become increasingly problematical.
The Stuurgroep Berging Baggerspecie
[S.G.B.B. - Steering committee for the
INTRODUCTION
disposal of dredged sludge], set up in 1975,
has devised short-term and longer term
policies for the issue. In accordance with
these policies the Municipality of Rotterdam,
the Ministry of Transport and Public Works
and the Public Authority Rijnmond [now
Provincial Executive of South-Holland]
announced their intention to solve the issue in
medium-range planning through the
realisation of a large-scale disposal site. A
range of preliminary studies have resulted in
an Environmental Impact Statement [E.I.S.]
in 1984 [Gemeente Rotterdam et al. 19841.
After an extensive decision-making process
the necessary concession and permits were
granted for the realisation of alternative I11 as
described in the E.I.S. An optimization study
successively resulted in a final plan in
November 1985 [Gemeente Rotterdam et al.
1985b1 [fig. 21.
In short the plan implies that the seabed
adjacent to the Maasvlakte is locally
excavated to a depth of 28 m. The extracted
sand is used in the construction of a dike
around the site to a height of 23 m. In total
37 million m3 of earth are moved. The dike
encircles an area of 260 ha. The depot has a
volume of 90 million m3. Over the years
150 million m' of uncompacted sludge can be
accommodated, sufficient to bridge a fifteen
year period [I987 - 20021. Started in May
1986 the construction was finished at a great
pace. In September 1987 the disposal site was
put into use.
Preliminary archaeological survey
During the process of decision-making on the
realisation of a large-scale disposal site
objections were raised by the Minister of
Welfare, Public Health and Culture [W.V.C.]
because the Environmental Impact Statement
made no mention of the cultural heritage. The
possible effects on archaeological remains
remained unstudied. The need to envisage any
necessary archaeological investigations
through reservations in the budget was
stressed. These objections were successful1 in
this way that the position towards
archaeological remains was given ample
consideration and that the effort of a
preliminary survey was deemed necessary.
Clauses on archaeological discoveries were
included in the concession that was granted
for the realisation of the disposal site. It was
provided that the Director of the State Service
for Archaeological Investigations [Rijksdienst
voor Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek
R.O.B.] was to be enabled to carry out
archaeological investigations to the extent
that would reasonably be possible without
endangering the planned inauguration of the
site through delays. Also a tight time-
schedule for in situ work was defined.
Simultaneously with further preparations for
the project a preliminary archaeological
survey was undertaken with two-fold aims:
to meet the demand for understanding
where within the project area
archaeological remains could have
been preserved, as well as
what the general characteristics of
these remains were expected to be;
to consider what measures could be
taken to further appropriate handling
of discoveries within the project.
The survey included both geological,
geophysical and historical-geographical
research. The formation of the area, the way
in which it developed and the way in which
man had made use of the successive
circumstances were provisionally described.
Natural channels that silted during the Middle
Ages could be recognized. Covered by shoal-
deposits those sediments had not been
disturbed later on. On the basis of theoretical
considerations on the formation and
preservation of archaeological sites the
historical and geological information was
used to predict what kind of remains could be
encountered.
It was concluded that the sediments between 6
and 12 m below ordnance datum [N.A.P.]
could contain wreckage from the period 1000
to 1500 A.D. The. discovery of such remains
would be extremely important as they date
from a transitional periodin shipbuilding
from which very few shipfinds have been
studied. As no major gullies seemed to have
crossed the area later on it was thought to be
unlikely that substantial ship remains of
younger clate would be encountered, unless
they be the remains of small fishing vessels.
The report on the preliminary archaeological
survey [Gemeente Rotterdam et al. 19861
shared the dichotomy of the survey itself. In
addition to discussions on the relevant data it
deployed a line of action to be followed
during the construction phase of the project.

INTRODUCTION

[Fig. 11
The location of the large-scale
disposal site Slufter.
Situering van de grootschalige locatie
Slufter.
[Fig. 21
General lay-out of the large-scale
disposal site.
Het uitgevoerde ontwerp van de
grootschalige locatie.
INTRODUCTION
Due to the extreme urgency of the realisation
of the disposal site a keynote was that
construction of the site itself could not be
delayed. Operational delays of specific
dredging machinery due to archaeological
discoveries was to be offset by temporary
shifting of activities.
It was therefore recommended to excavate the
most sensitive areas first.
Simple electronic detecting devices would
have to be mounted onto the dredgers. On-site
archaeological expertise would be made
available on a modest scale.
The budget for this line of action was
estimated at dfl 1,500,000: dfl 300,000 to be
used on detecting devices and archaeological
support, whereas the rest would account for
stagnation and shifting of dredgers.
Implementation
Completion of the preliminary survey and
publication of the report Vooronderzoek
Archeologie had no immediate consequences.
The reason for this was a financial deadlock:
who was to pay for archaeoIogica1 support
and the implementation of the proposed line
of action? The Ministry of W.V.C. as the
responsible authority for the cultural heritage
or the originators of the project that
necessitated the excavation?
The necessity to open the site for disposal of
contaminated sludge in the autumn of 1987
meant that it was impossible to wait till a
solution was found. In accordance with the
tight time schedule realisation of the Slufter
project was started in May 1986 without
detecting devices having been mounted. The
sequence of excavation, however, concurred
with the sequence that was stipulated in the
line of action.
Shortly after the start of dredging two
potentially interesting shipwrecks were
discovered. Archaeological expertise was
provided on an ad hoc basis but funds to
proceed investigations were lacking. Thanks
to the municipality of Rotterdam the deadlock
was broken: it provided the most necessary
means in advance. Since recruitment of
competent archaeological staff did not at all
prove easy at short notice it was only from the
beginning of October 1986 that
archaeological work could proceed with a
complete crew. From then onwards the
proposed line of action could be closely
followed.
T h e present report
The report on archaeological survey as part of
the Slufter project is divided in three sections.
In the first part the results of the preliminary The archaeological research was carried out
geological and historical-geographical studies by Jonathan Adams, AndrC van Holk and
are described as well as the deployed line of Thijs Maarleveld, the authors of this report.
action. The second part is devoted to the They were greatly assisted by many [see
archaeology of the Slufter project proper. acknowledgements]. Overall coordination of
The third part is included for the purpose of survey and research as well as the final
evaluation, i.e. overall conclusions about the editing of the report have been the
area researched, as well as some evaluational responsibility of the last author.
observations about the handling of
archaeological information in connection with
large engineering projects. Both the summary
and the captions to the illustrations are
presented in English as well as in Dutch. The
report is supplemented with appendices and a
bilingual [English and Dutch] glossary of
maritime terms that appear in the text and
captions.

Organisation and responsibilities

For the purpose of archaelogical research
within the Slufter project a working party was
formed in September 1985. Its terms of
reference implied:
guidance of the realisation of the
Slufter as far as archaeological
perspectives are concerned;
mobilization of expertise and
knowledge as well as aids and
appliances;
reporting and publicity;
surveillance of planning and budget
control.

The working party was composed as follows:

ir. R.G.J. van Orden

Project-manager Large-scale disposal
site, Public Works Department
Rotterdam:

ir. J . Bakker
Associate Project-manager Large-
scale disposal site, Lower Rivers
Directorate, Ministry of Transport and
Public Works;

drs. Th.J. Maarleveld

Ministry of Welfare, Public Health
and Culture;

drs. L.M. Akveld

Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik,
Rotterdam;

drs. M.C. van Trierum

Office for Archaeological
Investigations, Public Works
Department Rotterdam.

INTRODUCTION
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH

1. Preliminary archaeological survey of the Slufter project

1.1 Objectives
1.2 Introduction to the area
1.3 Geological survey
1.4 Historical information
1.5 Potential for archaeological sites
1.6 Conclusions and a line of action
1.7 Changes in planning
 [Fig. 31
Archaeological sites as previously
revealed by dredging in the area:
x concentrations of Mesolithic
artefacts;
NOORDZEE t shipwreck-sites predating 1800 A.D.;
0 19th century wreck-sites.
Archeologische vindplaatsen die bij
eerderzuigwerk in het gebied aan het
MAASVLAKTE
licht zijn gekornen:
x Mesolitische vondstconscenrraries;
+ vindplaatsen van schepen die voor
1800 zijn vergaan;
0 vindplaatsen van 19e eeuwse
schepen.

PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
 P R E L I M I N A R Y ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF T H E SLUFTER
PROJECT
1.1 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of the preliminary survey
was to establish where archaeological remains
were to be found and what kind of remains
one had to reckon with. To this end the survey
envisaged combining geological and
historical information. A theoretical
prediction was its aim, in combination of
course with a practical guideline of how to
cope with discoveries during the realization of
the work. First of all it was to be established
which sediments were to be considered
archaeologically sterile and what kind of
archaeological remains were to be
encountered in those that were not. It was
quite clear that during construction itself there
would at the best be occasion for emergency
measures. There would be little opportunity
for extensive documentation of find
circumstances and the geological situation.
Studying these in advance would ease
interpretation later on.
Actual probing of the whole area [ca. 300 ha]
was out of the question. Even if that approach
could have been made practicable for such an
extended and deep unit of sediments, there
would have been neither funds nor time to
realize it. The preliminary study thus focused
on reassessment of previously collected data.
It was carried out in the period September
1985 to March 1986. It resulted in a report
that was published in April 1986 [Gemeente
Rotterdam et al. 19861.
1.2 INTRODUCTION T O T H E AREA
The Slufter area is situated in the
outer delta of the Rhinemeuse estuary. Ever
since the North Sea came into existence it has
been one of the few inlets in the coast of the
Lowlands that offered a passage towards the
interior of continental Europe. In historical
times the estuary featured important shipping
routes. Navigation, however, has greatly been
affected by continuous changes in the course
and depth of the natural channels.
The geological and occupational history of
the Rhine/Meuse estuary is rather well
studied. Both the encompassing work of
Geological Survey of The Netherlands
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
[e.g. Zagwijn and Van Staalduinen 1975;
Schiittenhelm 19801 and the detailed case-
studies of C. Hoek must be mentioned in this
context. Recent overviews with ample
references can be found in Hallewas and Van
Regteren Altena [1980], Louwe Kooijmans
[I9851 and Van Trierum and Henkes [1986].
The historical development of the foreshore
and outer delta however, is largely inferred
from the general development of the North
Sea basin in combination with data collected
further inland.
On the archaeological contents of the deposits
in the Slufter location nothing specific was
known. The only indications were the finds
made during and after other major dredging
operations in the region.
Mesolithic hunting and fishing equipment of
Boreal Age has been found among material
dredged form the Calandkanaal [Verhart
19881. A whole series of historic shipwreck
sites has been disrupted during dredging
activities in the Oostvoornse Meer, a few
miles inshore.
These activities took place in the late sixties
and no attention was paid to archaeology at
the time. How many sites were destroyed can
only be guessed. Along the fringes alone, six
historic wreck sites have since been
discovered by sports-divers [fig. 31. One of
these has been investigated by a group of
diving hobby-archaeologists under the
leadership of 0. Normann [Maarleveld 1982;
Normann 19871, two others are currently
under investigation by the Ministry of W.V.C.
1.3 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
In the course of the feasibility studies
for the construction of the large-scale disposal
site, the area was surveyed geologically. Both
deep corings and seismic/acoustical surveys
were made.
The collected data were - at that stage -
analysed from a technical point of view only.
The relative permeability and stability of the
various deposits were more important in that
context than their genesis [Gerneente
Rotterdam et. al 19841. Nevertheless this data
formed a good basis for further research, the
more so since [in view of several location
alternatives] a much larger area had been
studied than the a c t ~ ~ a lchosen
ly site.

General characteristics
The RhineIMeuse estuary is characterized by
deep quaternary sediments [see fig. 4, 51. The
riverine sediments from the Under Pleistocene
[Formatie van Tegelen; Formatie van
Kedichem] are covered by marine sands
which were deposited during the Eemian
interglacial. These have been reworked during
the Weichsel glacial and have partly been
covered by the riverine Formatie van
Kreftenheye, which is the youngest
pleistocene deposit in the area.
The first sediments from the Holocene period
are a peaty clay layer, which has not been
preserved everywhere. It is commonly named
the layer of Velsen. During the Atlanticum
this layer has been covered by tidal marsh
sediments. The subboreal and subatlantic
transgressions have caused alternating erosion
and sedimentation, resulting in a complex
intertwining of shoal-deposits and gully
fillings.

Supplementary research
A detailed reinterpretation of previously
collected geological data [fig. 61 was carried
out in the present context with the following
objectives:
to understand the formation of those
sediments that were liable to contain
archaeological remains;
to establish their distribution.
In pursuance of the aims set out above it
concentrated on the genesis of the subatlantic
sequence.
In addition to the preceding field work a few
coring samples were analysed
palynologically. The geological survey thus
dealt with three sets of data:
acoustical and seismic data;
lithostratigraphical data;
palynological data.
The results that are summarized here were
published by Niessen [1986].
The acoustical and seismic data consisted of
records that had been recorded with Sonia and
Sparker devices. They were primarily made
with the aim of charting the presence of the
layer of Velsen. Because of its impermeability
this layer could be extremely important for
the technicalities of the disposal site, had it
appeared to be undisturbed in the whole site
area [fig. 71. Nevertheless the records do
contain a lot of information on the younger
sedimentation [fig. 81. Shoal-deposits and

PRELIMINARY RESEARCH

[Fig. 41
Chronostratigraphical and
lithostratigraphical classification of the
Quaternary.
Chronostratigrafische en
lithostratigrafische indeling van het
Kwartair.
[Fig. 51
Chronostratigraphical classification of
the Holocene.
Chronostratigrafische indeling van het
Holoceen.
[Fig. 61
Masterplan featuring the distribution of
previously collected geological data.
Kartografisch overzicht van de tijdens
het vooronderzoek beschikbare
geologische gegevens.
i
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
gully fillings could readily be recognized. The
skew and orientation of gi~llyfillings could be
deduced.
The lithostratigraphical description of cores
was essential as a clue to the Sonia and
Sparker records [fig. 91. In combination the
two sets of data to a certain extent allow for
the venture of reconstruction of changes in the
gully pattern and of the general direction of
sedimentation in the area.
Palynological analysis was carried out on two
cores [fig. 10, 85.004 and 85.0081, thus
providing a general basis for the dating of
sediments.
All in all the geological survey allowed the
following general conclusions:
the holocene sedimentation reaches to
a depth of around 21 metres below
N.A.P. [Normal Amsterdam Level];
the top is composed of very young
shoal deposits, 2 to 3 metres thick,
hardly ever reaching to a greater
depth than 6 metres;
the subatlantic deposits reach to a
depth of around 10 to 12 metres;
older marine deposits reach to a depth
of around 21 metres;
the clayeylpeaty layer of Velsen is
found at about 21 metres, at the basis
of the holocene sedimentation;
the direction of sedimentation in the
subatlantic deposits has, in general,
been from South going North. The
gullies have shifted in that direction;
in combination with the results of the
palynological research of two
seperate gully fillings it is assumed
that all subatlantic gully deposits in
the area have a late subatlantic date.
[Fig. 71 1.e. they are surely younger than
Distribution of the socalled Layerof 700 A.D. and have for the greater part
Velsen [hatched]. been formed after 1300 A.D.
Verspreiding van de Laag van Velsen
Igearceerdl. 1.4 HISTORICAL INFORMATION
In addition to the study of the area
itself it was thought to be essential to get a
good overview of what could be said about
the development of the area on the basis of
historical information. For this purpose the
historical geography was studied by Hofland.
His results are summarized here. For his
cartographic reconstructions the reader is
referred to the original publication [Hofland
19861. Here only some rough sketches are
given [fig. 111.
Information on navigation in and beaconing
of the outer delta does go back to 1280 A.D.
A reliable reconstruction on the basis of
historical data can, however, only be made
from 1540 onwards. The estuary has
continually been very broad. Navigation
channels have always been whimsical and
water depth was never guaranteed for long.
In late medieval times two beacons that are
first mentioned in 1280 had to be moved
several times. During the 16th century two
alternative approaches were in use [three even
at a certain time]. The southernmost of these
approaches was the most important. It was
located some 300 metres North of the Slufter
site. The channel was buoyed along its
northern bank only.
Shipping was thus warned for the shallows
along its northern fringes. What hazards
shipping confronted southward of the buoys is
not very clear. There was no question of the
whole stretch between the buoys and the coast
of Voorne being navigable. Off-shore both the
Hinderplaat and the Westplaat had to be
rounded. The Westplaat is of particular
interest in the context of this study.
From the end of the 17th century onwards the
estuary narrowed. On the northern bank a
recurved spit [dutch: haakwal] was formed,
called the Beer [i.e. bear in English]. As it
narrowed the tides were harnessed causing
erosion at one place and sedimentation at
another. The area of the Slufter disposal site
was located in the sedimentation zone.
Finally, in the beginning of the 18th century
the ebb-tide eroded the Westplaat and forced a
new passage. It was located some 100 metres
South of the Slufter location and soon became
the most important navigation channel.
All in all the historical information allows for
the following conclusions:
the Slufter location has been an area
of shallows for the whole period for
which historical data are available
[i.e. from 1540 A.D. onwards];
channels of any importance have not
crossed the location since;
during the 16th century the most
important navigation channel was
within 300 metres North of the
location;
during the 17th century the shallows
[Westplaat] extended towards the
North;
it is probable that during the
17th century the navigation channel
did also shift to the North;
in the 18th century a new passage
through the shallows came to be used
for navigation. That channel is
located some 100 metres South of the
Slufter location.

P R E L I M I N A R Y RESEARCH

[Fig. 81
The interpretation of Sparker-record 22
showing the Holocene sedimentation.
Interpretatie van Sparkerrecord 22 in
het Holocene sedimentatiepakket.
[Fig. 91
Lithostratigraphical basis of
interpretation.
De lithostratigrafische grondslag van
interpretatie.
[Fig. 101
Palynological analysis of two cores.
Boorkolommen met pollenzones.
[Fig. 111
An overview of the development of
shipping channels in the RhineIMeuse
outer delta, as derived from historical
information.
Beknopt overzicht van de onhuikkeling
van scheepvaartroutes in de
Maasmond zoals die kon worden
afgeleid uit historische gegevens.
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
1.5 POTENTIAL FOR
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
Predictions on the archaeological
contents of a specific area are a most
hazardous affair. Trusting careful analysis of
geological and historical data, it is of course
possible to make general inferences. Reliable
predictions, however, can only be given in the
negative. Sterile areas can be indicated. The
possibility of striking on a certain type of site
in other areas is, however, not a very tangible
kind of data. It is something quite different
from a positive prediction that something will
be found. Nevertheless on the basis of the
historical-geographical and geological
information presented above some statements
concerning any archaeological sites in the
construction zone were made which in turn
were used as a basis for a strategy.
Chance finds after the construction of the
Maasvlakte proved that the boreal deposits in
what is referred to as the layer of Velsen
contain remains of human activity during the
Mesolithic. It would however be contrary to
reason to suppose that proper attention could
be given to any relating sites during the
construction of the large-scale disposal site.
Systematic investigation of these layers
would be an extremely expensive affair,
whereas clear-cut results are not indubitably
to be expected. It would, however, be sensible
to remain alert for chance finds of mesolithic
tools in the dredged material.
All sediments above the layer of Velsen are of
marine origin. Any remains of human activity
these might contain must have been brought
by or through the sea. The only type of
archaeological site one really has to reckon
with is the site originating in shipwreck.
Archaeological remains cannot be younger
than the sediment they are contained in. The
oldest topical sequence of marine deposits
dates from before the start of the Subatlantic
[i.e. before 900 B.c.]. It is certain that
seafaring was already practised long before.
Nevertheless, the chances of discovery of any
wrecksites in the older sediments must be
deemed negligible. Also the subatlantic
sediments deserved most attention, even
though it is true that the area might also
contain remains of much older date. Traffic
and the resulting losses have gained in
intensity. Wether or not these losses can be
traced depends on the processes that
determine the formation and preservation of
archaeological sites. By taking these into
consideration the sensitive geological
sequences can be defined even more
precisely.
23
Formation of wrecksites
As stated above shipwreck is the main cause
of archaeological site formation in the area. It
is a process with its own dynamics. There are
many reasons why a ship can come to grief. In
general this happens more often near to shore
or at the mouth of an inlet than on the high
seas. A shallow estuarine area, like the outer
delta of the RhineIMeuse, is particularly
accident prone. The hydrographic situation in
such an area changes quickly.
Unfamiliarity with the local conditions and
currents or just inattentiveness can easily
cause grounding. The situation is worse in
strong winds, especially with an onshore
direction. Onshore - that is westerly - winds
are most usual in the area. If grounding leads
to wreck this may come about in two ways:
the ship stays were it stuck and is torn
apart;
the ship springs a leak but starts
floating again and sinks elsewhere.
In the first instance the remains are exposed
to extremely strong mechanical forces. They
can be dispersed over a large area. The force
of the breakers and the velocity of the
breaking up process determine the size of
individual bits and pieces.
In the second instance the ship may sink in
deeper water or slide down to deeper water if
it sinks on the bank of a gully. In that case the
chances of large pieces being embedded in the
sediments in their entirety are much better.
Once the remains have more or less settled the
site is susceptible to a number of complex
influences and transforms. At a shallow site
the mechanical forces in operation will
overrule all other factors. In general nothing
remains undamaged in less than six meters of
water on an exposed site along the Dutch
coast. At a deeper site - i.e. in a gully -
remains stand a better chance.
Chemical degradation and attack by marine
organisms are two, mutually intensifying
agents affecting their preservation. The
mechanical force of the currents is in some
ways subordinate. It will in most cases more
strongly act upon the environment than upon
the remains themselves, as more often than
not these have a greater resistance. However,
by doing so the currents determine whether or
not the remains are buried and to what extent
they are exposed to the aforementioned
chemical and biological attack. Changes in
the course of gullies can produce repeated
slowing and acceleration of this kind of
degradation.
If wreckage ends up in a sedimentation zone
- for instance along a convex gully bank -

PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
 it can be covered rather quickly: the remains
are no longer exposed to the oxygen rich
seawater. The context may remain virtually
unchanged until discovery. The only influence
one has to reckon with is the mechanical force
of compaction of the sediments.
If a wreck ends up in the middle of a gully or
in an erosion zone the situation will be much
more complex. The wreck itself will obstruct
the currents and will thus interfere with
erosion and deposition processes. Scouring
will intensify and it is not improbable that the
remains or part thereof will slip into the gully
so formed. The process may repeat itself time
and again. It will only end if the geological
circumstances change sufficiently to override
the localised effect of the wreck structure or
if, due to collapse or displacement enough
water storage is attained for the rate of flow to
diminish. In both cases sedimentation will
occur and the remains will finally be covered
after having been susceptible not only to
chemical and biological degradation but also
to mechanical damage as a result of
displacement. The formation of the site will
have affected sediments well beyond the local
depth of the gully at the time of sinking.
For the situation in the area concerned these
theoretical considerations have the following
consequences. Shipfinds with structural
cohesion are not to be expected in those
deposits that have formed on shoal tops [and
in consequence have a purely horizontal
stratigraphy]. In sediments that have been
deposited in gullies such finds are only to be
expected at a greater depth than six meters
[under mean low water and to be corrected for
the sealevel at the time of the gully's activity].
They are most likely to appear at the deepest
spots of erosion that a phase of activity of a
gully has caused.

1.6 CONCLUSIONS AND A LINE O F

ACTION
Consideration of the historical-
geographical and geological data in
combination with the theoretical aspects
elucidated above allowed some reasoning on
which a line of action could be deployed. To
begin with a quite substantial amount of
sediment could -for all practical purposes -
be considered to be archaeologically sterile.
This applied both to the pleistocene sequence
and to the holocene sequence predating the
Subatlantic. This also applied to those
sediments that lay at a shallower depth than
6 m below N.A.P., as well as to all those
sediments that can be interpreted as shoal-
deposits.

PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
What remains to be scrutinized are the gully-
deposits in the subatlantic sequence. These
were supposed to extend no deeper than 12 m
below N.A.P. Their build-up is the result of
sedimentation in gullies migrating to the
North. This happened after 700 A.D. and for
the greater part after 1300 A.D. During the
16th century a gully that was used as an
important navigation channel was situated
some 300 m North of the construction site.
During the 18th century a new passage was
opened at 100 m South of the location.
On the basis of this information it was
inferred that the northern navigation channel
had previously had a slightly more southerly
course. It might have been in use before
1500 A.D. If any wrecksites related to that
channel had been preserved they might be
encountered in the northern part of the
construction site. Wrecksites related to the
southern channel would be much younger.
They were more likely to be encountered in
the southern part.
In designing a strategy two straightforward
principles took a keynote position:
the line of action should tune to the
planning of construction;
priority should be given to the most
important sites.
However straightforward these principles may
be, the practical appliance is very
problematical. Nevertheless some a priori
choices were made regarding both issues.

The Planning of construction

The planning of construction was such that
the disposal site would be excavated in three
phases [fig. 121. Excavation would be carried
out by suction-dredgers in a breaching
technique. In the first phase the holocene
deposits would be removed to a depth of
about 12 m [working depth and disturbance
approximately 18 m: resulting water depth
Zee
12 m, due to spill]. In this phase dredging .-> ,..
Homien
would be carried out in continuous shifts,
7 x 24 per week. Three dredgers would be
involved, with a weekly production totalling
800.000 m'. In view of creating shelter for the
dredgers it was preferred to commence
excavation in the northern part. The dredged
holocene material was to be used in the body
of the dike around the disposal site. In the
second phase the main part of the area would
be deepened to 28 m. The extracted mix of
pleistocene and holocene sediments would be
used to strengthen the outer part of the dikes.
In the third phase the inner side of the dikes
would be dredged to the correct cross-section
by means of cutter-suction dredgers. During

P R E L I M I N A R Y RESEARCH
 - the latter two phases on-site work would be
-
[Fig. 121
Schematic representatlon of the
techniques and order of excavation of
the d~sposalsite. In Phase 1 the bulk
of the Holocene material is removed.
The fine sands are used in the body of
the surrounding dike. In Phase 2 a
suction-dredger is used to remove the
deeper Pleistocene deposits. These
coarser sands are used to reinforce
the embankment. Phase 3 is the final
phase in which the inner fringes are
finished to the appropriate cross-
section.
In de eerste fase van her werk wordt
bet merendeel van de Holocene
afzettingen verwijderd. Dit fJne zand
wordt gebruikt als kern van de
ringdijk. In de tweede fase wordt her
bassin met een diepzuiger op diepte
gebracht Het grovere Pleistocene
zand dat daarbij vrij komt wordt
gebruikt ter versterking van de
oeverzone. In de derde fase wordt de
binnenkant van bet bassin netjes
afgewerkt Ook dan wordt er nog
Holoceen sediment vergraven, maar
het doen van archeologische
waarnemingenis dan vrijwel niet
meer mogelijk.
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
limited to 5 x 24 hours per week.
The whole procedure, and especially the tight
time-schedule, implied that it would be much
easier to shift activities and thus
accommodate archaeological discoveries at
the beginning of construction rather than at a
later stage.
The most important sites
To decide on the relative importance of
unknown sites is virtually impossible. The
situation, however, was thus that a priori
decisions had to be made as to determine what
kind of sites were to be deemed important in
this particular context. It is fully realised that
these decisions are of a contestable nature.
Considerations significantly affecting
decision-making at this stage were
that only those sites would be taken
into account where this would be
technically feasible under the
prevailing circumstances;
that older sites would be deemed
more important than younger ones.
As a result the area of concern was limited to
the subatlantic gully fillings. This meant that
no archaeological support was needed during
the second phase of construction. During the
third phase proper dealing with
archaeological discoveries would be most
problematical as there would only be limited
possibilities to shift dredging activities. From
an archaeological point of view the emphasis
was thus on phase 1.
Sand extraction was planned to begin in the
northern part of the area. The first section of
the dike to be constructed would create some
shelter for the dredgers. Bearing in mind that
the oldest known navigation channel by-
passed the area just to the North and
considering the fact that it would be more
likely to encounter a wrecksite related to that
channel in the northern part than anywhere
else this decision was readily endorsed. It
would, after all, be preferable to discover any
important sites as soon as possible.
Furthermore it was quite clear that attention
could only be given to shipwreck sites
containing sufficiently substantial structural
remains. Small items would unquestionably
go unnoticed. For proper planning it was
essential to know what exactly could be
recognized in time and into what categories
the possible discoveries could be classified.
To devise a method of timely detection in
accordance with the proposed method of
sand-extraction a series of tests were run on
January 23 1986 at a nearby dredging site.
Several systems of acoustic detection were
put to the test, while objects of differing sizes
were lowered in the breach. A UDI Obstacle
Avoidance Sonar mounted underneath the
frontside of a stationary suction-dredger was
found to satisfactorily register any objects
protruding more than 1.5 m from the
o~~tcropping sediments. Within the limits set
by the available technology it would thus be
possible to detect significant shipwreck sites
as soon these started to uncover. Wreckage in
structural cohesion measuring 5 x 7 m or
more can be detected before actually coming
loose, provided that the monitor is properly
watched. Sites containing fragments of a
smaller size only will, however, remain
unnoticed.
In consequence it was proposed to mount this
system onto the dredgers. Detection of an
anomaly on the sonar screen was to be
followed by three consecutive actions:
monitoring of the anomaly would be
continued for 15 to 30 min. to see
whether indeed it represented a
stationary object;
dragging the breach with a grapnel
from a small boat would start while
the anomaly was being monitored in
order to establish direct contact with
the remains;
shifting of dredging activity would be
commenced as soon as the grapnel got
stuck, in order to allow for diver-
inspection.
The inspection serves technical as well as
archaeological ends. It is to be carried out by
an experienced diving archaeologist. It allows
to assess whether there is any real obstruction
hindering continued sand extraction and it
also allows preliminary assessment of any
archaeological values involved. Technically
six alternatives have been anticipated:
fragmentary, loose or largely
decomposed wreckage;
part of a ship's bottom or side with
heavy timbers, wooden fastenings and
strong longitudinal cohesion,
measuring up to 5 x 10 m;
part of ship's bottom or side, lightly
built, longitudinal cohesion in strakes
only, measuring up to 5 x 10 m;
ship's bottom or side, heavily built,
measuring up to 7 x 17 m;
ship's bottom or side, lightly built,
measuring up to 7 x 17 m;
larger entity or complete ship.
As the possibilities for prolonged on-site
research in a situation like this are very
limited due to adverse, unstable
PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
circumstances and a very tight time-schedule
quick removal for study elsewhere is to be
preferred. For research it is of course
preferable to remove a find as integrally as
possible, surrounding sediments included.
Taking this into account and also bearing in
mind that removal of any overburden will
make such operations incomparably more
simple a detailed plan was framed for each of
the given alternatives [Cemeente Rotterdam
et al. 19861. Only the last alternative was left
open-ended. In a case like that too many
variables are involved and decisons have to be
postponed to the very last moment when
technical problems, the cultural importance
and all factors that can be summarized with
the term cost-effectiveness can best be
assessed.
In all cases it was to be the on-site presence of
diving archaeological staff that was to
guarantee the quick and responsible
assessment necessary for ad hoc decision
making. Their expertise was also needed for
the reception, documentation, conservation
and research of the finds.
All in all the preliminary survey showed it to
be highly likely that important discoveries
would be made. A realistic line of action was
deployed in accordance with the proposed
technique of construction. The costs of
satisfactory archaeological guidance of the
project were estimated at dfl. 1.500.000 of
which the greater part [dfl 1.100.000] was to
be reserved for delays and shifting of the
dredgers. It is to be kept in mind that large
obstructions may cause this kind of expenses
whether they are researched archaeologically
or not. dfl. 200.000 was to be spent on
archaeological staff and research, dfl. 100.000
for the necessary sonar equipment and another
dfl 100.000 for other eventualities.
1.7 CHANGES IN PLANNING
The strategy outlined in the plan of
action formed the basis for all decisions.
There was however one essential point where
strategy and reality did not meet from the very
start. The contractor to whom the construction
was allocated decided to use cutter-suction-
dredgers for the sand extraction not only in
phase 3 as demanded, but also in phase 1. For
the kind of sediments involved the cutter-
suction-dredger is normally too expensive an
instrument.
From a technical point of view and with
respect to the tight time schedule this was
considered to be a favourable decision. For
the detection of archaeological sites this
decision had grave consequences. Unlike the
 pontoon of a suction-dredger, a cutter-
suction-dredger is not a stationary instrument.
Even if it dredges in a breaching technique it
will still sweep to and fro constantly. The
turning cutter-head will cause turbulence that
will to some extent blurr the sonar. More
serious however is the fact that the constant
motion will constantly affect the picture that
it shows. Monitoring of changes in the
breach-profile thus becomes an extremely
tiring job as it necessitates constant watching
of the screen [7 x 24 hours a week].
Even when one of the dredgers was equipped
with an obstacle avoidance sonar all sites
were detected by the destructive cutter-head
itself. For one thing this meant considerable
damage to the remains, for another it meant
that smaller and less resistent items went
unnoticed. The scale of objects that were
detected was thus larger than originally
envisaged.

PRELIMINARY RESEARCH
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

1. Wrecksite SL 1
1 .I Circumstances of discovery
1.1.1 The first hit
1.1.2 Preliminary assessment
1.1.3 Adjustment of the order of sand extraction
1.1.4 On-site inspection
1.2 Description of the recovered remains
1.2.1 The ship
1.2.2 Ship's fittings
1.2.3 Associated finds
1.3 Analyses
1.3.1 Dendrochronological analysis
1.3.2 Caulking and luting materials
1.4 Evaluation
1.4.1 The site
1.4.2 The ship

2. Wrecksite SL 2
2.1 Circumstances of discovery
2.2 Description of the recovered remains
2.3 Analyses
2.4 Evaluative considerations

3. Wrecksite SL 3
3.1 Circumstances of discovery
3.2 Description of the recovered remains
3.3 Analyses
3.4 Conclusions

4. Wrecksite SL 4
4.1 Circumstances of discovery
4.1.1 The first hit
4.1.2 On-site inspection
4.1.3 Considerations and decisions
4.1.4 Clearance
4.1.5 Renewed considerations
4.2 Description of the recovered remains
4.2.1 The ship
4.2.2 Ship's fittings
4.2.3 Associated finds
4.3 Analyses
4.3.1 Wood species
4.3.2 Dendrochronological analysis
4.3.3 Caulking and luting materials
4.3.4 Copper alloys
4.3.5 Coal
 4.4 Evaluation
4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 The site
4.4.3 The ship and its construction
4.4.4 Developments in ship construction
4.4.5 Historical setting of ship and ship type
4.4.6 The cargo
4.4.7 Date of shipwreck
4.5 Conclusion

5. Wrecksite SL 5
5.1 Circumstances of discovery
5.2 Description of the recovered remains
5.3 Analyses
5.4 Discussion

6. Wrecksite SL 6

7. Miscellaneous finds
 [Fig. 131
Map showing the outline of the Slufter
and the distribution of finds againstthe
background of the 1985 depth
contours.
Dieptekaart uit 1985met daarop de
begrenzing van de Slufter en de
verspreiding van de vindplaatsen.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 1.1 CIRCUMSTANCES O F
DISCOVERY
1.1.1 The first hit
Shortly after midnight, in the early
hours of May 4 1986 the pump and cutter of
the cutter-suction-dredger Hector got blocked
for the first time by wood that turned out to be
wreckage. Its position was x 60.228 and
y 438.23 1 [Dutch National Grid coordinates]
[fig. 131. The obstruction was as solid as to
repeatedly block the cutter again. After more
than five and a half hours of delay the Hector.
had to be moved back. At the dump-site quite
a few items were observed, such as pulley-
blocks, pieces of rope and lengths of chain.
Part of those items [i.e. only the chain] were
collected later on. Others are said to have
disappeared into private collections.
The incident occurred on one of the very first
days of on-site work. The Hector was
dredging in an easterly direction. From the
Gat vat2 de Hawk it was on its way to the area
in the North where sand-extraction would
begin. The itinerary chosen would make the
most of the shelter that the shoals in the area
could give. Waterdepth had been near zero
and Hector directly broke in to a depth of
17 m. It was at that depth that the cutter hit
wreckage. The dredger got stuck and had to
back off for clearing. The ensuing delay had
caused the channel to fill in so it had to be
cleared once more. All through the day loose
pieces of timber kept blocking the pump. It
was, however, only the next night that the
original spot of hitting was reached once
more. Instead of its original depth of 17 m the
dredger was lifted to a depth of 14 m and
could pass the sensitive area without further
delay. As soon as the cutter was thought to be
clear it was lowered to 20 m. In the early
morning it hit again. Planking rose to the
surface and drifted away. A windlass came up
floating and was lifted onto a barge. A
collection of small stuff was collected from
the cutter and the pump. For convenience'
sake this first site was called SL 1.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
1.1.2 Preliminary assessment
After the aforementioned channel had
been dug the cutter-suction-dredger Hector
went on dredging in the northern part of the
Slufter. The area where the wreck was hit
upon was not to be in exploitation for quite
some time. In keeping with the plan of action
the spot was dragged with a grapnel from a
small boat. Later on, on May 24, a bottom
search was organised. Volunteer divers that
regularly assist the underwater archaeological
unit of the Ministry of Culture were mobilised
for the purpose. The water was quite clear that
day, amounting to about 2 to 3 metres under
water visibility on the bottom, and systematic
visual inspection of an area covering
approximately 3,500 mZcould be carried out.
Most of the channel had, however, filled in.
Remaining depth was only 8 to 9 m and no
wreckage protruded from the even bottom of
loose sand.
In short all information on the site one could
go by was that at a depth of more than 14 m a
wreck had been hit at spots as far apart as
40 m [according to guesses by the dredging
personnel and the construction inspectors].
The fragments that had been lifted made it
quite clear that the wreck was that of a post-
medieval vessel of considerable size. All
fragments that could readily be identified
pointed to the upper deck structure in the
bows. It was assumed to be highly probable
that most of the vessel remained.
1.1.3 Adjustment of the order of sand
extraction
As mentioned before the area around
wrecksite SL 1 was not to be dredged for
some time. The possibility that the discovered
wreck was a complete or near complete ship
and fell into category 6 of the plan of action
was to be considered seriously. The wood was
in very sound condition and the wreck might
cause a serious obstruction for the dredgers.
To assess both the extent to which this would
be the case and its cultural importance it was
thought that the planned diver inspection
should anyhow take place. First however one
would have to get rid of the tremendous
overburden of loose spill sand. To
accommodate for this the order of sand
extraction was adjusted. The cutter-suction-
dredger Triton was to dredge in the vicinity
from mid-summer onwards. In the original
planning of the work it was to furrow
forwards and back again so as to cover the
whole area systematically. This method
however was changed. TI-itonwas instructed
first to dredge a trench around wrecksite SL 1
so as to create overdepth were the overburden
could temporarily be dumped [fig. 141.

1 .I .4 On-site inspection
To remove the overburden itself, a
more gentle instrument than the cutter-
suction-dredger was chosen. A so-called
prop-wash deflector, mounted on the diving
vessel Ursus 11, was used [fig. 15, 161. This
vessel belongs to the Ecuador. diving team
from the isle of Terschelling. Both the ship
and the team have repeatedly assisted in
archaeological work. Inspection was carried
out on 19,20,21 and 22 September 1986. The
wreckage proved to occur at a depth of
approximately 18 m. As the Triton had not
dredged beyond 17 m it was impossible to
wash the overburden into a surrounding
trench. The wreckage could not be cleared of
overburden over areas measuring more than
4 m in diameter. To be able to correctly direct
the prop-wash and to get a clear picture of the
extent of wreckage the site was systematically
probed with a 6 m water probe that was
lowered from the surface. It consisted of a
length of 1" steel piping fitted with a coupling
and fed through a flexible hose. It sank into
the sediments by its own weight and any
obstruction could be readily noticed by the
man handling the hose from the surface. The
wreckage proved to have lost its structural
integrity.
During a total of 18 inspection dives in
successive prop-wash-pits it was established
that all wreckage consisted of deck-structure.
It also became evident that the structure faced
downwards, i.e. that the wreck had been lying
upside down. It rested on a tough clay layer
that was covered by an erosion layer
containing loose objects. It was decided to lift
loose pieces. They were cleared with an air
lift [fig. 171. Apart from structural remains
parts of the ship's rigging and inventory were
brought up.
Diving in the pits was seriously hampered by
a layer of liquified silt that had formed over
the deepest parts of the Slufter, due to three
dredgers continuously running. In fact the
density of the murky water gradually

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER


[Fig. 141
Dredging-plan around wreck-site SL 1.
Snedeplan rand SL 1.
[Fig. 151
Diving vessel Ursus 11.
Onderzoeksvaartuig Ursus I1 van het
Duikream Ecuador [foto IPL].
[Fig. 161
Schematic representation of a prop-
wash-deflector.
Werking van een prop-wash.
[Fig. 171
Schematic representation of an airlift.
Werking van een airlift.
[Fig. 181
Examples of iron fastenings from SL 1.
From top to bottom: iron bolt SL1 A89
[diameter 21 mml iron bolt SLl A6911
[diameter 21 mm] large iron spike SLl
A6912 [13 x 13 mm].
Bij de bouw van het schip zijn ijleren
pennen, nagels en spijkers gebruikt.
Depennenhebbeneendoorsnedevan
21 mm. De hier afgebeelde spijker is 13
mm vierkant.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
increased towards the bottom. Divers had
problems to weigh themselves down. Working
with the airlift brought some temporary relief.
Individual dives were not extended beyond
30 min.
1.2 DESCRIPTION O F T H E
RECOVERED REMAINS
1.2.1 The ship
Some of the timbers recovered could
be reassembled to form what is probably part
of the starboard fore deck area. Although
various figures show these elements
assembled they are first described .
individually.
Fastenings
The fastenings consist of treenails, iron bolts,
iron spikes and iron nails.
The treenails were mostly of softwood but
some were oak. The diameters were between
25 - 31 mm although one piece of what is
probably a wale was fastened with treenails
32 - 34 mm in diameter. They are roughly
finished some being relatively rounded in
section but others being more octagonal.
Some are left plain but others were tightened.
In many instances this was done by cuts that
were caulked. More common still was the use
of a deutel [central square wedge]. The former
examples were cut several times across the
head, presumably with a chisel. The pattern
and depth of the cuts varied. Two or three of
the cuts were rammed with caulking material
[perhaps moss]. Also, in some cases a thin
hardwood pin about 30 mm long and 4 lnln
thick at the head was driven into the treenail.
In one case the pin was driven into the centre
of the cross-cuts but in another it was driven
off-centre and clear of the cuts altogether.
The mean diameter of the iron bolts is 21 mm.
The iron is square in section but chamfered
along the edge. The bolts had a definite head
i.e. not merely widened through being driven.
They were clenched over a washer.
The spikes and nails were square shanked,
ranging in size from the smaller nails of 4 mrn
square up to the larger spikes of 15 mm
square. The latter are also chamfered along
their edges like the bolts. They all have
similar facetted heads and flat, slightly
rounded chisel shaped ends [fig. 181.
Frames
SLl T75. A futtock 190 x 18 x 11.5 cm
trapezoidal in cross section. Towards the foot
it gradually tapers and curves slightly in two
directions. In view of this shape it is probably
from the bow or stern if not a cant frame as
such [fig. 191. At what is presumably its head
it js pierced by two iron bolts. The hull planks
were fastened by treenails 30 mm in diameter
that were cut flush on the inboard surface.
There are also several nail holes on both
inboard and outboard surfaces.
SLl T106. Futtockof 147 x 18.5 x 11 cm
tapering at one end to 10 x 16 cm. At the head
it is cut with a rebate. In this case a treenail
projects from the inboard surface which is
wedged with a deutel. There are also nail
holes but less than in T75. There is one iron
bolt at the foot.
SLI T107. Futtock of 143 x 13 x 11 cm. Its
curvature corresponds with that of T75. At the
head it ends in a flat butt. Just below this is an
iron bolt. The plank fastening treenails are
also cut flush on the inboard surface as in T75
except for one. Where this treenail projects,
iron stain and concretion indicate the grain of
a ceiling plank [stringer?].
SLl T108. Futtock 122 x 18 x 12 cm. Heavily
damaged, with the head being cut where a
fork in the timber occurred. There are no
treenails in this timber, only bolts and nails.
SL1 T109. Short section of a futtock 18 x
13 cm in section. The treenails fastened both
inboard and outboard planking.
All of these timbers are oak and three have a
certain amount of sapwood remaining. None
are complete, all showing shipworm attack at
the feet due to their inverted position on the
sea bed.

Outer hull planking

SLl T45. A plank, maximum width-of
21.5 cm and 4 - 4.5 cm in thickness which is
curved and shaped in a manner that indicates
a position next to the stem or stern post
[fig. 201. Apart from the shape, on its inboard
surface are the marks of the timbers to which
it was fastened that ran horizontally across the
stem or stern post. On the outer surface at the
edge of the pointed end there is a mark where
suggesting it fitted into a rabbet or was
secured with a batten. There is also a rebate
which may be a repair. There are two nail
holes that could have fastened a patch. On
both sides of this plank there are also former
nail holes that have been plugged with wooden
pegs. Other fragments of what are presumably
hull planks also show these plugged nail holes
on both faces. The average thickness of the
planking in the straight body of the hull was
around 6 cm in thickness. Lead tingle or
repair patch 24 x 7 cm with small nail holes,
that might have been used as a temporary
patch on either hull or deck planking.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER

[Fig. 191
Funock SLl T75.
De zitter SL 1 T75. Het inhout is
vermoedelijk uit het voorschip
afkomstig. Erzijn twee ijzeren pennen
doorgeslagen. De huid is bevestigd
geweest met houten pennen die aan
de binnenzijde van het inhout vlak zijn
afgesneden.
[Fig. 201
Outer hull plank SLl T45.
Huidplank SL1 T45. Deze plank die op
een van de stevens aangesloten moet
hebben, vertoont een aantal bijzondere
kenmerken. Aan de buitenzijde is
duidelijk te zien waar de plank in de
stevensponning sloot. Aan de binnen-
zijde zijn de afdrukken zichtbaar van
de horizontale banden, inhouten die
dwars over de steven bevestigd waren.
Aan weerszijden zijn spijkergaarjes re
ontwaren die met houten pennetjes
zijn afgedicht. Dat is oak bij de overige
huidplanken het geval.
[Fig. 211
Treenail which has been cut, caulked
and pinned.
De kop van houten treknagels is
ingesneden en gebreeuwd. Bovendien
is er een houten pennetje ingeslagen
[for0 IPLI.
[Fig. 231
Inverted hanging knees SLl T95 and
S L l T96. Twee verticale knieen
waarvan het lijf onderdeks was
aangebracht en het korte gedeelte een
Iuikhoofd gesteund heeftlfoto IPLI.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
SLl T104. A thick timber that is probably
part of a wale 23.5 cm wide by 9.5 cm in
thickness. It had been fastened with treenails
and still has some of the caulking material on
its edges. The treenails have been tightened
by being cut, caulked and pinned in the
manner described above [fig. 211.
Ceiling
Four fragments of thick planking which in the
absence of caulking would seem to be from
inboard. One is damaged but of the other
three, two are 23 cm and the other is 38.5 cm
in width. Their thickness ranges between 9
and 11.5 cm so they are probably stringers.
They are fastened with iron bolts, nails and
treenails. A rebate in one of them suggests it
might be a beam shelf. Below the rebate is
what appears to be a treenail hole that was
started then abandoned. In the same piece a
treenail hole passing through the plank has
been plugged with an off-cut of a treenail.
Knees
SLI T78. A hanging knee 165 cm in height
but incomplete due to teredo attack at the foot
[similar to the frame timbers]. The horizontal
arm has been damaged and is incomplete. It is
well finished but the grain direction of the
timber from which it was cut was not ideal. It
also included areas of sapwood. It is rebated
to fit against and partly beneath a deck beam
and was fastened to the hull and the beam
with iron bolts. Four in the lower arm and a
bolt and two large spikes in the upper arm.
The uppermost bolt projects 29 cm beyond the
back of the knee. The next two project 25 and
23.5 cm respectively. This indicates the top
bolt passed through the main wale. The lower
arm is rebated to a depth of 3.5 cm,
presumably to fit over stringers and the shelf
[fig. 221. At the end of the bolts passing
through the lower arm there is concretion that
bears the cast impression of the hull planking.
SLl T21. Hanging knee which is much more
of a grown timber although of much rougher
finish [fig. 221. Height is 116 cm. The arm is
74 cm in length. The lower arm is rebated also
to fit over stringers. Two bolts and two spikes
fastened the lower arm. The upper arm is not
rebated but merely flattened to fit against the
deck beam. It was fastened to it with two
bolts, three heavy iron spikes and three
smaller nails. In the outer face there is a
shallow hole [15 mm] presumably where a
treenail hole was augered through the futtock
for a hull plank.
SLl T98. Fragment of a hanging knee, also a
suitably grown timber like T21 but the upper
arm is very thin. The head was rebated to fit
around the beam but the arm itself being so
thin was merely flattened against the beam in
a similar manner to T21 [fig. 221. It is
fastened in a similar manner to the other
hanging knees.
SL1 T93. The upper fragment of a knee with a
deep rebate probably also for a beam. It also
has a shallow rebate cut out of the crown and
on one side has indications that there were
planks set vertically against it. Although it is
also presumably a hanging knee [the
fastenings are the same in principle as the
others] it would seem either the beam was
deeper or the knee was set higher relative to
it. The slight indication of adjacent planking
suggests it might have been positioned at the
junction of the hold and cabin areas [fig. 221.
SL1 T48. Upper fragment of a hanging knee
similar in shape and finish to T75.
SLl T95 and T96. Two elbow shaped knees
with their surfaces flattened. They were
positioned horizontally with the short arm
vertical to support a hatch structure
[figs. 22, 231. They were fastened with large
iron spikes and in one case with an additional
bolt. The angle of the knees reflects the
camber of the deck and the slight inward lean
of the hatch structure. The lower arm ran
between the hatch and the side, the heel of the
knee butting against the side.
SLl T97. Knee from grown timber which is
either a lodging knee or, in view of the
shallow depth of its long arm, a standing
knee. It was fastened with three bolts and
spikes [fig. 221.

Waterway, beam shelf, deck beams and

deck planks
SLI T63. Two loose pieces of timber that are
likely to be part of the waterway [fig. 241.
They are 8.5 - 9 cm in thickness and the piece
which is preserved for its full width is 30 cm.
The sectional shape is a parallelogram. Bolts
passed through them horizontally and
fastened through the full thickness of the hull.
Sloped dove-tail rebates were cut into the
inboard edge to retain the half beams but their
ends were also nailed in place. In line with the
rear of these rebates the waterway is slightly
bevellecl downwards. Along the bevel is a
mark and a line of nail holes indicating the
edge of a plank. This suggests that in this part
of the ship there was a gutter between the
outermost deck plank and the bulwark. In one
of the pieces similar to T63 there are holes
[6 x 6 mm] in the side opposite the rebates.
These are probably the holes from large
spikes fastening through the futtocks

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER

[Fig. 221
Knees from SL 1.
Knieen. Oe verticale knieen SL 1 T78,
SL 1 T21 en SL 1 T98 zijn aan de
onderzijde door paalworm
aangevreten. Aan de bovenzijde is er
een sponning ingekapt waar zij op de
dekbalken aansluiten. SL 1 T97 is
mogelijk een horizontale knie. Zie voor
SL 1 T96 fig. 23.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
[Fig. 241
Individual timbers from the deck and
waterway assembly. SLl T80 is a deck
beam. SL1 T99 is described as a stringer,
SLl T63 as part of the waterway, SL1
T l l O might be the end of a wale.
Onderdelen van de dekconstructie.
Hoewel de onderdelen sterk beschadigd
zijn was her mogelijk de onderlinge
samenhang te reconstrueren. Zie
hiervoor fig. 27,28 en 62. In de
zwaluwstaartvormige inkepingen in SL 1
T63 hebben halve balken gerust. Ook de
dekbalk SL 1 T80 is met een zwaluwstaen
afgewerkt. Twee vulstukjes waren nodig
om de dekplanken te ondersteunen. In
het oppervlak van een aantal van deze
onderdelen zijn merkwaardige gaten
aangetroffen die soms ruw met houtzijn
afgedicht Zie hiervoor fig. 25 en 26.
supplementing the bolts.
SLl T74. A large curved piece of grown
timber rebated for a main deck beam and two
half beams. It is well finished but includes
traces of sapwood. The main beam rebate is
flared on both sides whereas the smaller half
beam rebates are straight on one side. It was
bulted and nailed through to the futtocks.
Next to the beam it has been built up on one
side with a thin filling piece, corresponding to
the top surface of the beam, so that the deck
plank would bed flush onto it.
SLl T80. Damaged piece of deck beam fitting
the rebate in T74. A good quality timber but it
has had to be built up at the edge with two
small fillets of wood to provide flush bedding
for the planks [fig. 241. Nail holes in the top
surface are from the nails that fastened the
deck planks. There are also various tool
marks. Where it has broken, there is the edge
of a rebate, probably for a carling or hatch
coaming for a companion way. There were
apparently no knees reinforcing this beam,
being only retained by the dove tailed rebate
in the shelf.
There are two holes in the beam, one probably
for a deck fitting, the purpose of the other is
doubtful as it apparently does not pass
through the deck plank. Several nail holes in
the side of the beam and a mark on the under
side indicate partition planking.
There are also several peculiar oval holes
which deserve special attention. They are not
in any way connected with construction itself
and they might be associated with the
transport of the baulk of timber prior to its
conversion. In that case the holes could be left
by the dogs, large staple-like spikes used to
stabilise logs which have been bound together
in rafts for transport downriver [fig. 2.51.
These holes also occur on one of the other
loose timbers, probably also part of a beam.
Some of those holes have been plugged with
soft wood and flat wedged in the manner of a
treenail [fig. 261.
SLl T77. A deck beam, virtually complete,
which is 4.68 In in length [4.65 m true
horizontal distance between ends]. At one end
is a dove-tail where it was let into the shelf.
The other end is damaged. On one side
[probably the aft side] there are bolt holes
where the upper arms of the hanging knees
were fastened. The upper side bears the nail
holes from the deck planks. There are four
blind holes in the upper side, evidence for
deck fittings of some kind. On the [aft] face
1.61 m from the side there is a rebate
presumably for a carling. Presumably there
was a corresponding rebate at the other end of
the beam but damage has removed all trace of
it. On the fore side on both sides there was a
small iron hook, which might be associated
with internal partitioning, for which there is
some evidence in the form of nails holes
under the beam. On the same side as the
hooks there is a small repair piece let into the
edge of the beam.
SLl T99 and SLl TI 13. SLI T I 13 is the
outermost deck plank [margin plank] that was
recovered. Associated with it was an oak
timber that lay above: T99. Together the two
timbers appear to function as a waterway
[fig. 271. The interface between them was
well waterproofed with a luting compound of
oakum and tar. The lower plank is slightly
thickened where the oak timber is located.
The outer edge of the plank is roughly cut but
generally follows the shape of the shelf piece
below. Aft of T99 the plank is not preserved
for its full width but luting on the upper
surface indicates there was another timber
overlying it in the same manner. Both the
timbers were nailed and bolted to the beams.
T99 is rounded in section with a raised lip on
the outer top edge [fig. 241.
SLl T I 14. A deck plank preserved for its
whole length of 6.85 m. It was nailed to each
deck beam in a regular pattern: four nails in
the form of a square and one centrally placed
similar to thefive on a gaming dice. This
plank was positioned at the end of the vessel
and its foremost end is bevelled accordingly.
Its top surface is marked where it fitted under
a waterway or such like. In the cabin area the
plank was painted on the under side in a
greylblue paint except where passing over the
beams. It therefore accurately records the
beam spacing in this part of the vessel. In the
same way it indicates the position of partition
planking.
The nail pattern along the rest of the length of
the plank also indicates the spacing of the
beams in the hold area, although the actual
widths can only be roughly determined. On
the edges of the deck planking there are
remains of oakum and tar caulking generally
extending for half the depth of the plank.
There was very little gap between them and in
one case the caulker had driven the caulking
iron into the extreme edge of the plank and
duly caulked the resulting split by mistake.
Some of these elements are shown
reassembled in fig. 28.
There were other loose fragments of deck
planking recovered including a stealer and a
piece with a semicircular hole which
corresponds to the diameter of the pump tube.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 [Fig. 251
Hole in deckbeam SL1 T80, presumably
associated with dogs.
€en van de gaten die in het
onderschrift van fig. 24 aan de orde
kwamen. De gaten hebben niets te
maken met de constructie van her
schip, maar er is we1 een verklaring
voor. Hetjaarringonderzoek wijst uit
dat het hout afkomstig is uit Duitsland.
Vermoedelijk zijn de omgezaagde
stammen in grote vlonen
stroomafwaarts langs de rivieren naar
de kustgevoerd. Om de stammen tot
een stijf vlot aaneen te binden werden
erpennen ingedreven. In het Duits
worden diepennen Spannkeil
genoemd. De veronderstelling is nu dat
deze gaten zijn gemaakt ten behoeve
van Spannkeile en dat her dus sporen
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
zijn die duiden op de wipe waarop her
hour in ruwe vorm is vervoerd
[foto IPL].
[Fig. 261
Some of the holes which are
associated with dogs have been
plugged with wooden pegs. Some of
these are flat wedged like treenails.
€en aantal van deze Spannkeil gaten
zijn afgepropt [foto IPL].
[Fig. 271
The end of SLl T99 in position above
the margin plank SL1 T113. The luting
material can be seen along the seam.
Her eind van SLI T99zoals het boven
de buitenste dekplank - het lijfhout-
past Her breeuwwerk is zichtbaar
[foto IPLI.
41
[Fig. 281
Reassembled elements of SL 1: clamp
SLl T80 and waterway assembly SLl
TI13 and SLl T99.
Een aantal van de beschreven
onderdelen van SL I zijn hier weer in
hun oorspronkelijke verband
aaneengevoegd [foto IPL].
[Fig. 291
Unidentified timber SLl T79. Its shape
resembles that of a tiller.
€en balk die doer denken aan een
helmstok. Het stuk is echterzeer ruw
afgewerkt.
All the planking is Pinus sylvestris and 5.5 cm
in thickness.
SLI T102. A small piece of what appears to
be coaming for a small companion way.

Miscellaneous or unidentified timbers

SLI T100. Fragment of beam with rebate. A
piece of softwood is nailed into the rebate.
SLI T I 0 1. Timber with a rabbet along one
edge pierced by bolts, spikes and with two
staples on one side. There is a trace of tar in
the rabbet.
SLl T I 10. Part of a narrowing thick plank
with a dished depression at one end. It is
pierced with spikes and a bolt and has
caulking material along both edges. Opposite
the side with the depression there are marks
indicating it was positioned against frames.
The fastenings corroborate this. On what
would be the outer surface there is a small
repair patch let in over a large knot [fig. 241.
SLI T105. The end of a piece of timber with
two dished surfaces similar to that on the end
of T110.
SLl T I 11. Fragment of timber with bolts
passing through it in two planes. One edge is
slightly rounded.
SLI T20. Small timber, nail fastened, with
two flat sides and the other two rounded. One
of the flat sides has luting.
SLI T79. A large timber of good quality
surviving for a length of 2.30 m. At the
damaged end there were 5 through-bolts with
indications that they were fastened over a
series of stepped plates or iron straps. The
only other fastening is a bolt near the other
end passing through the timber in the other
plane [fig. 291. The undamaged end is roughly
bollard shaped and the whole timber is
slightly curved. It is similar in shape to a tiller
[depending on the vessel type] but it is rather
roughly finished and may have another
function.

1.2.2 Ship's fittings

Windlass
The windlass is made from a single piece of
pine 4.23 m in length with a diameter of 47.5
cm. It is of the handspike type with two sets
of handspike holes on each side of the pawl
rim which are cut in line. The pawl rim is a
series of notches cut into the windlass barrel,
the back face and the sides of each are faced
with iron. The barrel was originally octagonal
but has been rounded off by heavy wear
particularly on one side. The ends are conical
where the windlass rotated in the bits
[figs. 30, 311.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
A3) [Fig. 301
Windlass SL1 A5. It is made from a single
piece of pine.
Het spil of braadspil van SL I is gemaakt
uit BBn stuk grenen. Oorspronkelijk was
8; het spil achtkantig, maar de facetten zijn
. ' in her gebruik afgesleten. De beide
einden lopen uit in konische tappen. Er
zijn twee series vierkante gaten voor de
handspaken in uitgekapt[foto j.a.1.
[Fig. 311
Detail of windlass SL1 A5.
In het midden van het spil zijn paltanden
uitgehakt. De onderzijde van iedere
paltand is afgezet met een ijleren plaatje
[foto i.a.1.
[Fig. 321
Fragment of a pump tube, SL1 A13
A441 Een deel van een houten oomokoker
SLl A67. Masthead strap
Stuk beslag dat vermoedelijk gediend
heeft om een steng met een mast te
verbinden [foto IPL].
[Fig. 351
Deadeyes SLl A3, SLl A39, SL1 A44 and
SL1 A40.
Jufferblokken [foto's IPL].
[Fig. 361
SL1 A43. Part of a chain plate
Puttingijzer [foto IPL].
C.?'
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
Pump
SLl A13. A section of pump tube was
recovered 75 x 20 cm with a bore of 11.5 cm
[fig. 321.
Hook
S L l A55. Iron hook with an eye at the crown
[fig. 331.
Standing rigging
Strap of iron in the form of a square and
circle, probably a mast head strap. The square
part, fitting around the head of the mast, is
12.5 x 12.5 cm. The round part, binding the
foot of the top mast, has a diameter of 16 cm
[fig. 341.
A total of four deadeyes were recovered.
Three are of the same type and size, teardrop
shaped, three holed and bound with round
section iron bar. Two of these still had
fragments of the rope lanyards in the holes.
The other deadeye had three holes in one line
[fig. 351. Associated with these is a strap of
iron 900 x 70 x 10 mm, pierced for bolts. It is
likely to be a chain plate [fig. 361.
Two lengths of hawser laid rope 32 and
38 mm in diameter. They are served with 6
mm twine and tarred and are fragments of the
shrouds.
Running rigging
SLl A64. Single sheaved block [wood
sheave, iron pin] with iron binding and a hook
at one end [fig. 371.
SL1 A38. Cheek of a block, the binding was
probably a rope strop [fig. 381.
SL1 A58. Fiddle block with iron binding and
a hook at one end. One of the cheeks has been
repaired [fig. 391.
SL1 A60. Single sheaved block with a
flattened crown, called a sheepshead block.
On each side above the swallow protrudes an
iron hook [fig. 401. Originally the tapered
shafts on these hooks interlocked. One of the
hooks, however, was broken. The shaft is
reused to keep the other hook in place, a set of
pins being driven through a hole through both.
The broken hook was reforged in order to
lengthen it and to create a new barbed shaft,
which was driven into the block's wood
[fig. 411.
SL1 A65. Fragment of a small iron bound
single sheaved block with 10 mm rope still
roved through it.
SL1 A37. Knight head, single sheaved. The
head is a chamfered square in section and
flares upwards finishing in a moulded edge
[fig. 421. Through the base there are through
holes cut at right angles to the sheave which
are presumably for its anchorage. At the
mouth of each hole there is a rebate for an
iron strap to which the knight was probably
bolted. The holes seem to have been cut to an
oval section and show signs of wear but this is
unclear.
SLI A5 1. A traveller consisting of an iron
ring served with thin line, then covered with a
piece of leather which is sewn around the
outside edge. It is of the type with a hook set
in the middle of a shackle [Lees, 1984,371
[fig. 431. The ring is 3 1 mm thickness and
32.5 cm in diameter [which would indicate a
sprit diameter of 26 cm: 415 of the traveller's
diameter].
Apart from the metal pin of A64, all the pins
and sheaves of the blocks are of wood, some
of the pins may be Lignum Vitae.

Chain
SLl A7. 4 links with a D-shackle which has a
square pin and a swivel link.
SLI A8. Two lengths of chain joined by a
D-shackle and totalling ten metres in length.
SLl A9. 7 links of chain.
The association of this chain with the ship is
not clear as the windlass is of a type used with
hemp anchorcable rather than chain. The
presence of the swivel links and shackles
suggests this may be part of the mooring
chain of a wreck marker buoy. The task for
marking wrecks in this area was the
responsibility of the Commissarissen van de
Pilotage.

1.2.3 Associated finds

Equipment and fittings

SLI A76. Two jacks with chamfered wooden
shanks with a ring bolt on the side. The top
and bottom were sheathed in iron. They are
concreted together by the degraded iron
mechanism. This consists of a toothed bar of
iron set in a rebate on the inside of the shank.
The foot of the bar was turned flat, being
placed under the object to be lifted. It was
cloven in shape similar to a crow bar. The
jack was operated by a handle turning a gear
wheel that raised or lowered the bar. A similar
example from the first half of the 19th century
is shown in Maarleveld [1983, 241.
SLI A68. Three pieces of a grindstone
39.5 cm in diameter and 7.5 cm in thickness,
with a square hole for the axle. It has chisel
marks on the sides and is smooth on its outer
surface. This suggests it was a grinding wheel
for sharpening blades as opposed to quern
stone [fig. 441.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 . . zetten. De bovenkant is als een bolder
w
.. '
.
,
. . afgewerkt [foto IPL].
. .
[Fig. 431
[Fig. 371 [Fig. 411 SLl A51. Traveller with shackle and
SL1 A64. Single-sheaved block. SLl A60 has undergone a major repair hook.
Enkelschijfsblok met buitenbeslag. after one of its hooks had broken off. Een zogenaamde travelaar. Het is een
Toen de schaapskop voor ijzeren ring waar touw omheen
[Fig. 381 conservering uiteen werd genomen gewonden is, waarna het geheelis
SI1 A38. Cheek of a block scored for a bleek dat 6en van de twee haken die bekleed met leer. Aan e6n kantzit een
rope strop. oorspronkelijk van weerszijden op een haak en twee ogen. Hiemp werd de
Wang van een stropblok [foto IPLI. lange veer in het middendammetje onderzijde [halsl van een voorzeil
verankerd waren ooit was afgebroken. gebonden. De ring was rand een
[Fig. 391 Het gebroken eind is opnieuw boegspriet of kluiverboom gemonteerd
SLl A58. Long tackle or fiddle block, uifgesmeed, waarbij oak weerhaken en met een val kon zo het voorzeil naar
iron bound and hooked. zijn aangebracht Vervolgens is die buiten worden gebracht [foto [IPL].
Vioolblok. Een van de wangen is haak iets lager dan oorspronkelijk in
gerepareerd [foto's IPL]. het blok aangebracht. [Fig. 441
SLl A68. Grindstone
[Fig. 401 [Fig. 421 Slijpsteen [foto IPLI.
9 ' SLl AGO. Ram's head block. SL1 A37. Knight.
Schaapskop. Enkelschijfs knechtje. Dnderin zijn er [Fig. 451

e haaks op de richting van de schijf SL1 A5011. Stave of a wooden bucket.

gaten in gekapt om de knecht vast te Duig van een emmer of kuip [foto IPLI.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 45

SLI A5011. A stave of a wooden bucket Table 1
[fig. 451. SL 1
SLI A.5013. Wooden tool handle, probably Number of Number of Heartwoodl Date of
belonging to SLI A76 [fig. 461. Sample no. Structural element rings sapwood rings sapwood boundary last ring
SLI A59. An iron shod wooden shovel
[fig. 471. 1 Ceiling plank 197 - -
SL1 A69/1. An iron hinge possibly from a 3 Hull plank 190 - -
cabin door [fig. 481. 6 Waterway 120 - -
2 Ceiling plank 146 -
Inventory 7 Waterway 101 - -
SL1 A57. Copper alloy bowl, the handle of 5 Ceiling plank 93 - -
which was riveted to the side [fig. 491. 4 Frame timber 59 17 42
SL1 A8 1. The Ijd of a copper alloy [possibly
brass] container [fig. SO]. Table 2
SLI A90/1, 2, 3,4. Four pewter plates with SL 1
identical touch marks [fig. 511. Found stacked
together and pierced by an iron bolt, probably Sample no. Hamburg Weserbergland Lower Saxony coastal area
during the wrecking or dredging process.
They are Dutch, made of English metal
possibly in North Holland. They show the
marks of reasonably heavy use.
SLI A83. A porcelain saucer with blue and
white design. Unmarked on the base [fig. 521.
SL1 A5014. Rim sherd of a wide salt glazed
earthenware shallow bowl [fig. 531.
SLI A5015. Several small sherds of an
earthenware vessel with a shiny green glaze
on the inside. The fabric is buff coloured with
coarse gritty inclusions [shown reassembled
in fig. 541.
SLI A.5012. Fragment of a green glazed red
earthenware tile with fragments of mortar
adhering, probably from the hearth [fig. 551.

1.3 ANALYSES

1.3.1 Dendrochronological analysis

The application of the
dendrochronological method on ancient ship's
timbers provides a powerful tool in dating.
This, however, is not its only, nor its greatest
asset. It also provides information that is vital
to a proper understanding of the timber trade
as well as the timber choices made in
shipbuilding. The principles of the method,
the methodological problems and the
procedures followed during the Slufter-
research are briefly outlined in Appendix I.
As an aid in understanding the statistics given
in the text the reader is advised to read the
appendix first. The reference chronologies
that were used in the analysis are also shown
there.

Sampling
Since it was impossible to record these ship's
remains in situ the association of the different
timbers was inferred during the research.
Some timbers were brought up by the

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 dredgers, others were lifted from the site by
divers during the on-site inspection. From
these more or less loose timbers seven
Period Possible area of origin samples were taken. Three are of ceiling
planking, two of waterways, one of a futtock
1580 - 1776 Hamburg and one of a hull plank [table 11.
-
1526 1715 Lower Saxony coastal area or Weserbergland
1591 - 1710 Weserbergland, Hamburg or Southern Germany Dating
1548 - 1693 Hamburg Of the seven samples only one had sapwood.
1573 - 1673 Weserbergland, Hamburg or Southern Germany This sample with sapwood [4] -the sample of
1557 - 1649 Weserbergland, Hamburg, Lower Saxony coastal area or Southern Germany the futtock - could not be dated, at least not
- - with the chronologies at hand. The number of
rings [58, of which 17 were sapwood] is too
small for a good synchronisation because the
chance of random correlation is too great. In
other words the sample-curve fits at different
Schleswig-Holstein Southern Germany Low Countries places on different standard chronologies. The
ring pattern also showed an irregular growth
pattern probably not reflecting the
climatological signal.
In the histogram of fig. 56 the date of the las't
ring of each sample, the length of each ring-
pattern and their relative position is
represented.
Three mean site-chronologies could be
produced. Ceiling planks [ l ] and [2]
synchronised [t = 8.47, GL = 67.1 [99.9%]],
waterways [6] and [7] synchronised [t = 7.23,
GL = 67.1 [99.0%]] and the sample of the hull
plank [3] synchronised with waterway [6]
[Fig. 461 [Table 21 [t = 3.78, GL = 63.0 [99%]]. Surprisingly hull
SLl A5013. Wooden tool handle. 200 =mean of sample 1 and 2 plank [3] did not match with waterway [7].
Handvat, vermoedelijk behorend b i j 300 =mean of sample 6 and 7 Ceiling plank [5] synchronised with sample
b i n van de w e e gevonden 400 =mean of sample 3,6 and 7 [4] from wrecksite SL 3 [t = 9.14, GL = 65.9
dommekrachten [foto IPL]. Sample 5 is dated by sample 4 of SL 3 [99%]]. This very high t-value suggests that
(t = 9.14, GL = 65.9 (99.0)) the two timbers have the same area of origin
[Fig. 471 Sample 7 is dated by sample 6 [a t-value higher than 10 means that the
SL1 A59. lron shod wooden shovel (t = 7.23, GL = 67.1) timbers are cut from the same tree]. On this
Houten schep met ijzerbeslag [foto's Overzicht van de verschillende basis, it is possible that SL 1 and SL 3 contain
IPLI. herkomstgebieden per houtmonstar remains of the same ship. This point will be
van SL 1. De mate van overeenkomst further considered below.
[Fig. 481 tussen de jaarringcurve van een Closer inspection of the histogram of fig. 56
SL1 A6911. lron hinge. houtmonster en de referentie- suggests that sample [ I ] of a ceilingplank is a
Scharnier [foto IPLI. chronologie van een bepaald gebied repair, because of the gap of 6 1 years between
wordt uitgedrukt i n de Gleichlaufigkeit the last ring of this sample and last ring of
[Fig. 491 (maat voor de parallel-variatie tussen sample [3], a hull plank. However, one has to
SLl A57. Copper alloy bowl. twee jaarringcurven) en de t-waarde consider the fact that all the samples of this
Een gee1koperen pan waaraan een (een getransformeerde correlatie- timber-complex are from planks.
handvat heeftgezeten dat met nieten coefficient). Hoe hoger beide waarden As economical use of timber in shipbuilding
bevestigd was. des te beter passen de curven op requires each log or bole to be converted into
elkaar, tanminste statistisch gezien. several planks of varying width and thickness
Een statistische overeenkomst moet and considering the further trimming of a
altijd visueel worden gecontroleerd. plank carried out when fitting it, a difference
of 61 growth rings, which is only about 6 cm,
is not a great deal.
Another point that argues against the
interpretation of sample [ l ] as a repair is the
fact that sample [ l ] and [2] have a very high
correlation and therefore originate from the

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
same area. This might indicate that the
timbers belonged to the same cargo and so
have the same felling date. Whether the same
is true for the whole complex of timbers is
another question. The difference in area of
origin of the timbers [see below] suggests that
it is not. It is possible that the timber was used
from stocks held in the shipyard which could
explain the different origins and felling dates
but this seems unlikely. Nevertheless the
felling date of the youngest dated sample,
assuming it is not a repair, is the closest we
could get to the building date of the vessel.
The actual felling date of the youngest dated
sample must be estimated, since this sample is
incomplete, i.e. without sapwood. In the case
of samples of German origin this means that
one has to reckon with a mean sapwood
allowance of 20 years. Because there are no
dated samples with sapwood one assumes that
the last ring of the youngest dated sample is
the closest to the heartwood/sapwood
boundary. Adding this estimate to the last ring
of sample [ l ] gives a date around or after
1796 A.D. Since an unknown number of
heartwood rings is missing this date should be
interpretated as a terminus post quem. In this
case it is of no use to state any confidence
interval at a certain probability level, because
of the unknown number of missing heartwood
rings.
To assess the building date is a problem in its
own right. The relationship between the
felling date and the building date is
influenced by several factors: was the wood
immediately transported after felling? How
long did it take to transport the wood? Was
wood stored in yards or used immediately?
Was the timber seasoned and/or dried? Some
of these questions could be answered
tentatively. If the suggestion is right that we
are dealing here with a tjalk or smak like ship
type, then we could infer that she was built in
a small yard. These yards probably had
neither the financial resources to maintain
large stocks of seasoning timber, or facilities
and space for storage over the period of time
this would take. Storage and seasoning would
be restricted to a minimum. This makes it
highly likely that the ship would be afloat
within say two years after felling the trees,
which gives a building date around or after
1798.

Origin of the timbers

The restricted application of a reference
chronology to a geographical region was
mentioned above. During the investigation
not all the existing chronologies were

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER


[Fig. 501
SLl A81. Lid of a copper alloy
container.
Koperen deksel dat niet op de pan
past.
[Fig. 511
SL1 A90/1,2,3,4. Pewter plates.
Een stapel van vier tinnen borden was
doorstoken geraakt met een ijzeren
pen. De borden vertonen veel
snijsporen en behoren vermoedelijk tot
het kommaliewant en niettot de lading.
[Fig. 521
SLl A83. Porcelain saucer.
Blauwporceleinen schaaltje [foto IPLI.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
available and so this limits the conclusions
one can draw on the origin of the timbers.
It is possible that better matches would have
been achieved with one of those not used,
such as the Polish, Danish, Norwegian or both
Swedish curves. Another aspect is that there
are areas of forest where timber was obtained
for ship-building for which chronologies do
not yet exist.
Every sample [or mean of samples] has been
run against the available chronologies.
Sometimes samples synchronise with more
than one standard chronology, while the date
stays the same. On the basis of statistics it is
not possible to match a sample to a certain
area of origin. Neither, in some cases, can a
preference be made on the basis of visual
examination. The Hamburg-, Weserburgland-
and South-German chronologies for example
are very similar. Another possibility can
occur, namely that a timber comes from an
area between one or more chronologies. When
this is the case it is not possible to tie down
the sample to a particular chronology.
In table 2 the statistics are given for matching
positions between samples with the same date
and different chronologies. Samples [7] and
[5] are not dated by any chronology but by
other samples. The area of origin is thus
[Fig. 531 assumed to be the same as that of the sample
SLl A50/4. Rimsherd of an earthenware it is dated with. The samples of ceiling planks
bowl. [ I ] and [2] could be visually related to the
Randscherfvan een ondiepe kom [foto Hamburg chronology. The sample of the hull
IPL]. plank [3] fits visually a little better on the
Lower Saxony coastal area chronology. The
[Fig. 541 sample of waterway [6] gives a good fit on
SLl A5015. Part of the handle of a green three chronologies: that of Hamburg and those
glazed coarse earthenware vessel. Weserbergland and southern German. It was
Scherf met groen glazuur[foto IPLI. impossible visually to discriminate between
them. Since sample [4] of wreck SL 3, by
[Fig. 551 which sample [5] is dated, matches with
SL1 A5012. Green glazed tile with several chronologies: the Weserbergland,
mortar adhering. Hamburg, Lower Saxony coastal area, and
Groen geglazuurde tegel met South-Germany chronologies, the same
metselspecie. applies to sample [5] of SL 1. Visually the
curve of SL 3 [4] fitted best on the
Weserbergland, Hamburg and Lower Saxony
coastal area standard chronologies.
In short the wood comes from different areas
in the more eastern parts of West-Germany
and the Lower Saxony coastal area.
1.3.2 Caulking and luting materials
Several samples of caulking and
luting materials were submitted to John
Evans, Head of Department of Natural
Sciences at North East London Polytechnic.
Initially the samples were investigated by
scanning electron microscope to assess their
49
general make-up. They prooved to be
composed of a mixture of hair, possibly wool,
vegetable matter, including petal fragments,
and a binder [fig. 571. No hemp fibres were
found. Subsequently the samples were
extracted with a series of solvents. The
various extracts were investigated by a range
of chromatographic techniques, including thin
layer and gas chromatography. The results of
this phase of investigation indicated that the
binder in all cases consisted of a pine pitch.
Known weights of each sample were ignited
to constant weight in order to estimate the
amount of mineral fraction, i.e. [mainly] the
clay component. The clay content ranged
between 47 and 53% [as opposed to a
14 - 18% range for SL 4 samples].
As lime was sometimes used with pitch as a
waterproofing agent the mineral residues were
examined for calcium carbonate, the
compound of slaked lime [calcium hydroxide]
with carbon dioxide. None of this was found,
so lime had not been used.
1.4 EVALUATION
1.4.1 The site
The remains at wrecksite SL 1 were
encountered at depths between 14 and 18 m.
Part of the 'observations' were made through
the crude mediation of the dredging
instruments. The site has been accessible for
on-site inspection to a very limited extent and
this only at the very last stage of its clearance.
No detailed soil profile or site map is
available. Nevertheless the orientation of the
ship's remains could be firmly established, as
well as the fact that the early holocene -
subatlantic boundary locally occurred at a
greater depth than in the surrounding area as
shown by the geological survey. In
combination these factors shed some light on
the process of site formation.
A substantial part of the upper structure of the
wrecked ship must have sunk upside down as
a coherent whole still containing part,of the
ships inventory and fittings. It seems likely
that the ship has rolled over first and that the
hull was broken apart at a later stage, the deck
S t r u c t u r a l element
CEILING P L A N K
H U L L PLANK
WATERWAY
CEILING PLANK
WATERWAY
CEILING PLANK
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
structure remaining approximately where it
had originally settled, other parts of the hull
drifting off. Flotsam and jetsam must have got
dispersed wide and far. The main wreckage
must have sunk in a tidal gully blocking the
tides and thus starting off a process of
scouring. The localised erosion has caused the
remains to dig into the older sediments only to
be covered again after their blocking effect on
the tides had been sufficiently reduced.
1.4.2 The ship
During the course of the recording of
the remains from sites SL 1, SL 3, and SL 5
the many similarities between them fostered a
suspicion that they might originate from one
and the same vessel. As more detailed
analysis proceeded the accumulating weight
of evidence made this seem increasingly
likely.
One of the strongest indicators was the
dendrochronological analysis of SL 1 and
SL 3. Not only was there a high correlation
between the ring patterns of the two
assemblages, which suggests the timber came
from the same area, but the estimated felling
dates were only three years apart.
The remains from SL 5 have not been dated
by this method. Many characteristics of the
timbers and fastenings, however, exhibit
strong similarities to those of SL 1 and SL 3.
The four types of fastenings: treenails, iron
bolts, spikes and nails, are to all intents and
purposes identical in all three assemblages.
Not all types are present in every case but
those that are crossmatch exactly with regard
to size, shape and general condition. For
example bolts in all three cases have the same
chamfered cross section. The nails in all three
cases have the same facetted heads with
square shanks. Treenails with caulked cuts,
some with oak pins were also found in planks
from all three sites.
The general appearance of the timbers in all
three cases is very similar, the oak frame
timbers closely corresponding in size. A
fragment of pine deck planking from SL 5 is
the same thickness as those of SL 1. A deck
beam from SL 5 [SL5 TI51 matches those of

[Fig. 561
Histogram showing the date of the last
treering of each sample as well as the
length of the treering patterns and their
relative position.
De relatieve ligging van de monsters van
SL 1 ten opzichte van elkaar en de
datering van de buitenste jaarring van
elk monster. De bomen zijn in 1796 of kor7
daarna omgehakt W e mogen aannemen
dathet schip binnen twee jaarna deze
veldaturn is gebouwd: in of fond 1798.
[Fig. 571
Scanning electron microscope image of
caulking sample showing hair, possibly
wool.
Elekbonenmicroscoopvergroting van her
breeuwmateriaal. Het bleek re bestaan
uit haar, plantenresten en een
bindmiddel, maar hennep [touw ofwerkl
ontbrak [foto John Evans].
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
SL 1 with regard to size, curvature, and
general appearance. It has the same smooth
well finished surface, shows a similar nail
pattern from the deck plank fastenings on its
upper side, and has a dovetailed end for
location in a shelf very similar in size and
shape to the rebates for half beams in the shelf
piece from SL 1. Hull planks of SL 1 and SL 3
have former nail holes filled with small
wooden pegs.
Finally, considering the parts of ship's
structure represented by the timbers from the
various sites: those of SL 1 consist
predominantly of deck elements, while those
of SL 3 are all hull timbers. SL 5 is also hull
structure barring the deck support beam and
the fragment of deck plank. Therefore they
are complementary in this respect, something
that would be rather unlikely were they
wrecks of separate vessels. This suggests that
it is one hull that was dismembered and
became scattered during the wrecking
process. In support of this possibility, the
deck structure of SL 1 was found lying deeply
buried and upside down. It is well preserved
and was still an extensive coherent unit when
first found. The presence of a number of
artefacts from the cabin as well as rigging
elements and deck fittings, suggest that this
was not a part of a deck torn from a hull
during wrecking. Rather the opposite is more
likely, i.e. after sinking the hull came to lie
upside down after which sections of the hull
were torn away. The distance between the
sites [see fig. 131 is not inconsistent with this
hypothesis as wreck structure can become
scattered over an area of many square
kilometres.
While it is not possible to prove that these
assemblages are from the same vessel, the
weight of evidence makes this more likely
than that two or three vessels of similar type,
size and date sunk in such close proximity.
Construction
In discussing the construction of what will be
treated as one vessel, the framing system
cannot be positively determined due to the
fact that none of the hull timbers were
connected or articulated in any way. However,
there is evidence of the planking system in
SLI T45. On the basis of its shape, curvature,
fastenings and the marks of the timbers to
which it was fastened, this is almost certainly
from the bow. The various factors suggesting
this are discussed below.
Fig. 58 shows the principle of its position
relative to these timbers and the stem. The
mark along the end of its outer surface
51
indicates that it either rested in a form of
rabbet in the side of the stem or more likely,
that it was nailed to the inner surface of the
stem. A similar arrangement is seen in a
Tjalk-like vessel, 17 m in length and 4.5 m in
breadth, that wrecked in the mid 19th century
and was found in the former Zuiderzee at lot
E46 in East Flevoland in The Netherlands
[figs. 59, 601. It is a method of planking well
suited to ships with round bows and round
sterns and it is seen in many of the various
related types. Numerous examples of this
general hull form appear in contemporary
paintings and prints, for example, a kof
zeijlende bij de wind drawn by Groenewegen
[I7891 [fig. 611.
As observed above several former nail holes
on this same plank are plugged with wooden
pegs. These holes resulted from the temporary
clamps that were used to hold the planks
together during construction. This technique
was applied where the planking was erected
in advance of some or all of the frames. As
the frames were placed and fastened, so the
clamps were removed and the nail holes
plugged. It is as characteristic of Dutch
shipbuilding technology as is the method of
framing round bowed vessels illustrated in
fig. 58.
As described, some of the timbers recovered
were able to be reassembled to form what is
probably part of the starboard fore deck area
[fig. 62, also fig. 281. These were: the curved
beam shelf SL1 T74, deck beams SL1 T80
and T77, deck planks; SLl TI14 and T116,
and a margin planklwaterway assembly SL1
T113 and T99. The beam shelf has a close
parallel in another tjalk-like vessel also found
in the polders of the former Zuiderzee at lot
M40 [Oosting, pers.comm.1. This vessel sunk
some time around 1815 and was 19 m in
length and 4.5 m wide. The shelf piece of
SL 1 was rebated to accept the dovetailed
ends of beams and half beams as shown in fig.
62. Its context was confirmed by the nail
patterns in the plank above and by the paint
on the underside of the plank. These also
indicate the beam spacing which is relatively
close, around 5 1 - 6 1.5 cm for the first four
from the bow [which includes half beams] and
between 70 and 108 cm for the five main
beams aft of them.
The spacing of the beams and their narrow
depth is seen in many illustrations and plans
of small round hulled merchant sailing
vessels. An oil painting by J.C. Dahl, dated
1829 and cited by Cederlund [I98 1,291 in his
discussion of the Alvsnabben wreck shows a
galjoot with closely spaced beams that are

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER


[Fig. 581
Hypothetical reconstruction of bow
planklstem assembly of SL 1.
Reconstructie van de boeg. De
huidplanken rusten op de binnenzijde
van de voorsteven.
[Fig. 591
Excavation of a tjalk-like vessel in
Eastern Flevoland at lot E46. The vessel
shows an arrangement of planking that
is similar to SL 1.
Tjalk-achtig schip op kavel E46in
oostelijk Flevoland. Ook hier rusten de
huidplanken op de binnenzijde van de
voorsteven.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
[Fig. 601
The bow at E46.
Detailopname van de binnenzijde van
de boeg van hetschip op E46[foto
RIJPI.
[Fig. 611
Contemporary kof.
Kof zeijlende bij de wind,
Groenewegen, 1789.
[Fig. 621
Reassembled deck structure from SL 1:
beam shelf SLl T74, deck beam SLl
T80, waterway assembly consisting of
SLl TI13 and SLl T99.
Een aantal elementen kon weer in
oorspronkelijk verband worden
samengevoegd. Hierzijn die
elementen weergegeven die de
opbouw van het dek in het voorschip
illustreren. Opvallend is de kromme
dekweger waar de dekbalken invallen.
Voorrszijn bet lijfhout en het
binnenboord te herkennen. Zie ook
fig. 28.
n case o f ,
:ries.
e wreck a also similarly steeply cambered to those of function associated with the bow, in particular
1 to be ren SL 1. The plan of a smak of 1777 by Van the traveller which would have run along the
lue. It wa Konijnenburg [1913, fig. 231 again shows bow sprit for setting a jib sail. The
e operatic very closely spaced beams. Both these sheepshead block [SLl A601 is also an
:d by arch examples also show the arrangement of indicator of the bow area: it was used for
1 would bt carlings between alternate pairs of beams and hoisting the head of a foresail.
studied af then only in part of the vessel. A similar The recovery of several finds that are likely to
arrangement is suggested by the rebates in the have come from a cabin area might on the
learance sides of the deck beams of SL 1. other hand suggest the stern. However, there
om the m Another drawing from the same volume could be a cabin at both the bow and the stern.
1 archaeol [Konijnenburg: fig. 221 shows the section of a In most types of these vessels the stern cabin
ad been rc kof of 1830 in which the beams are of similar was under a raised deck. In the structure
removinl shallow section to SL 1 as well as being illustrated above this is clearly not the case,
for furthe closely spaced. whereas paint and panelling seem to confirm
niques, !t The waterway assembly [fig. 621 formed of a the cabin-like nature.
involved lipped margin plank with a curved stringer
'Y of the a above it is unusual. However, of the many Caulking and luting
'pt inforn; vessels excavated so far, few are well It is interesting to note that during the analysis
)r the ope preserved at this height so comparative of caulking materials no remains of oakum
tight tin material is limited. The section of the oak were found. Oakum is a caulking material
furdy cha stringer shows that the bulwark structure composed of hemp fibres, usually derived
to clear tumbled inwards in the manner of many of the from tearing apart old or faulty rope. Its
:gligible 1 small round ship types. Other pieces found at absence is remarkable as oakum is usually
Dment wii SL 1 presumably represent a waterway of a cited in any description of the caulking
utter-suct more usual type i.e. they are of oak and have process. It may, however, have been used far
of the ovc rebates cut for the half beams. The two types less than is commonly assumed.
floating s cannot be reconciled but this inconsistency is
111 wreck: not problematic as the nature of the deck Ship type
ge grab If structure could have changed along the length It can be seen from the above that the ship
rance had of the vessel between the cabin and hold from SL 1, SL 3 and SL 5 conforms in key
It of the I areas. As described, it appears that in the aspects to vessels of the Dutch shipbuilding
Ieyond th latter configuration a gutter was left between tradition but before attempting to ascribe the
use explo the outermost plank and the bulwark. This remains to a particular type, an overview of
was C ~ O S , would be consistent with a position in the small merchant vessels of this general form is
and volu middle of the ship. necessary. This overview is not a
ollect an! The position of the main hatch, necessarily aft classification of types or an exhaustive
'. During
of the series of main beams as indicated by documentation of their characteristics. Rather
the deck plank also left a fairly wide area of it is intended as a contribution to the
the coal
ugly little deck between it and the bulwarks. This is discussion on the relationships between the
XI.The 11, shown by two of the knees described above various types of ships with round bows and
alfofit w [SLl T95 and T961. Similar hatch knees were round sterns, which are far less well defined
found in a boeier-like vessel, 17 m in length than is commonly assumed.
mably ~t1
remains and 4.20 m wide, wrecked at the end of the From the constructional elements recovered it
ed in the 17th century in the Zuiderzee at lot F34 is evident that SL 1 was a round bowed
shown ir [figs. 63, 641 and another vessel also from the vessel. Although the evidence is lacking, it is
ckage wa polders, found at lot 0 2 7 1 [Oosting, pers. presumed that the stern was similarly formed.
comm.]. Many Dutch ship types share this
1 two sm:
The latter also shows a hatch knee placed characteristic form, the bluff bow and round
as fitting:
almost alongside a hanging knee, while in F34 stern being a product of building vessels that
gging ele
they are placed in the centre of the space are a compromise between carrying capacity
lsiderati, between the hanging knees supporting the and sailing qualities. Other characteristics of
gangway between the hatch and the bulwark. these ship types are a round stem post,
reckage 1
The latter are like SL1 T97. The hanging straight stern post and flat bottom. A type
of the hu
knees that bind the deck beams of F34 are embodying these qualities is the tjalk, which
quite clea
)nStructic similar to SLl T78 [fig. 22, T78]. - in iron - still survives today and for that
The recovery of the windlass is one of the reason similar vessels are referred to as being
;. Instead
factors reinforcing the interpretation of this tjalk-like for convenience, as for example
?re restor
assemblage as that of the bow. In addition those found in the polders noted above as
many of the rigging elements also suggest a having similarities to SL 1.

i SLUFTE

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 This does not mean that SL I was a tjalk.
Other vessels with strong similarities in form
were used for a wide variety of purposes.
Some served on inland waters, such as the
poon, the Brabantsch beurtschip the
Zuidhollandsche gaffeltjalk and the Vriescl?e
tjalk. Others operated on the open sea like the
Izoeker., the buis and the galjoot. In addition
there were many that sailed both inland
waters and the open sea, such as the smak, the
kof and the Vlaarnsche pleit. This versatility is
worthy of comment. It is often remarked that
the qualities of this hull form, in particular the
flat bottom, made them eminently suitable for
trade in the shallow inland seas.
This is certainly true but their full bows also
took the sea well without plunging or dipping
too deep, and enabled them to operate
succesfully in both spheres. This was cited by
the masters of the tjalks that were still trading
in the early decades of this century as being
one of their positive qualities [Loomeyer,
1980, 841.
Because of the strong similarities of form
between these types, defining their various
characteristics is difficult. The names of the
various types were used over a long period, at
least from the 17th to the 19th century. While
names remained the same it is certain that
many aspects of the vessels themselves did
not.
For instance the galjoot is known to have
gradually changed in hull form and rig during
the eighteenth century [Van Beylen 1970-73,
2, 3081. An extreme, yet cautionary example,
cited by McGowan [I98 1,321 concerns the
boeier- originally a two masted vessel, which
dropped out of use towards the end of the 17th
century. By the mid 18th century the name
[Fig. 631 had come to mean a round sterned craft used
A wreck that was excavated at lot F34 for pleasure sailing.
in Eastern Flevoland shows hatch Another example is that of the kof which
knees which are very similar to those came to mean two different types of vessel
found at S L 1 . that were in use at the same time. One, the
De knieen SL I T95 en SL I T96 die zijn smaller to medium sized inland and coastal
afgebeeld op fig. 22 en 23zijn verwerkt trader, the other a large sea going form.
geweest in de constructie van een Table 3 shows data taken from newspapers in
luikhoofd. Bij de opgraving van een the northern provinces in the period between
scheepswrak op kavelF34 in oostelijk 1743 and 1798 in which ships were advertised
Flevoland kwam exact dezelfde for sale [Loomeyer 1980, 151. The type and
constructie aan het licht Her gaat the length of the vessel was given. The two
daar om een boeierachtig vaartuig dat distinct types of kof show clearly. The small
17 m lang en 4,20 m breed is. Het is te kof was sometimes differentiated from its
dateren op het einde van de 17e e e u w . larger relation by being referred to as
kofschuite, kofschipje, and kofke, where the
[ F i g . 641 suffix je and ke means small. The big kofs had
Detail of hatch structure F34. a slightly sharper underwater hull form to
Het luikhoofd van F34 in detail improve their sailing ability, whereas the
[foto's RIJP]. smaller kofs retained more similarity to the

A R C H A E O L O G Y O F T H E SLUFTER
2 in case c
weries.
the wreck tjalks. The main difference between the latter Table 3
ad to be P was the greater depth of the kof and the
tinue. ~t v greater length to breadth ratio of the tjalk. Length in meters Tjalk Smak Kof

rice Opera That they were close in general characteristics

)red by an is illustrated in the reference made by one -
10 12 X

tat would Jochum Jans in 1781 who was offering his 12 - 14 X XXX
14 - 16 X XXX
e studied vessel for sale, describing it as a tjalk or
kofschip [Loomeyer 1980, 161. 16 - 18 XX X X
18 - 19 XXXX X
Clearan, This strong similarity between the various
From the types is another aspect of the problem. Le 19-20 XXXXX XXXX X

ed archae Comte [I83 1, 121 calls the smak the sister of 20 - 21 XXXXXXXXXXX X

had been the kof. In support of this, in a survey of ship XXXXX X

masters living in the Veenkolonieen [a former XXXXX XXXX

3f removi
"or furtt peat digging area in the south west of the XXXXX

province of Groningen] a ship named the XXXXX

:hniques,
re involve Eendracht is listed as a kof later smak
Iity of the [Van Koldam et al., 19791. Although the two
cept infor types were obviously similar, there were
itor the O[ differences. The smak has a triangular
he tight t~ helmport transom with the jigger mizzen mast Tot.

Sturdy cl: stepped onto this structure just forward of the

Staatje met afmetingen van tjalken,
ed to clea head of the rudder. To further complicate the
issue, an illustration by Groenewegen [I7891 smakken en koffen, gebaseerd op
negligible
advertenties in noordelijke kranten
lipment u shows a vessel he refers to as a smak or a
met ten verkoop aangeboden schepen
cutter-su, tjalk. The stern is smak-like so this either
(Naar Loomeyer. 1980, 151
t of the 0. implies that the structure was not exclusive to
:floating smaks or that tjalk was already becoming a
"1 wrecl general term?
Uge grab , From the above it is evident that caution must
arance ha be exercised in defining the characteristics of
Int of the the various types, let alone in attributing Table 4

beyond t archaeological remains to a specific type.

Even if this can be done, which as Cederlund Tjalk Smak Kof Kofje
I use expl,

t was cho points out is a necessary preliminary step

s and volt [1981, 161 it is often not possible to draw a
collect ar clear distinction between them. This is
e. Durine nowhere more clearly demonstrated than
f the coal when considering the many vessels of related
ingly littl types that have been discovered in the polders
jed. The t [the former Zuiderzee].
lalf of it \ The degree of preservation in many cases is
~mablyit remarkable but even where the majority of the
:remains hull remains it is still impossible to ascribe it
lted in the to a particular type. Hence the appellation
shown i tjalk-like or boeier-like. A contributary factor
:ckage w, is that in many of these wrecks a major
h two sm proportion of the structure at deck level is
as fitting missing.
k i n g elf Because all these types were the product of
the same ship-building tradition hull form and
"iderati construction technique are not diagnostic.
(reckage . Aspects of rig, deck configuration, and hatch
of the h~ structure etc., being connected with the
quite cle: purpose to which the hull was put also had an
Onstructic influence on how the vessel was classified.
s. Instead On the question of size several factors are of
ere res to1 help. The one preserved deck beam indicates
a breadth of around 5 m adding an estimated
40 - 50 cm for the thickness of the hull

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 timbers. The ends of the beams are fairly sterns. On the evidence available it is
square implying they were from a position at dangerous to attempt to be more definite.
or near the main breadth. This is not at all
unlikely for, eventhough this beam is from
fairly far forward the sides of this hull form
were relatively parallel. The length to breadth
ratio of the tjalk was around 4.9:l. This would
indicate a length of 24.5 m for SL 1 which
would seem too long compared to the
maximum of 21 - 22 m for tjalks in fig. 61
above. Of the other types the length to breadth
ratios were commonly between 3.9: 1 for
smaks and 4.1 : 1 for sea going kofs [Loomeyer
1980, 181. This would give a length of
between 19.5 m and 20.5 m. Sea going kofs
were of the order of 24 - 28 m while the
smaller type was around 12 - 16 m and 19 m
at the largest. This suggests SL 1 is unlikely
to be a kof. The types commonly around
19 - 22 m in length and 5 m in breadth
include the smak, the hoeker and the galjoot.
The hoeker at this period was common in the
south of Holland while the smak was built in
the north in large numbers. Table 4 shows
ships built in three towns in the province of
Groningen during the period from 1738 to
1805 [taken from Van Koldam et al. 1979,
43-47]. This is not assumed to be
comprehensive but can be taken as a good
indication of the number built of the various
types.
Wrecked off Rotterdam, the hoeker might be a
likely suspect. The trade from the ports in the
northern provinces being largely directed
towards the Baltic. However, a certain amount
of coastal traffic makes a northern provenance
for the vessel quite plausible. An interesting
pointer might be the pewter plates found on
the site. Their touch marks show them to be
made out of English metal and of a type made
in the north of Holland around the end of the
18th century. The other finds also fit this
general period and accord with the mean
felling date of 1793 indicated by the
dendrochronological analysis of SLlJSL3
timbers.
A contributary consideration is the probable
north German origin of the wood of SL 1 and
SL 3. While one cannot be definite, this
suggests a northern rather than a southern
built vessel as most of the timber for the latter
was brought down the Rhine from the south
German forests.
In conclusion, while the smak might seem to
be the most likely type to which this ship
belongs, all one can say in the light of the
foregoing discussion is that it belongs firmly
in the Dutch tradition of small merchant
trading vessels with round bows and round

A R C H A E O L O G Y O F T H E SLUFTER 57
 [Fig. 651
Map showing the profile of the newly
dug Hindergat shortly after operations.
Dieptekaart van het Hindergat, kort
nadat hetgegraven was.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 2.1 CIRCUMSTANCES OF
DISCOVERY
Just like wrecksite SL 1 wrecksite SL
2 was discovered at the very beginning of
sand extraction. Cutter-suction-dredger Triton
had started its work to the south of the Slufter
location. As the Slufter would block the Gat
van de Hawk a new passage for the tides had
to be created. The new channel was to cut
through the Hinderplaat, a sandbank that runs
parallel to the coast and it is subsequently
called the Hindergat.
On May 28 1986 the Triton got stuck in a
wreck in the position x 59.216 and y 436.719
[fig. 131. The cutter was lifted and some
heavy, characteristic ships timbers were lifted
with it. The site lies just at the fringe of the
projected channel, at a depth of approximately
10 m. After the timbers had been cursory
examined it was decided that the site would
be spared during further dredging activity.
Any on-site inspection would be postponed as
the site would probably be covered in spill
sands. During soundings that were to be
carried out to establish the development of the
Hindergat as a tidal gully the wrecksite would
frequently be inspected and if erosion would
locally occur inspection dives could be
organised [fig. 651.
On July 6th, however, during a clearance
operation of the Hindergat the Triton struck
the wreck again. Two days later the same
thing happened. No material was collected.
The wreck clearly caused a substantial
obstruction. Soundings carried out in May
1987 showed the site to have been totally
covered in sediments. As the site was not
under any further threat it was left to be for
the present.
2.2 DESCRIPTION O F T H E
RECOVERED REMAINS
The recovered timbers, were badly
damaged. Only those with significant features
are described. All were of oak.
SL2 T1. A badly damaged piece,
68 x 28 x 10 - 11 cm. Judging by its size and
knotty character it may be part of a V-shaped
floor timber. In the centre there is one treenail
ARCHEAOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 59
hole 30 mm in diameter.
SL2 T4. A V-shaped floor timber probably
from near the stern. There is a rebate across
the foot on one side. It is pierced by a large
number of treenails [fig. 661.
SL2 T5. Fragment of keel 3.2 m long 30 cm in
depth. The breadth is uncertain due to
splintering. There is moss luting in the rabbet
for the garboard which was held in place with
iron nails. The angled end is the skeg i.e. the
projection protecting the foot of the rudder.
The stern post had been treenailed down to
the keel and at this point there is the mark of
an iron bracket or heel plate that reinforced
the connection with the stern post
[figs. 67,681. On the under side there is a
treenail hole possibly for securing a shoe or
false keel. However, with its rounded cross-
section this seems unlikely and it may be
concerned with construction.
SL2 T9. Timber with treenail holes badly
worn, probably part of a futtock.
SL2 T10. Plank 172 x 9 x 3 cm fastened by
nails 10 mm square. They are on average
placed on every 30 cm along its length
[fig. 691. On what was the inboard side there
is moss luting around the nail holes [fig. 701.
SL2 T11. Possibly part of a small beam
70 x 11 x 9 cm, has one nail hole 9 mm. Badly
damaged.
SL2 T14. Short plank fragment with 4 nail
holes and moss luting on one side [fig. 711.
SL2 T15. Thick plank, 80 x 19 x 7 cm,
possibly a wale or stringer, with an unwedged
treenail 35 mm in diameter. Near the treenail
on one side is a 10 x 10 mm nail hole that has
been plugged with a square wooden oak peg
[figs. 72,731.
SL2 T18. Badly damaged fragment of timber
with an angled end. Has a rebate running
across it and possibly one sunning along one
side though this may be dredger damage.
SL2 T19. Large thick plank
230 x 13 x 4.5 cm. At one end there was a
scarf joint fastened by nails and sealed with
moss luting, some of which remains [fig. 741.
There are also nail holes along the length of
the plank irregular in pattern. Depressions in
the surface indicate a nailhead of around
40 mm in diameter [fig. 751. On the reverse
side to the face of the scarf there was moss
luting over the whole surface. Possibly a
repair.
SL2 T23. Splintered fragment, probably of a
beam. Iron stained luting on one side. Some
nail holes in the other face.
SL2 T20. Heavy iron bar fairly square in
section, 6 x 6 cm and 1 m long; possibly the
shank of an anchor.

2.3 ANALYSES
After the first examination the timbers
were stored in a pond that was specifically
dug for the purpose. During a violent winter
storm the dam between this pond and the by
then extended dredging pit was broken and
most of the recovered material was lost. This
leaves us with a very fragmentary picture of
the wreck. No dendrochronological or other
analysis could be carried out.

2.4 EVALUATIVE CONSIDERATIONS

The ship was obviously heavily built
with rough and crooked timbers. No datable
finds were found associated with it and no
dendrochronological dating was carried out.
The most distinguishing feature is the moss
that was used as caulking material. In Dutch
shipbuilding moss caulking was common
until around 1600. By then the technique went
out of use for merchant craft. Fishing boats of
the North Sea coast were, however still
caulked with moss well into the 19th century.
With its keel, its overall dimensions and its
V-shaped crutches the ship cannot readily be
identified with either of these shiptypes.
The fastenings that were used, 30 mm
treenails and 10 mm square iron nails suggest
a substantial vessel but they were a common
combination and they remained standard
fastenings in many countries over a long
period and for vessels of widely differing
size. The bias in favour of nails for the plank
fastening is interesting but there is not enough
material to know whether they are
representative. The treenails in the floor
timber SL2 T 4 [fig. 661 show they were not
used exclusively. They also show that
treenails were used to fasten the frame
timbers fore and aft. This suggests an early
date, stylistically supported by the iron heel-
plate bracket. Also crutch shaped floors are
common in ships prior to the early 17th
century when such pieces were relatively easy
to obtain.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 van een stuk ijzerbeslag met een
breed uitgesmede veer. Mos en vorm
van het ijlerwerk pleiten voor een
vroege [middeleeuwse] datering.

ARCHEAOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
[Fig. 701
Detail showing nail hole and moss
luting.
Detailopname van een van de
spijkergaten. Ook hier is bet mos dat
als breeuwselis gebruikt goed te
herkennen [foto p.s.1.

[Fig. 711
SLZT14. Plank fragment.
Ook aan deze korte plank is veel mos
bewaard gebleven [foto p.s.1.

[Fig. 721
SL2 T15. Plank fragment,
Oit plankfragment is dikker dan de
overige huiddelen. Mogelijk is bet een
berghout. Naast de treknagel is een
gaatje afgedicht met een vierkant
houten propje [spijkerpen] [foto p.s.1.

[Fig. 731
Detail of SL2 T15.
Detailopname van de treknagel en de
spijkerpen [foto p.s.1.

[Fig. 741
SLZT19. Thick plank.
Deze plank loopt uit in een /as. Ook
hier is ruimschoots mos gebruikt als
breeuwsel en als pakking.

[Fig. 751
Detail of SL2T19 showing nail holes
and nail head depressions.
Deze plank is met grote spijkers
bevestigd geweest. De koppen van de
vierkante spijkers tekenen zich in bet
bout af. Zijzijn ongeveer 4 cm in
doorsnede [foto p.s.1.

ARCHEAOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
 3.1 CIRCUMSTANCES OF
DISCOVERY
During the night of July 30th on July
3 1st 1986 the cutter-suction-dredger Hector
encountered wreckage between x 59.4271~
438.127 and x 59.4231~438.123 [fig. 131. All
wood was brought ashore. Coming back to the
same general area on August 2nd more
wreckage was found. Progress in sand-
extraction was not really delayed by the
remains and no on-site inspection could be
organized. All wreckage recovered had been
severely chopped by the cutter-suction-
dredger.
3.2 DESCRIPTION O F THE
RECOVERED REMAINS
All the timbers from this site were
brought up during dredging operation by a
cutter-suction dredger. They are badly
mutilated and as a result it is often difficult
even to identify the type of the particular
piece. In general they consisted of frame
timbers and inner or outer hull planking.
Relationships between them were impossible
to establish. Most pieces were less than one
meter in length.
The planks were around 5 - 6 cm in thickness.
Some are around 9 cm thick and are
presumably stringers or wales. The frame
timbers included some short lengths from
which samples could be cut for dendro-
chronological analysis. The sectional
dimensions varied from 13 - 11 cm up to
21 x 17 cm. The larger ones presumably being
frame timbers from lower in the hull.
All the timber is of oak and fastened with
treenails, iron bolts, spikes and nails. The
treenails are hand finished and around 30 mm
in diameter. They were tightened by cutting
into it with a chisel or such like and then
caulking the cut. The cuts are sometimes
crossed as in fig. 76, but others are less
regular. Sometimes a thin wooden pin was
driven into the centre of the treenail at the
junction of the cuts.
The bolts are between 20 - 30 mm in
diameter, the majority of which are 20 mm.
They are fashioned from square bar which has
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
had the edges beaten to form a roughly
octagonal section.
Nails and spikes with square shanks of around
5 mm and 10 mm respectively. The nails have
a faceted head [fig. 761.
Into the surface of some of the planks small
wooden pegs 5 mm square had been driven.
These may be to fill former nail holes. This is
probably associated with the Dutch technique
of construction in which temporary clamps
were nailed across the edges of adjacent
planks to fasten them until the frame timbers
had been fitted.
3.3 ANALYSES
Dendrochronological analysis
The timber of wrecksite SL 3 was
brought up solely as the result of dredging
activity. The individual pieces were therefore
completely out of context and with the
relationships to each other destroyed. It was
only their close proximity that indicated they
were from the same vessel. As none of the
timbers recovered exceeded 1 m in length
only broad assessments of their type andlor
function could be made. In such
circumstances the selection of samples was
more or less predetermined by the work of the
cutter-suction dredger. Only the few unbroken
and unsplintered pieces were suitable for
dendrochronological analysis.
The principles of the method, the
methodological problems and the procedures
followed during the Slufter-research are
briefly outlined in Appendix I. As an aid in
understanding the statistics given in the text
the reader is advised to read the appendix
first. It also features the reference
chronologies that were used in the analysis.
Dating
Four samples have been analysed, of which
three were presumably frame timbers and one
was probably a ceiling plank. Table 5
summarizes the results. The histogram of
fig. 77 shows the date of the last rings and the
relative position of the samples to each other.
Two frame timbers [I] and [3] could be
matched to form a mean curve [t = 4.60, Table 5
GL = 74.2 [99.9%]]. Against this mean curve SL 3
the other frame timber [2] was able to be
matched [t = 4.51, GL 63.1 [99.0%]]. Sample Sample no. Structural element Number of rings Number of sapwood rings
[2] is the only sample with sapwood
[12 rings] as is indicated in fig. 76. One line
of reasoning would be to add the sapwood 3 Frame timber 110 -
allowance of 20 sapwood rings for wood of 4 Ceiling plank 214 -
German provenance and arrive at a felling
date of 1789. However, from the relative
position of the samples we may conclude that 2 Frame tirnbe; 127 12
the end ring of sample [3] is probably very 1 Frame timber 134 -
close to the heartwood/sapwood boundary.
Samples [3] and [2] belong to the same timber
complex, first because they form a mean
curve and secondly because they are dated by Table 6
the same samples of SL 1 [see below]. SL 3
If the histograms of SL 1 and SL 3 are
considered together [fig. 781 it becomes clear Lower Saxony Schleswig-
that the dates of both assemblages are Sample no. Hamburg coastal area Weserbergland Holstein
congruent. Also the would-be repair of t GL(%) t GL(%) t GL ( O h ) t GL(%)
SL 1 [ l ] attains a normal position in the
histogram. Still the gap between SL 3 [I] and
SL 1 [3] exists, but the most likely
explanation is that due to the way the timber
was worked the samples shown in the diagram
below SL 3 [I] are missing a great deal of
heartwood. Equally plausible purely on a
dendrochronological basis are the alternative
explanations of re-used timber or extensive
repair. This reinforces the point already made
concerning the SL 1 assemblage; that samples
from the frames are the most useful for dating
purposes.
To date the timber complex we could establish
a mean heartwood/sapwood boundary
according to Baillie [1983, 56, after Hollstein,
19801 of the two samples, which gives a good
estimate of the felling date. This mean
sapwood boundary thus estimated is 1773.
Added to that the sapwood allowance of 20
years gives a felling date of the timber
complex of 1793 + 5 following Eckstein
[1974, 351. Using Hollstein's [1965, 191
interval estimate of 11 - 34 sapwood rings at
the 95% probability level, the felling date lies
between 1784 - 1807. Yet this range can be
narrowed down by adding the minimum
[ l l years] of the interval estimate to the
endyear of the youngest dated sample [3] and
the maximum [34 years] to the oldest dated
sample [2] with sapwood [fig. 781. In this case
it seems better not to take the oldest dated
sample [I] but the oldest dated sample with
sapwood [3]. The resulting interval than
becomes 1788 - 1803. A building date around
1795, based on the same arguments as
presented for SL 1, can be established.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 Origin of the timbers
As stated before and shown in table 6 sample
[4] synchronises with several of the standard
Heartwoodlsapwood Date of Period Possible area of origin chronologies. The highest correlation is with
boundary last ring the Weserbergland chronology. The
correlations taper off from the Weserbergland
1777 -
1668 1777 Hamburg in northern, southern and western direction.
1771 -
1558 1771 Weserbergland, Hamburg, Lower Visually the curve fitted best on the
Saxony coastal area or Weserbergland, Hamburg and Lower Saxony
Southern Germany coastal area standard chronologies. The other
1781 1655 - 1781 Hamburg samples have been dated against samples of
1765 1632 - 1765 Hamburg SL 1 [table 71. Since samples [ l ] and [2] of
SL 1 gave the best match with the Hamburg
chronology, the same is assumed for samples
[I] and [3] of SL 3 [fig. 79 and table 61.
These results incite the conclusion on purely
dendrochronological grounds, that SL 1 and
SL 3 are remains of the same ship. The date of
the timbers from SL 3: 1793 as the most likely
Southern Germany Low Countries Western Germany felling date, within the time range 1788 -
t GL(%) t GL(%) t GL(%) 1803 and 1795 as the building date. As for the
provenance of the wood: all the timbers came
from West-Germany, roughly from the area
along its northern and eastern borders.
Surprisingly none of the timbers had their
provenance along the western fringes of
Germany, where much timber is known to
have been obtained.
Table 7
SL 3 3.4 CONCLUSIONS
The suggestion that SL 1 and SL 3 are
Samples 2 and 3 are dated by the mean curve of sample 1 and 2 of SL 1, part of the same vessel is supported by the
with the following results: fact that SL 1 is mainly deck structure and
SL 3 mainly hull structure. Although the sites
Sample no. t GL (Oh) were 1.075 km apart this is by no means
improbable. Large sections of structure can
break away during the wrecking process and
be transported many kilometres from the
original site of disaster. If such units are not
Sample 1 is dated by sample 3 I t = 4.60, GL = 74.2 (99.9)) further broken apart, movement will continue
until they are no longer subject to the motive
forces of wind, current and wave action. This
[Fig. 761 may occur when they get firmly stuck onto an
Two treenails from SL3 that have been obstruction, such as a beach, or a shoal or a
tightened by being cut and caulked. In rock outcrop. In that case the remains will be
one case it has been further secured subject to strong mechanical forces and their
with a thin wood pin [below right]. disintegration is likely to continue.
Below left is the facetted head of an Alternatively they reach a position where due
iron spike. to shelter or depth of water the elements are
Twee treknagels die zijn ingesneden no longer sufficient to move them, a position
en gebreeuwd. In de linker is that is where the wreckage might continue to
bovendien een houten pennetje degrade but is also liable to get embedded into
gedreven. Het staat rechts onder the sediments. The dynamics of shipwreck do
afgebeeld. Daaronder is een vierkante not contradict the hyphothesis of the remains
spijkerkop weergegeven. at SL 1 and SL 3 being part of the same
vessel, whereas it is strongly supported by
features of the timbers themselves which have
been evaluated in the section devoted to
wrecksite SL 1 [paragraph 1.4.1.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
S a m p l e No. Structural element 1 5 SO 1600 16 5 0 1700 17 5 0 1
I I I
I I I
FRAME TIMBER
CEILING PLANK
FRAME TIMBER
F R A M E TIMBER

FRAME TIMBER
C E l L l N G PLANK
C E I L I N G PLANK
FRAME TIMBER
FRAME TIMBER
HULL PLANK
WATERWAY
C E I L I N G PLANK
WATERWAY
C E I L I N G PLANK

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
[Fig. 771
Histogram showing the date of the last
rings, the total numer of rings in each
sample as well as the relative position of
the samples.
De relatieve ligging van de monsters van
Sf 3 ten opzichte van elkaar en de
datering van de buitenste jaarring van
elk monster. Met een verticale balkis de
grens tussen kernhout en spinthout
aangegeven. De datering van de groep
monsters ligt op of rond 1789.

[Fig. 781
The histograms of SL 1 and SL3
combined.
De relatieve ligging van de monsters van
Sf 1 en SL 3 ten opzichte van elkaar en
de datering van de bliitenste jaarring van
elk monster. Uitde combinatie van de
histogrammen van SL 1 en Sf 3 blijkt dat
de dateringen van de twee groepen
monsters elkaar overlappen.

[Fig. 791
Visual match of mean curves from SL 1
and SL3. Both are shown against the
Hamburg standard chronology.
a = Hamburg standard chronology
b = mean curve of samples SL 1 [ I ] and
SL 1 121 c = mean curve of samples S L 3
111. SL 3 [21 and SL 3 [31.
Synchrone ligging van de gemiddelde
curve van Sf 3 t0.v. Sf 1 en van de
gemiddelde curve van Sf 1 t0.v. de
Hamburg standaardchronologie. Een
getekende jaarringcurve geeft loodrecht
op een lineaire tijdas de jaarringbreedtes
[logaritmischl weer. De zo ontstane
punten worden door lijnen verbonden.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 [Fig. 801
Dredging plan as altered due to the
discovery of SL 4.
Het snedeplan van de c.2. Triton,
vergelijk fig. 14.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 4.1 CIRCUMSTANCES O F
DISCOVERY
4.1.1 The first hit
The discovery of the first wrecksite
[SL 11 led to changes in the order of sand
extraction [fig. 141. In accordance with the
adjusted planning the cutter-suction-dredger
Triton was engaged in digging a channel
around wrecksite SL 1 when during the night
of August 24 upon August 25 it hit another
wreck [fig. 801. This happened in the position
x 60.244 and y 438.023 [fig. 131. During the
previous shifts it had intermittently been
hindered by wreckage and coal blocking its
pump. Accordingly the screen of the sonar
that had by then been mounted was attentively
watched. During the afternoon of the 25th and
the morning of the 26th as much sand was
removed from the wrecksite as possible. The
dredger could undercut the wreck which had
its top at around 1I m of depth. When the
dredger was moved it was surmised that the
wreck stood well out of the dredging breach.
4.1.2 On-site inspection
On-site inspection proved much more
successful than on wrecksite SL 1. The
conditions however, were no less apalling. On
the night of the 28th the wreck was buoyed.
On the following days a series of inspection
dives was made by a group of six divers
belonging to or associated with the
underwater archaeological unit of the
Ministry of W.V.C. First of all the gradient of
the slope in front and above the wreck was
checked for reasons of safety of the divers.
Torches were unnecessary equipment as their
beams could not be seen in the murky water.
Gauges could not be read and all diving had to
be surface controlled. Observations could
only be made groping. As the aim of the
action was solely a preliminary assessment of
the site no accurate measuring was attempted.
Overall dimensions and a general impression
of shape and condition of the vessel contained
in the wrecksite was all that was endeavoured.
Moreover, a whole series of loose bits and
pieces were raised [fig. 811.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
The picture that emerged was that of a carvel-
built vessel standing upright in the sediments,
orientated approximately north-south. A
rough sketch is given in fig. 82. One of the
ship's sides protruded from the sand wall. But
for two holes cut into it by the cutter-suction-
dredger it was in extremely good condition. A
wale could be felt, protruding no more than
1.5 cm from the rest of the planking. Only the
very top of the ship's side was damaged by
Teredo attack. Although the side turned
inwards on both ends no stem or sternpost
was observed. At the spot where the dredger
had damaged the wreck, the hold had been
emptied and could be entered. For the larger
part it was filled to the brim with large lumps
of coal. The top of the site as encountered was
thus more or less a flat surface of coal. Part of
the other ship's side, a bulkhead and remains
of deckstructure with a hatch could be
recognised. The raised timbers showed a few
iron and some yellow-metal fastenings.
4.1.3 Considerations a n d decisions
On the evidence presented above it
was surmised that the ship was built at the end
of the 18th century at the earliest and around
1850 at the latest. It would measure over
20 m, it carried a cargo of coal and it was
virtually complete. This preliminary
assessment was extremely important, because
it was the basis on which to decide what was
to be done with the wreck and these decisions
had to be taken quickly. True to the line of
action that had been deployed in advance it
was decided to archaeologically abandon the
SL 4 site as such. Arguments for this were
- its relatively young date and - the fact that
the potentially important site SL 1 still
awaited archaeological attention.
Furthermore the unstable situation of the
sediments and the depth of up to 18 meters
would make on-site research fairly
problematic, both in terms of the technical
approach of the work and in terms of safety of
working conditions. In view of the tight time-
schedule [only four more weeks were left for
on-site work at SL 41 it had been decided in
advance that such an effort would only be
7 the ceili made in case of highly exceptional
:tween th discoveries.
ere proba With the wreck abandoned archaelogically it
) to and ir
still had to be removed to enable construction
what are to continue. It was agreed that the necessary
lvaged as clearance operations would be scrupulously
monitored by archaeologists and that any
tll plank1 parts that would be brought to the surface
I the port :
could be studied afterwards.
naining v(
rtraighr b, 4.1.4 Clearance
-e approx: From the moment the site was
.48 cm = abandoned archaeologically the problem of its
he bilge ti handling had been reduced to the technical
e [lO"]. T problem of removing obstacles which caused
[king are 4 a nuisance for further construction. The
Along th chosen techniques, the time-schedule and the
:s of five expenditure involved were not anymore the
planks sh, responsibility of the archaeologists, who were
-6cm[2 just being kept informed in order that they
just befor might monitor the operations.
Irn of the In view of the tight time-schedule and the
presumably sturdy character of the wreckage
13 112"l 1
7 cm [3": it was decided to clear the site in a way which
n in sectic combined a negligible risk of damage to the
ickness is dredging equipment with good prospects of
the resul success. The cutter-suction- dredger Triton
planks as removed most of the overburden of sand
Two met1 whereafter the floating sheerlegs crane
itinction I Taklift I lifted all wreckage onto a sea-going
i recovere
barge with a huge grab [fig. 831. Alternative
te that the options for clearance had been to dredge a
as more d deep hole in front of the wreckage and to let it
nd some ; slide to a depth beyond the projected depth of
ge, i.e. tht the Slufter or to use explosives and a grab.
also conf The method that was chosen enabled a crew
Is in the d of archaeologists and volunteers to assist on
the barge and to collect any items of interest
t of the h~
Ir T I 4 in 1 that might emerge. During the preparatory
dredging much of the coal was dredged to the
poard to tl
dump and surprisingly little of the ship's
d itself is
icm [2"].
inventory was raised. The hull itself proved so
lportion o sturdy that about half of it was raised as an
integral unit. Presumably it represents the
: whereas
southern part of the remains as sketched in
1 1/4"]. P
fig. 82. It is illustrated in the cutaway
n the area
perspective drawing shown in fig. 85. The
)ttom whe
other half of the wreckage was raised as loose
rnon on sl
timbers together with two smaller
o below.
assemblages as well as fittings such as a
m planks
windlass and some rigging elements.
/with' an
. ~also
t alc
4.1.5 Renewed considerations
1 produce
With all the wreckage lifted onto the
level. In 1
barge and the forepart of the hull preserved as
by this trt
an integral unit it was quite clear that careful
~ulkingm
documentation of its construction could still
-he outer
yield interesting details. Instead of simply
lo bevel :
removing them, they were restored to the
her edge.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
LOGY OF
[Fig. 811
Loose timbers were raised.
Bij de duikverkenning werden losse
delen omhoog gebracht.

[Fig. 821
Sketched plan and section of S L 4 as
drawn during on-site inspection.
Schetsplattegrond en doorsnede van
de vindplaats.

[Fig. 831
After the site had been abandoned
archaeologically it was cleared for
construction purposes with a huge
sheerlegs crane and a grab.
De vindplaats werd geruimd met een
grote knijper.

[Fig. 841
The salvaged section of SL 4 on the
barge prior to being craned off onto a
flatbed trailer for transport to the
compound. It is swathed in w e t
hessian sacsto prevent rapid drying.
Toen bij de ruiming een groot deel van
bet voorschip als Ben geheel boven
kwam is besloten dit alsnog re
documenteren. Hier staat het op een
zeegaande ponton. M e t een dieplader
is /let vervolgens naar de werkbasis
vervoerd. Het hout is afgedekt met
natte jute zakken om te sneluitdrogen
te voorkomen [foto IPL].
[Fig. 851
Cutaway perspective drawing of the
port side showing the approximate
extent of the structure that survives as
an intact unit.
In deze perspectieftekening van de
bakboordszijde is goed te zien hoeveel
er in verband behouden is.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 73

archaeologists care. Even though the remains
were obviously severely maimed by the
operations it was decided to henceforth
handle them with care. The elements were
carefully wrapped in soaked Hessian sacking
and great care was taken not to damage them
any further [fig.84]. They were put ashore
with a mobile crane and shored and supported
in an upright position in a spot where they
could be studied at leisure, the aim being to
record as much constructional detail as
possible and to put this information in its
correct historical and cultural context.
4.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE
RECOVERED REMAINS
4.2.1 The ship
The hull can be described as wood
fastened in that the inner and outer planks are
mainly held to the frames with wooden
treenails. The main structural elements are
fastened with iron bolts. The various types are
noted in the description of the timbers they
fasten, with additional discussion of treenails
below in the context of repairs and in
paragraph 4.4.3.
Keel
Only the fore section which was not preserved
for its whole length [fig. 861 survives in
cohesion with the other structure. Aft it ends
at a scarf joint although this is damaged and
incomplete. The corresponding section of the
joint was salvaged as a loose timber [also
shown in fig. 861. As it runs forward the keel
becomes progressively more damaged and
ends just aft of where it would have scarfed
onto the stem. Other short sections of the keel
survive broken off at scarf joints. The number
of joints represented indicate there were at
least 4 pieces. Analysis of the wood identified
all the pieces as birch [see paragraph 4.3.11.
The keel tapered slightly in both directions
either side of the midship section. Its
dimensions are shown in table 8.
The section remaining in place would have
been between 7.5 - 8 m in length [around 24 -
26 feet]* depending on the nature of the scarf
with the stem. The overall length would have
been in the region of 24 - 25 m dependant on
various factors cliscussed below.
Scarf joints
Although not complete, judging by the angle
of the scarf relative to the depth of the keel,
the foremost scarf was approx. 1.80 m in
length. The other two scarfs, also incomplete,
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
were of a similar length. The tabling of the
foremost and aftermost scarfs was angled
down towards the stern and presumably, so
did the central scarf. This is not clear from the
surviving assemblage but judging from the
deep rounded section of the keel and the lack
of evidence for fastenings, there was no false
keel or shoe. Without such protection the
lower arm of a scarf usually sloped down aft
as it was less liable to damage and leakage.
There are no keys or hooks in any of the
scarfs and this is reflected in the number of
stopwaters [now missing]. These, as their
name implies, were for preventing the passage
of water along the faces of the joint but they
also acted as keys and improved the
longitudinal strength of the joint. In the
central scarf there are four in the surviving
1.06 m of tabling. The joints were fastened by
clenched iron bolts 19 - 20 mm [3/4"] in
diameter [in one case 25 mm [I"]]. These and
the stopwaters are irregularly placed. There
are some horizontal fastenings: a small roved
bolt in the lower arm of the midship joint,
possibly associated with construction. In the
aft section under the deadwood there is a
small treenail [25 mm [l"]] vertically
upwards but it does not seem to fasten the
deadwood.
Apron and Deadwood
No sections of the stem or sternpost have
survived. The only element of the stem
assembly left in situ is the lower section of the
apron. This lies above the keel and is scarfed
to the single piece of deadwood and fastened
to it with treenails. At its forward end it
terminates in an angled butt [fig. 861. It is
strongly fastened by the keelson/keel bolts.
The stern deadwood was similar to that of the
bow but more substantial. The foremost
2.68 m survives; one broken fragment and
two pieces in the dismembered assemblages
of structure.
Hawse pieces
Several very eroded timbers were recovered
that were attached to large lumps of
concretion. After removal of the surface cover
of compacted sand it became apparent that "As during evaluation this wreck turned out to
they were iron hawse-pipes [fig. 871. have strong connections with English
shipbuilding it was decided to add some
Frames imperial measurements in brackets for easy
Heavy oak floors, between 29 and 30.5 cm comparison.
[I1 - 12"] square, are set across the keel on
approximately 58 cm centres [1 ' 11-1.
Amidships they are horizontal on their upper
surface but their lower surface shows slight
deadrise. They run out to the turn of the bilge
where they butt against the second futtock.
They are made from one piece except at the
bow where one is formed from two pieces
scarfed together. The intermediate first
futtocks begin clear of the keel and continue
through the turn of the bilge and butt against
the third futtock. The first futtock overlaps the
joint between the floors and the second
futtock, as the second futtock overlaps that
between the first and third futtocks. The result
is a regular system [fig. 851. At the joints the
heads and heels of the timbers are cut at an
angle and accommodate chocks which are
discussed below. In some cases the timbers
were bolted horizontally to each other
forming a paired frame.
Where this was done two 20 mm [3/4"] iron
bolts fastened the adjacent timbers; the first to
the second, second to third and third to fourth
futtock. There were no bolts between the floor
and the first futtock. Representative timbers
of each type are shown in fig. 88.
Garboard and limbers
Amidships, the garboard strake was let into a
rabbet cut 3.5 - 4 cm below the top of the
keel. It did not therefore lie flush against the
bottom of the floors. A thin feather edged
pine board filled part of the resulting space
and the channel left between that and the keel
formed the limber passage. Either side of the
midship area where the hull became more 'V'
formed the floors were supplemented by
chocks or fillers. The garboard lay flush
against these so a notch was cut to form the
limber passage. An illustration of the
configuration amidships is shown in fig. 89.
Keelson
The keelson is formed of two timbers 28 cm
[ l l"] in width that are bolted through the
floors to the keel with 32 mm iron bolts. The
maximum combined depth amidships was
about 7 1 cm [28"]. The lower element runs
horizontally, reducing in depth as it runs
forward over the rising floors. It ends in a butt
just aft of the foremast [which is stepped into
the upper element]. The resulting space is
filled with deadwood. The upper element
which also runs horizontal terminates in a butt
above the apron [fig. 861. Aft of the foremast
the keelson was badly damaged by the
dredger. One separate piece recovered shows
the beginning of a horizontally tabled scarf
joint. Both elements would have run at least
to a point aft of the main mast. After that one
or other element must have terminated or
reduced with the rising of the floors towards
the stern in a similar fashion as at the bow.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
Table 8
SL 4
Dimensions Width Depth
Forward 25.5 cm 37 cm
At aft scarf joint 27 36.5-37.5
of forward section
Midships (approx.) 28 37.5
Aft. reduces t o 25 33
[Fig. 871
Hawse pieces including on the left side
of the picture the iron hawse pipe.
Van het dek dat bij de verkenning in
situ nog werd aangetroffen zijn weinig
delen boven water gekomen. Hoog in
het voorschip heeft deze constructie
gezeten waar de kluisgaten doorheen
lopen. Hetzijn ijzeren kokers die
gesteund worden door horizontale en
verticale verstevigingen. Het ijzer is
sterk aangekoekt. Beide kokers zijn
aan de linkerzijde zichtbaar [foto IPLI.
[Fig. 881
SL 4 Timbers. The timbers shown are
representative of their type, being in
the best condition and the most
illustrative of those recovered. They
are drawn orientated to indicate their
approximate position in the hull but
they are not necessarily adjacent
timbers. Op deze afbeelding zijn een
aantal represenfatieve inhouten bijeen
gebracht Ze zijn afgebeeldin hun
oorspronkelijke stand. Het zijn echter
niet noodzakelijkerwijs opeenvolgende
of aansluitende inhouten.
(damage precludes accuracy).
(11 by 14-15 inches)
T I 4 Midship floor timber Midscheepse
legger
T23 Aft floor timber Wrang of legger
uit het achterschip
T22 Aft floor timber Wrang of legger
uit het achterschip
T30 First futtock Buikstuk
T31 Aft first futtock Buikstuk uit het
achterschip
T8 Second futtock Oplanger
T3 Third futtock Oplanger
T5 Cant timber Oraaispant
T25 Chock between floor and second
futtock Kruisklamp tussen legger en
oplanger
T32 Chock between floor and second
futtock Kruisklamp Tussen legger en
oplanger
T33 Chock between first and second
futtock Kruisklamp tussen buikstuk en
oplanger
Fig. 90 illustrates the assembly of frame
timbers, keelson, apron and mast step, fig. 91
is the same view with floors omitted to show
the deadwood and the composite floor.

Fastening of main structural elements

The iron bolts fastening the keel, floors and
keelson are 32 mm [I 1/4"] in diameter and
were driven downwards, some only through a
floor and the keel, others through both
keelson timbers, floor and keel [fig. 861. This
was a result of the construction sequence and
is discussed below. They did not have a
washer under the head, the flared shape
resulting from driving the bolt home
presumably being adequate [fig. 921. The
lower ends do not appear to have been
clenched over a washer although it is possible
that without the protection of a false keel
these have been worn away. However, some
appear to have ended well above the bottom
of the keel and simply left blind [figs. 86,
92,931.

Cant frames
Ten cant timbers survive on the starboard side
and although they have slumped out of
position they are still correctly orientated as
shown in the plan [fig. 941. The main timbers
are long curved pieces sided between 17.5
and 27 cm and moulded 16 - 22 cm. They
were footed against the apron with shorter
tapered timbers filling the space between
them. The first cant frame was spiked to the
last floor timber and bolted to the short
tapered frame forward. None of the others are
bolted although a cant timber that was
recovered loose has two horizontal bolts,
indicating that at least one pair of cant timbers
a side [possibly from the stern] were paired
[fig. 88, T S ] .

Breasthooks
One breasthook 3.04 m long remains in place
although it has sagged out of position with the
rest of the bow section [fig. 941. Although it
was not very regular in shape it was fashioned
from good quality timber, 39 x 32 crn in
section tapering to the ends. It was positioned
above the end of the remaining piece of the
apron. A slight depression suggests a shallow
rebate over the apron but erosion and damage
make this unclear. It was bolted to the cant
frames by twelve iron bolts and the ceiling
was cut to fit around it. The area between the
breasthooks was planked by short pieces
running parallel to them, one of which
remains in place. The position of the next
breasthook-up is indicated by the angled ends

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
[Fig. 891
Detail of keel, floor and keelson
assembly showing the limber
passages.
Detailtekening van het samenstel I

kiel, legger en zaathout waarop de

waterloop zichtbaar is.
1 Bilge planks Kimweger
2 Ceiling planks Wegering
3 Limber strake Vullinggang
4 Limber board Vullingplank
5 False keelson Bovenzaathout
6 Keelson Zaathout
7 Floor timber Legger
8 Outer planking Huid
9 Garboard strake Zandstrook
10 Pine board Tingel
11 Keel Kiel
12 Chock Vulklos
13 First futtock Buikstuk
14 Stopwater Keernagel

[Fig. 901
The construction at the bow.
De constructie in het voorschip.
1 Mast Mast
2 Chock Kruisklamp
3 False keelson Bovenzaathout
4 Keelson Zaathout
5 Floor timber Wrang oflegger
6 Chock Vulklos
7 First funock Buikstuk
8 Apron Binnensteven
9 Deadwood Slemphout
10 Keel Kiel

[Fig. 911
The same view with floor timbers
omitted.
Dezelfde tekening is hier opengewerkt.

[Fig. 921 [Fig. 931

Copper alloy and iron fastenings.
SL4 A8811, copper bun-end bolt;
SL4 A8812, SL4 A88/3, copper alloy
bun-end bolts; SL4 A117, iron spike;
SL4 A1 18, iron bolt; SL4 A87, iron
keelson bolt.
Bevestigingspennen en spijkers van
koper. koperlegering en ijzer.
Bottom of keel bolt showing where the
under side of the keel has split away.
The bottom of this boltwould have
been about 3 cm above the bottom of
the keel.
Deze foto toont hoe de onderkant van
de kiel bij een ijzeren pen is
weggebarsten. Hetgaat om een blinde
pen die bij benadering tot 3 cm boven
de onderzijde van de kiel doorging
[foto IPLI.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER 79
of the ceiling planks [fig. 941. The spacing
between the two positions suggests that there
were probably a series of 5 or 6 breasthooks
up to and including the deckhook. Two halves
of what are presumably breasthooks were
salvaged as loose timbers.

Hull planking
On the port side there are 24 strakes
remaining versus 8 on starboard. In the main
or str.uigl~tbody of the hull the bottom planks
were approximately 30 cm in width
130.48 cm = an English foot]. Above the turn
of the bilge they are approximately 25 cm
wide [lo"]. The upper strakes of the outer hull
planking are oak and the lower strakes are
elm. Along the turn of the bilge there was a
series of five thicker strakes. The aftmost in
situ planks show a gradual thickening from
5.5 - 6 cm [2 1/2"] at the garboard up to 7 cm
[3"] just before the turn of the bilge. Around
the turn of the bilge they are approximately
9 cm [3 1/2"] thick, reducing to about
6.5 - 7 cm [3"] up to the wales. They are
shown in section in fig. 95. The increase in
the thickness is not very pronounced and is
partly the result of the reduction in thickness
of all planks as they run round the bow to the
stem. Two metres further forward of this point
the distinction has disappeared altogether.
Planks recovered loose from further aft
indicate that the transition in the middle of the
ship was more distinct. They are 10 cm [4"]
thick and some are distinctly chamfered on
one edge, i.e. the first and fifth bilge planks.
This is also confirmed by the length of the
treenails in the dismembered timbers from
this part of the hull [e.g. those at the end of
the floor T I 4 in fig. 881. The planking from
the garboard to the bilge was 7 cm. The
garboard itself is generally thinner: around
5.5 - 6.5 cm [2"]. The bilge planks have a
high proportion of 35 mm [I 3/8"] diameter
treenails whereas the others are almost all
32 mm [ I 1/4"]. A band of thickened bilge
strakes in the area of the hull that would rest
on the bottom when the ship took the ground
was common on ships of the period and is
referred to below.
All the elm planks are rather roughly finished
or dubbecl witti an adze not only on their outer
surface but also along their edges. There is no
attempt to produce the theoretically vital
caulking bevel. In fact the scalloped surface
produced by this treatment would appear to
grip the caulking medium very securely
[fig. 961. The outer planks of oak higher up
also have no bevel although they are finished
to a smoother edge. There is only one place

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER

[Fig. 961
The adze used to trim the edge of this
elm outer plank has left a relatively
rough surface. There is no appreciable
bevel towards the outer edge and on
many of the planks still in place the
outer edges of the seam are very close
together.
De kant van deze iepen huidplank is
met de dissel bewerkt waardoor een
ruw oppervlak is ontstaan. De kant is
niet merkbaar afgeschuind. Vrijwel
nergens is dit gebeurd. De
breeuwnadenzijn daardoor bijzonder
smal [foto IPL].
[Fig. 971
Butt-end bolts. One bolt and one
treenail in the end of each plank. They
were always offset as shown unless
for some reason this was not possible.
Bij de stuiken is her uiteinde van iedere verwerkt en zijn de roodkoperen
huidplank steeds met Ben geelkoperen pennen voorzichtig met een houten
pen en een treknagel vastgezet Zowel
de treknagels als de pennen staan
steeds diagonaal tegenover elkaar
lfoto IPLI.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
[Fig. 981
Comparison of the heads of the copper
butt-end bolts and those of copper
alloy. The alloy bolt is still shaped as it
was cast, while the head of the copper
bolt has flattened and split like a much
used cold chisel. This is not just
because the copper is softer. One of
the alloy bolts in a loose timber was
struck with a maul and the same effect
was produced with no difficulty. This
suggests the alloy bolts were driven
with a wooden mallet, possibly to
prevent them cracking.
Het is opvallend dar de geelkoperen
pennen vrijwel onbeschadigdzijn
terwijl de roodkoperen stuk voor stuk
aan de kop zijn gebarsten. Dat ligt niet
aan de hardheid o f brosheid van het
metaal. Kennelijk zijn de twee soorten
pen in verschillende werkgangen
hamer in een voldoende ruim gat
gedreven lfoto's IPLI.
[Fig. 991
A flat wedged treenail in a ceiling
plank. Treknagelmet wig in een
wegeringplank lfoto IPLI.
where there is a bevel that must have been cut
intentionally and that is at the butt joint on
one of the oak planks.
The wales, also of oak, were 9 - 9.5 cm thick
[3 112" - 3 314-1 but were possibly a
maximum of 10 cm [4"] thick amidships.
Apart from an eroded fragment of the second,
only the lower wale is still in place. Along its
lower edge, where it is proud of the ordinary
plank below, it is carved with a simple
moulding [fig. 951. There were probably a
series of four or five wales: The lowest is
19 cm, probably 20 cm at midships [7 112"
resp. 8-1 in width and the others are likely to
have been the same.
Copper alloy fastenings
The main fastenings of the planking were
treenails. In addition the butt ends were
secured by a bolt set in opposite sides of the
plank [fig. 971. The majority of these bolts are
16 mm in diameter [5/8"]. Most are copper
alloy although some appear to be nearer pure
copper and are larger in diameter: 20 mm
[3/4"] while a few in the bottom strakes are
iron, also 20 mm. These bolts are blind i.e.
they do not pass right through the hull, relying
on friction for security [fig. 921. Those of
copper appear to have been cut from cast rod,
rolled and then beaten to roughly point the
end. The faceted and split heads suggest they
were driven with an iron hammer. The alloy
bolts were individually cast and the mould
marks filed off prior to use. The heads, in
contrast to those of the copper bolts, show no
signs of being driven with a hammer. As they
were not as ductile as those of copper they
were probably driven with a wooden mallet to
lessen the chance of cracking [fig. 981. There
is one case where this seems to have
happened. Judging by the condition of the
broken surface the break is old, certainly
when compared to those broken during
salvage. A second bolt had been placed only a
few cm away. The metal of the broken bolt
seemed to be a very porous cast which was
presumably the reason it cracked.
Ceiling
Eighteen ceiling planks remain in place on the
port side and six on the starboard, not
including the limber boards. The ceiling
planking is oak. There is great variation in
width but most of the planks average 26 -
28 cm [approximating to 10 and 1I"]. Either
side of the keelson there is a run of limber
boards 15 cm [6"] in width and 4 cm in depth.
These are supported on small blocks so as to
lie at the same level as the limber strakes
which are 7 cm [3"] thick and 30.5 cm wide
[I foot]. From these the ceiling runs out to the
turn of the bilge averaging 6.3 cm [2 1/2"]
thick. At the turn of the bilge there are three
stringers I0 cm thick.
From there up to the clamp the planks are
again 6.3 cm thick [fig. 951. These dimensions
are those near the midship section. All planks
and stringers reduce markedly in thickness
towards the bow and all except the limber
strake and limber board reduce in width. The
fastenings for the ceiling are treenails, the
majority of which are wedged [fig. 991
although some are left plain. They were
supplemented by iron spikes, mostly square
headed, 9 mm square at the top of the shank
and flat ended [figs. 93, 1001. It is to the
stringers that the thick outer bilge planking
described above would correspond, giving
extra rigidity along the line of the joints
between the floors and the first futtocks. They
are additionally fastened with iron bolts
approximately 20 mm in diameter that were
driven from outboard and clenched over rings
inboard [fig. 1011. The planks from the bilge
stringers upwards seem to have been painted
with tar and it is possible that the whole
ceiling had been originally.

Mast-step and mast

The stump of the pine foremast survives to a
height of 1.40 m where it shows severe
shipworm attack. It is octagonally faceted and
is 40 cm in diameter at the highest preserved
section. It is bound by an iron hoop 25 cm
above the mast step, presumably to prevent
splitting. The mast-step is formed by a block
of elm 91.5 x 28 cm [36" x 1I"] which is
fastened to the top of the upper or false
keelson by six spikes. The rectangular foot of
the mast is stepped into it and also into the
false keelson though only by about 2.5 cm
[I"]. The whole assembly was reinforced by
two slabs of wood bolted to each other
through the false keelson. Fore and aft of the
foot of the mast two blocks of wood were set
into the step filling the excess space.
Transverse channels were cut across the top
into which battens had been nailed to retain
the blocks [fig. 1021.

Beams and knees

The only beams surviving are fragmentary
and none of them remain in place. Many were
from the hold and were not decked over
[fig. 1031. They were spaced 2.83 m apart [six
feet] and rested on a shelf [which is no longer
present]. This in turn rested on a stringer or
clamp 9 cm thick [seen in section in fig. 9.51.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 [Fig. 1001
An unwedged ceiling plank treenail
and nearby the head of an iron spike.
Niet alle treknagels in de wegering
B 01 II ; ; ; -./,
"
I;
I f
I; ;, I /\ ,I :?, hebben een wig. Naast deze treknagel
11 II I, '1, is een spijker ingeslagen [foto IPL].

[Fig. loll
The recess impressed into the surface
of one of the bilge stringers by the
washer of a clenched iron bolt.
lndruk van de klinkring van een
geklonken ijzeren bout ofpen in een
van de kimwegers [foto IPLI.

[Fig. 1021
The mast-step.
Voor het mastspoor is een blok
iepehoutop bet bovenzaathout
genageld. Het rechthoekige spoor gaal
door en dooc maar is bovendien nog
fwee en een halve cm in het
bovenzaathoutingelaten. Van
weerszijden is het geheel verstevigd
met twee planken die met ijzeren
bouten door het bovenzaathout heen
aan elkaar geklonken zijn Ifoto IPLI.

[Fig. 1031
Beams and knees. SL4 B01, end of hold
beams with iron strap SL4 K1, iron knee
SL4 T26, SL4 T27, SL4 T28, SL4 T29,
wooden knees.
Onderdelen van de dwarskoppelingen
hoog in hetschip. Let op het einde van
een ruimbalk met een ijzeren band die
om een oplangergreep, ijzeren knieen
en houten knieen.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

This was moulded along its lower edge in the
same manner as the outer wale.
There do not appear to have been any knees
used to retain these hold beams. Instead, an
iron strap 90 mm in width and 20 mm thick
[3 112 x 3/4"] passed around the futtock
against which the beam butted. The futtock
was trimmed to accommodate the thickness of
the iron strap which was then bolted through
the end of the beam with 20 mm [3/4"] iron
bolts. The beam was also bolted vertically to
the shelf and this in turn was bolted through
to the wale every other timber.
Both wooden and iron knees were recovered
during salvage as seperate elements and
appear to be from the the deck-beams [as
distinct from the hold beams]. The shape of
the iron knees indicate a horizontally laid
shelf above a clamp in the same configuration
as those of the hold beams. This suggests the
wood knees were lodged horizontally. This is
also suggested by the bolt-holes which are all
in the same plane. The latter characteristic is
not diagnostic but hanging knees of wood
were commonly rebated to fit against the side
of the beam and not directly underneath it.
The bolts fastening the knee to the hull passed
through the lower arm while those fastening it
to be beam passed horizontally through the
upper arm. Some characteristics were
puzzling initially: the channel or rebate cut
into one face of the knees, the varying
distance between it and the side of the knee,
as well as the curved back face of the long
arm. This became clearer when looking at the
deck-beams.
Two eroded beam ends were recovered during
the inspection dives [see fig. 81,821, having
had slightly flared ends which had been
bolted horizontally and vertically. The
horizontal bolt-holes correspond in principle
to the pattern in the wooden knees, though no
actual matches can be made. Some distance
from the end of the beams on the upper side is
a shallow rebate or channel into which a
longitudinal beam appears to have been
bolted. The channel corresponds to that in the
wooden lodging knees. The knees are of
various sizes and appear to have been paired,
explaining the varying depth between the
channel and the edge of the knee. The
longitudinal timber rebated into the top of the
beam would appear to a side binding strake
described by Andrew Murray in 1863,
although he described it as a feature of naval
ships [see glossary]. A hypothetical
reconstruction of hold and deck-beam
structure is shown in fig. 104. The deck
elements are shown reassembled in fig. 105.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
Beam support pillars or stanchions
Two mortises in the top of the keelson either
side of the foremast step correspond to the
position of the hold beams. Presumably they
are for the pillars that supported them.
However, one mortise appears to be partly
covered by the mast step and would not have
been directly below a beam. Also, under the
third hold beam aft [at section 3 indicated on
the plan: fig. 941 there is no corresponding
mortise. There are some nail holes however,
so possibly the pillars aft of this point were
located on a sole plate nailed on the top of the
keelson.
Only one broken stanchion was recovered
[fig. 1061. This had a tenon of a size that
corresponds to the mortises in the top of the
keelson. One side of two of the mortises are
sloped enabling the tenon on the top of the
stanchion to be located in the mortise in the
underside of the hold beam. It could then be
slid sideways into the mortise in the keelson
[fig. 1071 and secured by a strip of wood
nailed into the groove. These are missing in
SL 4 but nail holes attest to their use.
Repairs and miscellaneous features
In a number of places small pieces of wood
have been used in order to fair the run of the
plank. Most common is the placing of a piece
of oak board against the outer face of a
futtock, filling it out to provide a continuous
surface against which the outer plank could
rest. A slightly different case occurs inboard.
Thin pine board was laid under the central
stringer on the starboard side and several of
the ceiling planks on the port side in various
places to bring them up to the level of those
either side. In many cases the pine was only a
few millimetres thick but in others it seemed
as though it was used to pack out two inch
planks where two and a half inch planks were
required. In other words the filling was
required under the outer planking due to a
deficiency of the frame timbers, whereas
inboard the deficiency was with.the planks.
This may partly be due to the progressive
reduction in thickness of the planks towards
the bow noted above or it might result from
repair.
Outer hull planks
On examining the outer surface of loose
frame timbers there are many treenails that
have been cut off flush with the surface. This
varies considerably from one timber to
another but preliminary examination suggests
this is most common in floor timbers. Some of
them may be a result of the ceiling being laid
 [Fig. 1041
Reconstruction of deck and hold beam
stucture.
De ruimbalken en dekbalken waren op
deze wijle bevestigd. De vorm en
constroctie van het dek en de
dekbalkweger kan worden afgeleid uit
de vorm van de ijzeren knieen.

[Fig.1051
Elements of deck structure
reassembled.
Dekbalken en horizontale knieen die op
elkaar aansluiten [foto IPLI.

[Fig. 1061
A stanchion placed in one of the
mortises on top of the false keelson.
Although the stanchion fits it is not
known whether or not this is its
originial location.
De ruimbalkenzijn ondersteund
geweest door een stut die ermet een
dook in ingelaten was en die ook in
een gleufje in het bovenzaathoutzat
opgesloten.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
before the garboard and lower strakes were
fitted. Alternatively it indicates repair. If
outer hull planking was replaced this would
necessitate cutting the treenails that had
fastened the old planks flush to the frame
before fitting the new ones. Prior to this they
would have been drilled out to ease removal
of the plank. In SL 4 there are indeed several
cases where this was done. This is indicated
where the auger had penetrated a few
millimetres too deep as well as slightly off
line, leaving a shallow hole in the surface of
the timber and the old treenail [fig. 1081. In
some cases the pattern of flush treenails is
consistent with the number one would expect
to fasten the old planks i.e. one or two per
strake on each frame but there is great
variation and if this is associated with repair
not all planks were replaced. The other
indication that some of the planks are
replacements is that many of their treenails
are blind. There could be several reasons for
this. Some of the original treenails were blind
but the majority are through-fastened. If the
ceiling was already in situ [as it might be in a
minor repair] there would be no need to fasten
all the new treenails right through. To provide
an effective connection a treenail only needs
to be a little longer than twice the thickness of
the plank.
Fig. 109 shows treenails that fastened the
garboard and adjacent strake which are blind,
one of which cuts the primary treenail that
fastens through to the ceiling. On the next
floor forward there is a treenail that is cut
flush both above and below, signifying at
least that either a ceiling plank or an outer
hull plank had been replaced. According to
Murray [1863] the grip of even a 6" [15.2 cm]
treenail is substantial [most of those seen in
broken frames are between 20 - 30 cm long].
Table 9 lists the results of some experiments
into the resistance of treenails to a sheering
force.
It can be seen that there is not a great deal of
difference in the force resisted. The treenails
were observed to move about 112" [12 mm]
before sheering. These figures are an average
of several experiments. The maximum force
resisted by a 1 112 inch treenail in a three inch
plank was 4.1 tons [Murray 18631.
Through-fastening every new treenail would
mean piercing existing ceiling in double the
number of places and weakening it. Seeing as
it was also important to hull strength this was
obviously undesirable. Fig. 1 I0 shows
SL4.110, a blind treenail that was wedged in
its nose. The wedge tightened the treenail as it
was driven against the end of the hole rather

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER

Table 9
Diameter of treenails (inches)
[Fig. 1071
A method of fitting and securing deck
stanchions [pillars].
De stutten zijn vermoedelijk op deze
wijze geplaatst.
[Fig. 1081
Illustration of the shallow auger holes
left in many of the timbers after the
treenails had been drilled out. The
remaining part of the treenail was then
cut flush and the new plank fitted.
In veel inhouten zijn ondiepe
boorgaten waargenomen die her
gevolg zijn van het uitboren van
treknagels. Het restant van de nagel
werd glad weggekapt, waarna de
nieuwe plank op z'n plaats werd
gebracht.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
Average stress before fracture in treenails
fastening in 6 "resp. 3" planks (tons)
6" 3"
[Fig. 1091
Diagram showing blind secondary
treenails fastening what is probably a
replacement plank [garboard]. The
through treenails that fastened the
original plank have been cut flush. The
secondary treenails are usually driven
at a completely different angle and as
here often cut through the old ones.
Schematische weergave van de
bevestiging van een - vermoedelijk -
later ingezette plank in de zandstrook.
De blinde treknagels zijn secundair. De
door en doorgaande treknagels
waarmee de oorspronkelijke plank was
bevestigd zijn glad weggekapt. In veel
gevallen zijn de secundaire treknagels
in een volstrekt andere richting
geboord dan de oorspronkelijke die net
als hier nogal eens doorsneden
worden.
89
like a modern rawlbolt. This method of
treenailing is described by Tideman
[1861, 3671 although it is not stated whether it
is specifically a Dutch technique. His
publication predates his prolonged stay in
England [Dirkzwager 19701. No other cases
have been found among the several blind
treenails seen loose or in fractured timbers.
Two cases were found where a treenail hole
had apparently been started, then abandoned
after 3 - 4 cm and filled with mortar.
Around several treenails or treenail holes
there are traces of tar indicating that tar had
been poured into or applied around the mouth
of the hole. Several treenails recovered loose
or from damaged timbers are black,
suggesting that they had been dipped in tar
prior to being driven. This technique is very
old and known to have been widely used in
Scandinavian shipbuilding. As there are a
relatively small proportion of these treenails
they could be additional fastenings or part of
a repair.
If the present skin is the second, it was in
place long enough itself to need repairs.
Alternatively the repaired planks are original
planks left in place when others were
renewed. In many cases a crack has developed
from the end of the plank either stemming
from the bolt, which was only a few
centimeters from the butt end, or the treenail
in line with it. The cracks run from the butt
past the bolt and usually to the nearest treenail
in the line of the crack, so some could have
occurred as the treenail was driven. In some
cases these cracks have been caulked
[fig. 1111 one of them fcr a length of a metre.
There are other repairs to the outer planks in
the form of Dutchmen [small repair patches].
These are small rectangular fillets of wood let
into the plank and nailed in place. In one case
the repair is to the corner of an oak plank and
is fastened with 4 small iron nails. Another on
the edge of an oak plank is fastened with one
large iron spike. Both these patches are only
some 2 cm thick. Underneath the latter was a
treenail which was very close to the edge of
the plank and it is possible that a crack
between the treenail and the edge necessitated
the repair. Two other repair patches of elm, let
into elm planks, are both fastened with two
copper alloy spikes [fig. 1121. One is a repair
the full thickness of the plank, the other is a
Dutchman let into the plank like the other
two. Being close together and so similar, they
were probably fitted at the same time. Other
spikes of the same type have been noted on
loose timbers and possibly originate from the
same repair. The other two being differently
fastened and both sitting proud of the surface
of the plank are presumably repair[s] carried
out at different times.
There are two other repair patches in the
edges of planks that are similar but larger.
One of them was fastened with two square
pegs [fig. 1131. This was a loose find but can
only have been done either before the plank
was fitted or after the adjacent plank had been
removed. The latter is more likely and if so is
additional evidence of a repair program that
entailed replacement of some planks and
repair of others. Square pegs of the type noted
here occur in other instances as well as
dowels of 12 - 17 mm diameter but these
appear to be for filling nail holes etc. and are
not fastenings. A good example is a case
where a hole for the butt-end bolt of a plank
was being drilled into the futtock of a paired
frame. The auger encountered one of the
horizontal bolts, so the hole was plugged and
another hole drilled for the bolt on the other
side of the plank [fig. 1141. In a similar case a
hole for a butt-end bolt was drilled too near
the edge of a timber and was then plugged
with a small square peg of elm.
In another interesting case a stealer has been
fitted presumably in between two planks
already in situ. One of these planks has had to
be cut back to accommodate the stealer,
shown by two treenails of the in situ plank
that were cut in the process [fig. 1151. The
normal method of fastening a stealer is with a
spike at the end and a treenail on the next
frame back. Had the stealer been cut any
thinner it would have been too narrow to
fasten in this manner without splitting.
There is little suggestion of repair to the main
structural timbers. In the bow the regularity of
the framing system breaks down but this may
be more a result of the change in the shape of
the hull. There is one chock in this area that is
so large as almost to be a short futtock. It
might be the result of economy but
alternatively it could be a repair. Rot often
started around these chocks which might have
necessitated cutting away the ends of the
adjacent futtocks as well, thus requiring a
much larger replacement. Another chock
nearby also looks as though it is a
replacement but in this case this is because it
looks much newer than the surrounding
timber. It is well shaped and does not appear
to include sapwood [unlike many of the
others].
Both chocks look as though they were
covered in lime which was sometimes used as
a preservative. If they are repairs it can only
have been effected after the removal of the

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
 --
-
[Fig. 1101 prople Deze sturk a aangebracht op
- Treena~lsand wedges of varlous types een gekoppeldspant en hetrs mogeli/k
-
-- Treknagels, w~ggen,deutels en houten dat de boor op een ~lzerenpen
gestoten 1s Men heeft vervolgens de
twee koperen pennen en da twee
treknagels ~ndit geval aan dezelfda
A crack that has started at the bun-end zrlde van de gang aangebracht
bolt and ran back to the treena~lhas [foto IPLl
been caulked In the same manner as a
[Fig 1151
Een scheur die van een koperen bout Drawing showing a stealer fitted
naar een treknagel loopt is op dezelfde between two existing planks. Part of
wijze gebreeuwd als een gewone naad the upper plank is cut away, as shown
[foto IPL]. by the two treenails cut in the process.
This was done in order to maintain
[Fig. 1121 enough width in the stealer so it could
A plank repair patch which is notthe be fastened without fear of splitting.
full thickness of the plank is usually Deze insteker is kennelijk tussen twee
known as a Dutchman. eerder aangebrachte planken gezet.
Een half houtje. Van de bovenliggende plank - en de
treknagels waarmee die bevestigd is -
[Fig. 1131 is een stuk weggekapt Dit was nodig
A repair patch on the edge of a plank omdat de insteker anders niet
fastened with two square wooden voldoende bread gemaakt kon worden
pegs. om erzondergevaar van scheuren
Een ingezet stukje dat met twee houten pengaten in te boron. Hetgaathier
-;-
. .-.-
#.
2,
c- -.
--. -
. pennetjes langs de zijkant van een overigens niet om een reparatie. In
7, ;-. C . L.
plank is vastgezet [foto IPL]. paragraaf 4.4.3. wordt
-P-

beargumenteerd dat deze insteker, de

- - [Fig. 1141 uiterste vlakgang naast de kim, als
An intended hole for the butt-end bolt allerlaatste huiddeelis aangebracht.
- plugged with a small dowel. This is a In fig.95is hetplankno.6.
bolted frame and the auger probably
encountered one ofthe cross bolts
fastening the futtocks so the butt-end
had to be placed in the other side of
the plank.
Rechtsonderis een gat dat
vermoedelijk geboord is voor een
koperen pen afgedichtmet een houten

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 91

ceiling, leading to the question as to whether
some or all of that is also a replacement? This
is quite possible and those with the pine
filling under them may be replacements. If
this is the case one might expect more of the
chocks to have been replaced at the same
time. Rot especially occurred when they
included a thick layer of sapwood as did many
of those in this vessel.

4.2.2 Ship's fittings

Windlass
Fragments of a windlass, badly damaged by
Teredo, consisting of the pawl bitt and one
side of the barrel including the pawl rim. The
barrel is octagonal with a pine whelp on each
facet and these appear to have been covered in
sheet-iron. The diameter of the barrel, not
including the whelps is 42.5 cm. There are --...
-.. . ..--- .

two sets of intersecting handspike holes on lli

each side [fig. 1161. Both axles were
recovered and these are heavy square section
bars. One end was located in the end of the
barrel, on the other end which projected
beyond the cheeks, were warping heads one
of which was recovered. The surviving parts
are reconstructed in fig. 117. In the absence of
purchase rims it would appear to be an
ordinary handspike type, rather than a
mechanical patent type worked by pump
handles. The rebates on the top of the pawl
bitt are probably for a strongback, a beam
running between the cheeks.

Standing rigging
SL4 A02. Deadeye with iron binding. The
block is 16.3 cm. It is fairly well preserved
with one link of chain still attached to the
binding [fig. 1 181.
SL4 A02b. Deadeye with iron binding [fig.
1191. The block has some worm damage and
mechanical damage [salvage] but is generally
well preserved. It is larger than A02, the block
being 21.4 cm in diameter. The lanyard holes
show a fair amount of wear.
A99. Deadeye with iron binding, the same
size as A02b, with apparently two concreted
chain links.
SL4 A69. Iron binding of a deadeye with a
link of chain still attached. The chain link is
140x 8 2 x 20mm.
SL4 A41. Iron strap turned to retain the pin of
a shackle.
SL4 A93. Similar to A41 but preserved for a
greater length and includes a bolt 25 cm from
the shackle.
SL4 A54. Length of flat iron with two bolt-
holes, one at the preserved end and the other

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 [Fig. 1161 [Fig. 1181
Part of the windlass barrel showing the SL4 A02, deadeye.
whelps, handspike holes and the pawl Een jufferblok metijzerbeslag.
rim. In the foreground lies the end of
the other side of the barrel with the [Fig. 1191
iron axle. SL4 AOZb, deadeye.
Gedeelte van hetspil. De ijzeren Een jufferblok met ijzerbeslag.
verstevigingen of kiezen, de
spaakgaten en de paltanden zijn goed [Fig. 1201
te zien. Op de voorgrond ligt het SL4 A54, probably part of a chainplate.
andere uiteinde, waarbij de ijreren as Vermoedelijk een puttingijzer [foto IPL].
zichtbaar is.
[Fig. 1211
[Fig. 1171 SL4 A01, double block.
Reconstruction of the salvaged parts of Een goed bewaard gebleven
the windlass. dubbelschijfs stropblok met houten
Reconstructie van de geborgen gelagerde schijven en een metalen as.
onderdelen van het spil.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER 93
36 cm from this, with part of the bolt still in
place. Both bolt heads seem to have had
washers under them. On the opposite side of
the bolt head is a fragment of an oak outer
plank 6.3 cm thick [fig. 1201.
This and the two fragments above [A41 and
A931 are parts of chain plate assemblies. The
lower deadeye was chained from its iron
binding probably down to a wale where it
connected to a shackle in the top of the strap
or plate which was bolted through the side of
the hull.
SL4 A75. Large thimble, heavily concreted,
approximately 7.5 cm across internally.
Possibly for a stay.

Running rigging
SL4 A01. A well preserved double sheaved
block scored for a rope strop, with wood
sheaves [probably Lignum Vitae] and a metal
pin. It was taken apart for conservation and
the sheaves proved to feature a yellow metal
bearing. There are several marks on one cheek
CC, R F l l and what looks like a makers mark
[fig. 1211.
SL4 A03. A single sheaved block bound with
an iron strap and crowned with a hook
[fig. 1221.
SL4 A04. Single sheaved block scored for a
rope strop, similar in shape to A01. Heavily
concreted but otherwise in reasonable
condition.

4.2.3 Associated finds

Cargo and ballast

As established during the on-site inspection
the hold of the vessel contained large lumps
of coal. A large quantity of it was salvaged
along with the other remains. A sample of it
was kept [fig. 1231.
Compacted in the limbers of the recovered
part of the ship flint shingle was found.
Ballast as such does not seem to have been
present. The predominant material between
the floors was coal- dust. It is possible that a
few large flint nodules, found in the vicinity
of the wreck had also been on board, although
association is not certain.

Miscellaneous
This section includes small finds, fastenings
recovered loose, samples and other categories
not included above and is sub- divided
according to material type.

Ceramics
SL4 A09/2. Rim sherd of an earthenware
vessel, possibly a strainer, three holes below

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 94

 thickened rim. Outer surface decorated with
curved lines in yellow slip. Inner decoration
of dragged yellow and red slips [fig. 1241.
SL4 A09/8. Six sherds of a red earthenware
pot or bottle. The fabric has coarse gritty
inclusions. The wall thickness of 9 mm near
the base thins rapidly to 2.5 mm at the
shoulder [only 75 mm higher]. Clear [salt?]
glaze from just above the base on the outer
surface and on the entire inner surface. Shown
reassembled [fig. 1251.

Clay pipes
Three intact bowls were found as well as
fragments of two others and several stem
fragments [fig. 1261.
SL4 A26. Plain bowl with rouletted rim.
Possibly Dutch mid 18th century. If so
probably intrusive.
SL4 A27. Plain bowl, rouletted rim. Dutch
late 18th century. Heel mark: GN [Gerrit
Nobel] 1768 - 1870180.
SL4 A105. English moulded decoration.
Inscribed Munchester- Unity.This pipe
belongs to a large group of pipes decorated
with masonic emblems appearing in a wide
variety and in immense quantities from the
mid 18th century onwards. The form of the
bowl developed in the second quarter of the
19th century and production of these pipes
continued into the 20th. The occurrence of a
text together with several symbols on the side
of the bowl indicates a date early in the
second quarter of the nineteenth century. The
oval form of the stem is caused by intensive
use of the mould, indicating that this pipe is
of low quality.
SL4 A106. 2 fragments of a small plain bowl
of 19th century shape.
[Fig. 1221 [Fig. 1251 SL4 A107. 5 fragments of a decorated bowl,
SL4 A03, single iron bound block with SL418, sherd. 19th century. Poor quality, flawed in firing.
hook. Van de scheepsinventaris en het
Enkelschijfsblok met buitenbeslag en daartoe behorende aardewerk is Bricks
haak. bijzonder weinig gevonden [foto IPL]. SL4 A08. Six pieces of red clay brick very
eroded.
[Fig. 1231 S14 A l l . 16 bricks or part bricks of various
Some of the large lumps of good types and sizes, including 3 complete yellow
quality coal recovered with SL 4. The Dutch [IJsselsteen] bricks in good condition.
on-site inspection showed that a large Others are extremely water worn and are of
quantity was still in the hull when various pink and red clays.
discovered.
De lading bestond uit grote kolen Glass
[foto IPL]. SL4 A100. Wine bottle base, light olive green
thick metal. Deep kick-up, no visible pontil
[Fig. 1241 mark [fig. 1271.
SL4 A09/2, rimsherd. SL4 A101. Wine bottle-neck and upper body.
Scherf van slibwerk kommetje Light olive green metal, thin in the body and
[fotok IPLI. with a heavy square string rim [fig. 1271. Not
part of A100.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER 95
SL4 A102. Two body fragments similar metal
to above but slightly different colour.
SL4 A102b. One base fragment; brown metal.

Metal

Copper/copper alloy
SL4 A25. Small copper button with a raised
pattern on the front. There is a text around the
rim of the reverse which is illegible due to
pitting of the metal [fig. 1281. It was found
between the floor timbers just aft of the
foremast.
SL4 A1 5. Body of a cast brass barrel tap, the
actual tap spigot of which is missing
[fig. 1291.
Copper and copper alloy fastenings are shown
in fig. 92.

Lead
SL4 A57, 1911, 1912. Rolled sheet lead
fishing-net weights. One is 11.5 cm long with
a fragment of rope still within it [fig. 1301.
SL4 A62. A tapering lead weight attached to
two iron rods one of which passes down the
centre of the weight and is held in place with
a split pin [fig. 1311.

Iron
SL4 A48. A small grapnel with some rope
still adhering [fig. 1321.
SL4 A72. Three links of stud-link chain
[fig. 1331. Various other lengths of the same
size and type of chain were found and are
probably parts of the anchor cables. The
original link length was around 165 mm
[6.5"].
SL4 A 63, 68 and 90. Objects that are similar
to A62 but the weights are of square section
iron [fig. 1341.
Several bolts and spikes have been illustrated
in fig. 92.

Wood
SL4 A5 1. Barrel stave: 85.4 x 11.8 cm across
the centre and 11 mm thick, split into three
pieces [fig. 1351. There are no indentations or
iron-stain to indicate iron hoops and no other
marks of any kind. There are tool marks on
the inner surface.
SL4 A118. Stave of a cylindrical canister
made from a hardwood 52.5 x 9.5 x 0.8 cm.
The outer surface seems to have been tarred.
SL4 A23124. Two fragments of an oak plank
with markings [fig. 1361. Wooden fastenings
have been illustrated in fig. 110.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
 [Fig. 1261
Clay pipes.
Vijf pijpekoppen. De middelste links
heeft bet hielmerk van Gerrit Nobel,
de onderste links is een Engelse
versierde pijp.

[Fig. 1271
Bottles.
Glazen flessen.

[Fig. 1281 [Fig. 1301

SL4 A25, copper alloy button
Koperen knoop [foto's IPLI.
[Fig. 1291
SL4A15, barrel tap.
Bronzen tapkraan waaraan hetzwikje
ontbreekt.
SL4 A57, SL4 1911. SL4 1912. lead
weights.
Visloodjes. Dergelijke nehrerzwaringen
worden op veel scheepswrakken
gevonden lfoto PLl.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
Textile
SL4 A52. Brown silk square found between
futtocks at hold beam level. Almost complete
apart from one hole.

Leather
SL4 A13. Part of a shoe [upper heel].

Stone
SL4 A 12. A grindstone, three quarters
complete, of light grey crystalme rock
[fig. 1371. The shaft was 44 mm square and
on one edge of the hole is a fragment of wood.
The area around the shaft is ironstalned. It is
27.2 cm in diameter and 8 cm thick. There are
tool marks on the radial surface while the
outer surface has been worn smooth and
slightly concave. This suggests it was used
vertically for grinding blades rather than
hor~zontallyfor gr~ndinggrain.

Animal bone
SL4 A20. Butchered rib, probably bovine, cut
across both ends [22.7 x 3.5 x 8 cm].

Samples
Various samples were taken for identification
or analysis. Where this has been completed
the samples are evaluated in section 4.3.
SL4 S1. Caulking between port side outer hull
planks. SL4 S2. Environmental sample from
between floors. SL4 S3. Environmental
sample from between floors. SL4 S4. [A88141
Head of a copper alloy butt-end bolt, broken
during salvage. SL4 S5. [A88151 Head of a
copper alloy bolt, with a break that does not
look modern. SL4 S9a. Coal concreted to
ceiling planking. SL4 S9b. Sub sample of 9a.
SL4 S10. Fine silt and clay above flint
shingle.
SL4 S 11. Flint shingle blocking the limber
passages of the floor timbers immediately aft
of the foremast. It was also spread over the
garboard strake in a shallow layer 1 - 1.5 cm
thick. Above this lay an organic silt
[sampled]. Above this and sealing both was a
layer of coal dust 4 - 5 cm thick that had
filtered down passed the limber board into the
space between the floors. SL4 S112a. Coal
dust from between the floors overlying S10.
SL4 S 112b. Sub sample of S 112a.
SL4 TS 1-26. Wood samples. SL4 S27-S37.
Wood samples.

Some remarks on association

As a proportion of the objects that must have
gone down with the ship the number of finds
retrieved is small. Like many others in a busy
channel the wreck site was contaminated both

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

Table 10 by earlier and more modern material in the
SL 4 years following its sinking.
Together with the nature of the site and the
No. Element Position Species circumstances of salvage this makes it
impossible to prove or disprove association
TS 1 False keelson midship Quercus sp. (oak) between many of the objects and the ship.
TS2 Keel midship Betula sp. (birch) Cautionary examples include some of the
TS3 Garboard midship starboard Betula sp. pottery, a piece of boiler clinker and a modern
TS5 Outer hull plank lower midship port Ulmus sp. (elm) shoe that were raised with loose timbers from
TS6 Outer hull bonom lower midship port Ulmus sp. the site. The association of the bricks is also
TS7 Outer hull bonom midship Quercus questionable. Some are complete and in good
TS8 Treenail midship plank port Quercus sp. condition while others are fragmentary and/or
TS3 Treenail midship starboard Fagus sp. (beech) very water worn. The latter appear to have
TS9 Deutel from sample 8 Quercus sp. been exposed on the seabed for a long time in
TSlO Treenail midship port plank Quercus sp. contrast to another hard edged fragment that
TSll Wedge (punch) from treenail sample 10 Quercus sp. looks suspiciously like a modern fire-brick.
TS12 Wedge (punch) from treenail sample 10 Ulmus sp. The most striking example is a plastic tea-
TS13 Filling (under plank) midship starboard Quercus sp. strainer that was embedded in compacted sand
TS15 Filling (under bilge stringer) starboard forward Pinus sylvestris(pine) in one of the hawse-pipes. This is probably
TS14 Repair ("Dutchman") port outer plank forward Ulmus sp. the result of the ship having become
TS16 Mast step keelson forward Ulmus sp. periodically more or less exposed. The
TS17 Foremast Pinus sylvestris vintage of the strainer would be consistent
TS19 Ceiling plank port midship Quercus sp. with seabed disturbance that must have
TS20 Ceiling plank port midship Quercus sp. occurred at the time of construction of the
TS21 Ceiling plank port midship Quercus sp. Maasvlakte in the 1960's. Other objects that
TS23 Keelson midship Quercus sp. the wreck probably caught are the lead net
TS22 False Keelson midship Quercus sp. weights and perhaps the small grapnel. One of
TS24 Floortimber midship Quercus sp. the clay pipes would appear to predate the
TS25 Futtock forward Quercus sp. English pipe [SL4 A1051 found in the wreck
TS26 Chock midship Quercus sp. by about 75 years. The approximate date has
yet to be established but its presence is not
Keel samples Betula sp. very surprising considering the number of
Garboard, port side Ulmus sp. ships passing this area in any one year. The
Garboard, starboard side Betula sp. amount of debris and general rubbish on the
Garboard, loose plank Ulmus sp. seabed would have been appreciable long
before SL4 sunk.
[Fig. 1311 [Fig. 1341
SL4 A62, lead weight attached t o iron SL4 A63, SL4 A68, SL490, weight and 4.3 ANALYSES
rod with a split pin. fittings.
IJzeren staaf met een loden gewichtje. Een vierkantijzeren gewicht en enige 4.3.1 Wood species
Hetzou deel uitgemaakt kunnen daarbij behorende ijzeren appendages. Analysis of wood species was
hebben van een unstes Het lijkt een grove uitvoering van het performed by Peter Stassen, Ministry of
voorwerp dat i n fig. 131i s afgebeeld W.V.C., under the supervision of dr. P. Baas,
[Fig. 1321 [foto IPL1. Rijksherbarium at Leiden. The collection of
SL4 A48, a grapnel. slides and catalogues of the Rijksherbariurn
Een klein dregje m e t touwlfoto IPL]. [Fig. 1351 were used as comparative material for
SL4 ASl, barrel stave. identification. Samples of wood for species
[Fig. 1331 Duig. analysis were taken from several
SL4 A72, three links of stud-link chain. constructional elements of SL 4.
Enkele schakels mannetjesketting [foto [Fig. 1361
IPLI. SL4 A23124, plank with markings. Procedure
Plank met merktekens [foto IPL]. First the samples were boiled in water for
over an hour, after which they were cut with a
[Fig. 1371 razor-blade in very thin transversal, radial and
SL4 A12, grindstone. tangential sections. These sections were then
Slijpsfeen van lichtgrijs kristallijn bleached and rinsed several times in fresh
gesteente [foto IPL]. water and then mounted on a slide embedded
in KARO, a corn syrup which keeps the
samples in good condition for several years.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

For the examination a binocular microscope Table I 1
was used. The magnification factor used for SL 4
the transversal sections was 40, for the
tangential sections it was 100 and 250 - 400. Sample no. Structural Number Number of Heartwoodl
The radial sections were magnified 200 or element of rings sapwood rings sapwood boundary
400 times, while a magnification of 600 times
was used for examination of some of the Floor
epithelial vessels on the end grain. Floor
Funock
Results Hull plank
The results of the analysis are shown in Keelson
table 10. After 25 samples had been analysed Hull plank
a further four samples were taken. This was Hull plank
done to establish whether all sections of the Hull plank
keel and both garboards were birch as the first Stringer
results suggested.
In general the wood species identified appear Table 12
to be northern European and Mid-European
species. No obvious non European species sample no
were found although oak, elm, beech and
birch all have closely related species in North 3 t = 7.15

America which are difficult to distinguish. GL= 69.9 (99.9%)

The statistics for the mean curve of
4.3.2 Dendrochronological analysis floors of SL4. The background of the
statistics is clarified in Appendix I.
Sampling Mate van overeenkomst tussen
The salvage of the SL 4 shipwreck was monster SL4 (3) en SL 4 (9) uitgedrukt
performed with a large grab. As a result only in de t-waarde en de Gleichlaufigkeit.
part of the hull was recovered as an integral Uit beide curven is een gemiddelde
unit. A large number of timber were raised curve samengesteld. Beide monsters
individually. To preserve the integral unit of zijn genomen van de spanten.
hull structure for survey purposes eight of the
total of nine samples were taken from loose Table I 3
timbers. The ninth sample was taken from a
stringer that was still connected to the main sample no. 5 6 7 8
structure. However, the relationship of the
timbers to the structure with regard to type 5 not at issue t = 16.08 -
and function was obvious. So this sampling GL = 76.6
procedure was perfectly valid.
The principles of the dendrochronological not at issue t = 4.64 t = 7,32
method, the methodological problems and the GL = 68.6 (99.9%) GL = 64.3 (99.9%)
procedures followed during the Slufter-
research are briefly outlined in Appendix I to not at issue -

which the reader is referred as an aid in

understanding the relevant statistics. The
reference chronologies that were used in the not at issue
analysis are also discussed there.
The statistics for the mean curve of the
Dating hull planks of SL4
Of the nine samples, eight have been dated Mate van overeenkomst tussen
[table 111. It was not possible to date sample monster SL4 (5), SL4 (61, SL4 (7) en SL4
[4] of the stringer, although it had enough 0.De vier afzonderlijke curven
rings [I581 and a regular ring pattern. This konden worden gecombineerd tot een
indicates its area of origin was outside the site-chronologie. Alle vier de monsters
area covered by the standard chronologies zijn genomen van huidplanken. Dit
used. It was possible to build up two mean vormt een ondersteuning voor het idee
site chronologies [tables 12 and 131. The one dat verschillende structurele
consists of samples [3] and [9], both floors, elementen een verschillend
and the other of samples [5], [6] and [8] and herkomstgebied hebben.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER


Date of Period Possible area
last ring of origin
England
England
England
Weserbergland or Southern Germany
Weserbergland, Southern Germany or Western Germany
Weserbergland or Southern Germany
Hamburg
Weserbergland or Southern Germany
- relative position of the samples, their length
[Fig. 1381
Histogram showing the relative
position of the samples, their length
and the date of their last annual ring.
The heartwood-sapwood boundary is
also indicated.
Histogram waarin de datering van de
monsters naast elkaar is gezet. Elk
blokje geeft de lengte van het
jaarringpatroon weer en eindigt bij de
buitenste jaarring. Ook de grens van
het spinthout is aangegeven.
[Fig. 1391
Histogram showing the estimated
felling date.
Histogram waarin is weergegeven de
kapdatum en het 95%
betrouwbaarheidsinterval van de
monsters SL 4 121, SL 4 131 en SL 4 191.
De procedure gaat als volgt in zijn
werk: door bij de gemiddelde kernhout-
spinthout-grens van de drie monsters
het gemiddelde aantal spinthoutringen
van Engelse bomen op te tellen komt
men op een kapdatum van 1836. Het
gemiddelde aantal spinthoutringen van
Engelse bomen van 30 ligt met 95%
zekerheid tussen de uiterste waarden
19 en 50 ringen. Door de 19
spinthoutringen op te tellen bij de
kernhout-spinthoutgrens van monster
121en de 50 spinthoutringen bij de
kernhout-spinthoutgrens van monster
191 ontstaat het 95%
betrouwbaarheidsinterval voor de
datering van de groep monsters.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
to a lesser extent [7]. All these samples are of
hull-planks.
The high t-value between samples [5] and [6]
means that they are made out of the same tree.
Since sample [5] and [6] are taken from two
hull planks which had been broken loose this
conclusion is not necessarily significant.
Each of the two site-chronologies is built up
from structural elements of the same type.
This supports the idea of a different
provenance for different structural elements.
Three of the samples contained sapwood, as is
indicated [by the vertical bars] in the
histogram [fig. 1381. In the histogram the
Enkele kenmerken van de monsters and the date of their last annual ring are
van SL 4. Weergegeven is om welk shown. The samples with sapwood are all
structureel element het gaat, totaal from frames: sample [2] with 19 sapwood
aantal jaarringen, aantal spinthout- ring, sample [3] with 10 sapwood ring and
ringen, overgang kernhout-spinthout, sample [9] with 19 sapwood rings.
periode die her monster beslaat in To get the best estimate of the felling date of
kalenderjaren en de mogelijke the complex of timbers the mean of the
herkomst. heartwood/sapwood boundaries is taken and
to that is added the mean sapwood allowance,
according to the method suggested by Baillie
[1983, 36; after Hollstein 19801. Although
sample [2] could not be matched with samples
[3] and [9] their English provenance suggests
that they could be treated as one timber
complex. This in turn means that they can be
treated as belonging to the same timber
shipment with the same felling date. The
mean sapwood allowance for timber of
English origin is 30 years [Hughes et al.,
1981, 3831, so the estimate of the felling date
is 1836, with a probability of 95%, that the
true felling date lies between 1829 and 1854
[see fig. 1391. The reasoning behind is as
follows. Of a sample of 175 recent oaks of
i MOST LIKELY
I FELLING DATE
I
I( >;
: I M E A N SAPWOOD ALLOWANCE ,838
: YEAN
.. . SAPWOOD
............................,.... ..., . , .......................
...................................................................... . ...
BOUHOARV
,854
LATEST
POSSIBLE
I I
1800 lalo 1010 ,830 ,840 1850
101
Northwest England and Wales with complete Table 14
sapwood, the number of sapwood rings were SL 4
counted. It appeared that with a probabilty of
95%, the felling date of an oaktree lies Sample England Hamburg Weserbergland Southern Germany
between 19 and 50 years after the no.
heartwood/sapwood boundary [Hughes et al.,
198 1,3831. In this case we have three samples
with sapwood. By adding the 19 years to the
heartwood/sapwood boundary of sample [2]
and the 50 years to the heartwood/sapwood
boundary of sample [9] the 95% probability
interval is established.
The building date of the vessel governed by
the same variables considered for SL 1 might
lie within two years after the felling date, i.e.
around 1838. Combining this date with the
date of wreckage of the ship, based on the
find of an English clay pipe, which is dated at
the beginning of the second quarter of the
19th century, a short working life of
5 - 10 years is indicated. 100 = mean of sample 5 and 6 Overzicht van de mogelijke
200 = mean of sample 3 and 9 herkomstgebieden en de daarbij
Origin of the timbers 300 = mean of sample 5,6 and 8 behorende statistische waarden per
As stated above two mean site chronologies 400 = mean of sample 5.6.7 and 8 monster van SL 4.
could be produced. The mean curve of the 500 = mean of sample 6 and 7 Aangezien de verschillende
floor [9] and futtock [3] and the curve of the standaard-chronologieen onderlinge
floor [2] matched best with the English Of sample 3 and 9 only the main overeenkomsten kunnen vertonen kan
standard chronology visually as well as curve(= 200) is dated ( t = 5.31, een monster op meer dan een
statistically [fig. 1401. GL = 71.0 (99.9)) chronologie tegelijk passen.
The mean site chronology of the hull planks
matched well against the Hamburg,
Weserbergland and South-German
chronologies, but no differentiation could be
made between them [fig. 1411. The sample of
the Keelson [I] could also have a German
origin. It matched with the Weserbergland,
South-German and to a lesser extent to the
West-German chronology. However, the [Fig. 1401
visual agreement was not particularly good Visual match of S L 4 curves and
with any of them. This suggests it was from English standard chronology.
another North European area. Table 14 gives a =sample SL 4 [Z].
the statistics for the samples of SL 4 as dated b = English standard chronology.
against the different standard chronologies. c = mean of sample SL 4 [31 and S L 4 [9]
[= 2001.
4.3.3 CAULKING AND LUTING Twee curves van SL 4, synchroon
MATERIALS afgezet tegen de Engelse
Several samples of caulking and standaardcurve.
luting materials were submitted to John
Evans, Head of Department of Natural [Fig. 1411
Sciences at North East London Polytechnic. Visual match of S L 4 curves and
Like the samples from SL 1 these were Weserbergland standard chronology.
initially investigated by scanning electron a = mean of S L 4 [5], S L 4 161, S L 4 [7]
microscope to assess their general make-up. and S L 4 [El.
The SL 4 samples proved to be composed of b = Weserbergland standard
an intimate mixture of clay, wood shavings chronology.
and a binder [fig. 1421. Just like the SL 1 Gemiddelde curve van SL 4 monsters,
samples the SL 4 samples did not contain any synchroon afgezet tegen de
hemp fibres. standaardcurve van het
Weserbergland.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

Western Germany Low Countries Schleswig- Lower Saxony
Holstein coastal area

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
Extraction with a series of solvents and
subsequent analysis of the extracts by a range
of chromatographic techniques indicated that
the binder in all cases consisted of a pine
pitch.
Ignition of known weights to constant weight
showed the mineral fraction [i.e. mainly clay]
of the SL 4 samples to range between 14 and
18% by weight. No residues of lime were
found.

4.3.4 COPPER ALLOYS

Analysis of copper alloys used for
bolts was carried out by Cathy Giangrande,
Royal Armouries, Tower of London. Her
results are followed by some observations on
the types of fastening used.

Procedure [Fig. 1421

Two butt-end bolts were analyzed using a Scanning electron microscope image
Kevex 0750 energy dispersive X-ray of SL4 caulking material.
fluorescence spectrometer, using a carbon Elektronenrnicroscoopvergroting van
secondary target. The conditions were 55 kV een breeuwselmonster. Het bestaat uit
and 1.8 ma for 400 and 1500 seconds. The klei, houtschilfers en een bindmiddel.
surface of the bolts were cleaned down to Ook hier is geen touw of hennep
bright metal before analysis. The results are lwerkl gebruikt.
shown in table 15.

Observations
The analysis shows the two bolts to be very
different in composition. This indicates that
they were from different batches of
manufacture though not necessarily from a
different source. The proportions of each
metal in the alloys could vary for several
reasons. They were probably made at a
foundry near the shipyard as and when they
were needed. They are still referred to today
as yellow metal. Although this designation
more or less implies that any copper alloy was Table 15
acceptable, various alloys were being tried
during this period. One that proved successful SL4 A8814 SL4 A8815

was Muntz metal, patented by G.F. Muntz

around 1832. This was an alloy of copper, COPPER 70.21
zinc and lead which had a tensile strength of ZINC 6.30
50,000 to 65,000 pounds per square inch, or TIN 13.42
about the same as that of bar iron. Neither of IRON 3.14
these bolts are Muntz metal, although bolt ANTIMONY 0.80
8814 has a fairly high lead and zinc content. LEAD 5.50
The lead improved the density and working ARSENIC 0.40
quality and the zinc the casting qualities but MANGANESE tr
with its high tin content 8814 is really a NICKEL tr
bronze. Bolt 8815 with a high zinc content is a BISMUTH -
brass. This is the one that appears to have
cracked when being driven [see paragraph Results: in percentages
4.2.1 on copper alloy fastenings]. As noted
above the main reason is probably that the tr {trace) = 0.01% or less
cast of 8815 is very porous.

ARCHAEOLOGY O F THE SLUFTER

Table 16 Comparative tests on the strength of copper
Blind bolts and iron bolts are interesting in this context.
Into 4" of wood into 6" of wood The tables 16 en 17 give the average strength
of copper and iron bolts of various
Diameter of bolt IRON COPPER IRON COPPER thicknesses. The figures are taken from
Murray [1863]. Only those of the sizes used in
518" (16mm) 3.1 3.3 SL 4 being included here. The figures give the
3.05 3.3 direct tensile force in tons needed to break the
3.05 2.45 bolt or pull it out of the timber. Table 16
3.0 3.0 concerns blind bolts driven into sound oak to
a depth of 4 and 6 inches [ I 0 and 15 cm] with
314" (19mm) 3.1 3.5 the usual drift i.e. they were slightly larger
3.5 3.5 than the hole augered for them. Table 17
3.5 3.9 shows the results of the same test on copper
3.15 3.5 and iron clenched bolts.
Interestingly there is not a great deal of
Table I 7 difference between the adhesion of the two
Clenched bolts metals. The iron being stronger would tend to
spring from the timber before breaking.
Diameter of bolt IRON COPPER In the case of clenched bolts the fastening
failed when the bolt pulled through the
518" (16mm) 6.45 5.75 washer. The small difference between the two
6.45 6.25 metals is because the copper bolts, being
6.0 5.5 softer, could be more efficiently clenched
5.9 5.5 over the washer.

314" (19mm) 7.5 7.0 4.3.5 Coal

7.5 7.0 While the preliminary investigation of
8.0 7.25 the hull structure was being carried out, two
8.75 7.45 samples of the coal were sent to the Yorkshire
Regional Laboratory of British Coal for
analysis.
Table 18 Coal from various archaeological sites has
been analysed in the past. The techniques
SL419b SL4112b used are: petrographic [reflectance] and
Ro class % class OIO 112 class % class % 112 class palynological [spore count]. Through these
techniques the rank and age of the coal can be
determined. From a knowledge of these
parameters in British coals it is sometimes
possible to identify a source.
One sample was collected from pieces of coal
that had been concreted to the stringers and
ceiling planks by the degraded iron
The mean maximum reflectance of fastenings. A second sample was collected
both samples is 79% with a standard from the thick layer of coal dust found
deviation of 0.06. between the floor timbers under the keelson.
The former would obviously represent the
final cargo, whereas the latter could have
accumulated during more than one voyage. If
that was the case and if the coals carried had
come from more than one source this would
show up in the analysis.
The analysis was carried out by Pamela
Spriggs, Yorkshire Regional Laboratory,
British Coal. Her results are presented below
and are followed by some historical
considerations that anticipate the discussions
under 4.4 and 4.5.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

Petrographic analysis
The mean maximum reflectance and the
distribution of individual reflectance
measurements made on one hundred points of
vitrinite are shown in table 18.
Palynological analysis
The samples yielded a well preserved spore
assemblage and both contained the
stratigraphically significant species
Endosporites globiforrnis and Dictyotriletes
hireticulatus. The samples are considered to
lie within miospore Zone VIII [Smith and
Butterworth, 19671 which corresponds to the
lower part of the middle coal measures from
just below the Aegiranum marine band.
Both petrographic and palynological analysis
indicate that the two samples were derived
from the same source. From the mean
maximum reflectance value the coal is
estimated to have a volatile value of 36 - 39%
expressed on a dry ash free basis. High
volatile coal of Middle Coal Measures age is
common in Britain and is known to outcrop or
occur near the surface in the following
coalfields:
- Cumberland; - Durham [outcrops near
Bishop Aukland and on the banks of the river
Wear]; - Northumber!and; - South Wales
[south-east part of the coalfield]; - Lancashire
[south-west part of the field]; - Yorkshire
[northern part of the field].
The number of potential sources of the coal
can be reduced by some logical
considerations. The three most abundant
sources in the list are Cumberland, Yorkshire
and Durham. Of these three the sources in
Durham and Cumberland are nearest to the
coast. As the coal was presumably en route
for a port in the Rotterdam area it is unlikely
to have come from Cumberland. In this line of
reasoning Durham is considered to be the
most likely source. However, the other British
sources cannot firmly be excluded.
4.4 EVALUATION
4.4.1 Introduction
The data and analyses presented
above should be integrated into the aggregate
knowledge on historical shipping. The present
evaluation is an attempt to do so from
different viewpoints and on different levels.
First of all some remarks will be made on the
process of wrecking and the archaeological
site as such. After that attention will be given
to the ship and its construction. As it is
especially in constructional detail that the
present study has yielded new information
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
this will be dealt with at length. Specific
attention will be given to the specific use of
different species of timber and other
materials. A reconstruction will be presented
of each step in the sequence of construction of
the hull with reference both to the
archaeological observations and to
contemporary historical handbooks on
shipbuilding.
This detailed evaluation will be followed by
an assessment of the position of this particular
construction within the framework of
longterm developments in shipbuilding.
Separate paragraphs will be devoted to the
short term historical setting of ship and
shiptype and of the cargo. In a final paragraph
the historical event and the date of shipwreck
will be discussed.
4.4.2 T h e site
Although the archaeological site SL 4
was abandoned after cursory inspection a few
obvious remarks can be made about the
process of site formation. The ship's hull had
retained its integrity and was standing upright
in the sediments at a depth of between 1 1 m
[top] and 15 m [keel]. For one thing this
means that the ship must have sunk like a
stone in relatively deep water. In the area
concerned this must have been in a gully.
Standing on the bottom the ship must have
blocked the tidal currents. Ensuing scouring
must have caused the ship to dig into the
sediments it had settled upon. In view of the
excellent state of preservation of the ship this
process must have elapsed rather quickly. It
explains why the ship was found at a depth
well beyond the average depth of the deepest
subatlantic sediments. It is remarkable that
the gully - which must locally have been as
deep as 11 meters - was not documented in
the historical sources.
4.4.3 T h e ship and its construction
4.4.3.1 Some general remarks
The initial idea that the coal cargo and
the copper alloy fastenings indicated the ship
to be an English vessel from the first half of
the 19th century was confirmed by subsequent
research.
For example the fastening of the butt-ends of
planks with one treenail and a bolt in the
manner shown in fig. 97 had become fairly
standard in English shipbuilding in the
eighteenth century. The practice may have
arisen from supplementary spikes driven into
the butt-ends of planks at the bow and the
stern which were more likely to start or spring
 from the frame. Originally iron was used but
copper was not only rust free but was also not
subject to electrolytic decomposition when
the hull was sheathed in copper. By the time
of building of SL 4 copper or copper alloys
were in general use even on hulls like this one
that were not sheathed.
Another aspect is wood used in the
construction of the hull. The keel is made of
Birch and while this is unusual, Elm or Beech
being more common, it is consistent with the
increasingly wide variety of species used in
English shipbuilding during the 18th an 19th
centuries. In addition to the variety of wood
types listed in table 9 the dendrochronological
analysis has indicated that the oak that was
used came from at least two sources and
probably more. For reasons of comparison a
historical list of wood types used in the
Sunderland built snow Boreas [I8281 is
shown in table 19. In a comparable Dutch
vessel the hull timber would have been all of
oak from European forests, while timber in an
equivalent American vessel might include a
similar number of species as SL 4, English
yards had necessarily to import timber from
all over the world. The demands of both the
Royal and merchant navies for wood of
sufficient quality for shipbuilding had long
since exceeded the supply available from
English forests. The problems caused by the
competitive demands of the charcoal industry,
and the wide variety of other uses to which
wood was inevitably put were compounded by
poor forestry. Overseas sources were the only
alternative.
The variety of species, although largely
enforced by scarcity, were nevertheless used
in situations that suited their natural
characteristics. For example Elm was used for
the bottom planking in SL 4. As well as being
available in reasonable lengths Elm has a very
high resistance to rot. This is, however, only
the case as long as it remains wet, so its use
was confined to the strakes below the light
water mark.
The dendrochronological results show all the
frames of SL 4 to be of English provenance
whereas the hull planks and keelson are from
German or other European forests.
This agrees with the historical evidence that
for certain structural elements a definite
preference was given as to their area of origin.
David Steel [I8051 referred to the use of East
country oak [i.e. the Baltic] for hull planking,
except at the bow and the stern where English
oak should be used. this may have been
because of its supposed greater strength and
durability but may have had as much to do
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 107
with the fact that Polish oak could be obtained
in much greater lengths. The use of the
shorter English planks at the bow and stern
allowed the long foreign planks to be used to
best advantage, reducing the number of butt
joints in the hull.
Fincham [I8511 writes that oak planks from
Danzig [modern Gdansk] were used
especially for the bottom. It was thought to be
inferior to English oak. English oak was
preferred for the frames. Besides inducing the
use of a variety of wood species the scarcity
of appropriate timber also induced maximum
economy. This had a considerable effect on
the methods of converting and using the
timber. As a result an accepted principle of
framing large hulls - whether they were
warships or merchant ships -had become
established in England probably by the
eighteenth century. In merchant ships this
general method of framing was followed
almost until the end of the sailing ship era.
This particular framing system and the related
sequence of construction are dealt with in
many treatises on naval architecture of the
18th and 19th centuries. However, many of
the authors are writing about their own work
and naturally tend to use the more impressive
vessels they had built as examples. As a good
result these treatises show a definite bias
towards large warship construction rather than
the far more numerous smaller merchant
ships. Another aspect of these works is that in
seeking to demonstrate the high degree of
skill and knowledge that the work of the
shipwright demanded, authors obviously
outline procedures and techniques as they
ought to be carried out and while they
sometimes allude to alternative methods it is
often implied that the technique or procedure
being described was the only way of doing
something. The possibility of cross-checking
between apparently comprehensive historical
documentation on the one hand, and the
reality demonstrated by the archaeological
information on the other is considered to be
important.
4.4.3.2 A reconstruction
In the hull from SL 4 we have an
example of how construction has been carried
out in reality in one specific case. It is
especially as a complement and a check to the
historic documentation that the assessment of
the archaeological information is of
incomparable value.
To allow for a comprehensive assessment a
detailed reconstruction of the sequence of
construction of the SL 4 hull is worked out
below. The archaeological observations will Table 19
be reviewed side by side with historical data
as derived from the contemporary handbooks Deck and Hold beams; English and Bremen Oak.
on shipbuilding. The most useful1 treatise in Floors and 1st futtocks; English and Bremen Oak.
this context proved to be A Treatise on Other futtocks and top timbers Eng. Oak.
Marine Architecture by Peter Hedderwick, a False and main Keelson American Oak.
shipwright who ran a shipyard at Leith in Planks: Keel to 1st futtock heads; Eng. Beech &Am. Elm.
Scotland and who had wide practical to LWM Eng. Beech & A m . Elm.
experience. His treatise was published in 1830 LWM to Wales (10.5" broad) Danzic and Eng. Oak
and deals exclusively with merchant vessels. Wales and Blackstrakes Eng. Oak
He makes constant reference to alternative (4 wales and two Black strakes all 8" broad)
practices found in other districts and thus Topsides, Sheerwater and Gunwale Eng. Oak
gives a more accurate impression of the Clamps Eng. & D a n r Oak
variety with which the basic principles of Stringers Danz. Oak
construction could be carried out than is Bilge Planks (inboard) Eng. & D a n r Oak
usually the case. Remainder of Ceiling mixed English &Foreign Oak
Slightly earlier is The Elements and Practice Waterways Eng. and Danz. Oak
of Naval Architecture by David Steel, first Knees Oak
published in 1805. More widely known than 5 Breasthooks Mixed Oak
Hedderwick it became a standard work, its 1 Crutch (no pointers) Eng. Oak
third edition [I8221 incorporating the views
of such authorities as Hutchinson, Snodgrass Wood types in Sunderland built snow
and Seppings. The two agree on the general Boreas of 1828 (see also Lloyd's survey
principles of construction but Hedderwick's in Appendix II)
work is more relevant to vessels of the size of
SL 4 and she was constructed in a manner [Fig. 1431
similar to the way he describes. Plate X from Hedderwick's Treatise
The reconstruction of the sequence of showing the frame timbers with the
construction of SL 4 will be supplemented by chocked joints as well as many
notes from Hedderwick and Steel. References constructional details that are similar
will particularly be made to Plate X of to SL 4.
Hedderwick's treatise [fig. 1431 which Het handboek A Treatise on Marine
exhibits many of the features found in SL 4. Architecture van de Schotse
scheepsbouwer Peter Hedderwick is
Keel een van de historische bronnen die het
Firstly the keel pieces were cut and scarfed. meest geschikt is om de bouw van SL 4
The evidence suggests there were four pieces. aan te spiegelen. Het verscheen i n
The scarfs were tabled horizontally. Steel 1830 en behandelt oitsluitend
specified four pieces for a merchant vessel of koopvaardijschepen. Op Plate X die
330 tons. hier staat afgebeeld is het gebruik van
Hedderwick: the keel should be sided one half kruisklampen weergegeven, maar ook
inch for every foot of the ship's extreme i n andere details komt de bouw van
breadth and the hanging [depth] under the SL 4 overeen met hetgeen Hedderwick
rabbet [should be] equal to the siding;. .. als gangbaar beschrijft I n de evaluatie
According to Hedderwick the dimensions of worden de archeologische gegevens
SL 4's keel which are approximately afgezet tegen hetgeen Hedderwick en
28 x 37.5 - 38 cm [ l l " x 14 112" - 15"] David Steel, de auteur van The
should have been more like 33 x 43 cm Elements and Practice of Naval
[13" x 17"]. Steel however, for a West Architecture uit 1805 vermelden over
Indiaman of 330 tons specifies 12" inches de scheepsbouw i n hun t i j d De
breadth x 13" depth at the centre of the keel, historische bronnen worden dus
tapering to 10 112" at the keellstem scarf and gestaafd aan de archeologische
10" at the stern post. werkelijkheid.
Steel's description assumes a vertically tabled
scarf. Hedderwick's specifications are also for
a vertical scarf but he outlines the arguments
for both side scarfs and flat scarfs:
The seam of the scarph is sometimes laid
horizontally, but oftener in an up and down

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

way, as it is much stronger in the latter
position. But there are various opinions
respecting the scarphing of keels. In many
parts of the west of England, the flat scarph is
preferred, because it is easier to come at
should it require caulking, and answers very
well when covered with a false keel.. .
[Hedderwick plate X: FIG. 4. and 5.1.
As noted above the flat scarf of SL 4 does not
seem to have been protected by a false keel.
Garboard rabbet cut
Both Hedderwick and Steel describe cutting
the rabbet for the garboard strake except in
the area of the scarfs. This was left until the
sections had been joined.
The keel sections were then bolted together
after the faces of the joints had been prepared
with a luting compound. Both Hedderwick
and Steel proscribed tarred felt or flannel but
no remains of this were found in SL 4. The
bolts were to be large headed and clenched on
rings. The seam on the top surface was then
sealed thus: cut a groove in the upper side of
the seam, one inch deep and 112" wide, caulk
the seam with a strip of flannel, then a thread
of oakum on top of it; then fit a piece of dry
oak into the groove; tar the groove well, and
drive the piece tight down with a piece of
tarred flannel under and round it, and fasten
it down with a few copper nails or oakpins.
[Hedderwick]
A similar technique had been in use for
centuries and has been found in several
archaeologically investigated ships: the
Dartmouth [new keel 16781, Sea Venture [lost
16091 and the Mary Rose [built 1510, re-built
1536, lost 15451. These were all vertically
tabled scarfs. In SL 4 there was apparently no
tarred felt in the scarfs but as noted above
there are traces of what may have been an
oakum based luting compound. Preventing the
entry of water also relied on stopwaters, a
technique often used for horizontal seams and
when used in a keel scarf also improving
longitudinal strength by acting as a key.
When the keel had been bolted together the
garboard rabbet could be completed.
The keel was set on heavy blocks with
treenails driven into them on either side to
hold it absolutely straight.
Stem and stern assembly
The exact distance between the the stem and
stern posts was now marked off on the keel,
then the positions of the floors.
Both Steel and Hedderwick state that the
deadwood is laid immediately after that
although Hedderwick says it can be left until
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
after the stem and stern assemblages are up.
In describing these procedures Hedderwick is
the more detailed. The stem and the apron
also had to be made from several sections.
The pieces were shaped and rabbeted [except
for the scarfs as in the keel] then assembled
and bolted. The apron was cut so its scarfs
alternated with those of the stem and with
those that would eventually fasten the
breasthooks. The scarf was cut for the stem
and the keel. Sheers were set up and the stem
was hoisted and slung in its approximate
position. The scarf was then tarred and
flannelled after which the stem was joined to
the keel. It was carefully adjusted into
alignment with the keel, bolted and shored.
The procedure for the stern post was similar.
In small ships the transom, fashion pieces and
filling transoms were assembled on the
ground and raised as one unit. In larger ships,
the filling transoms were then removed to
lighten the load, being refitted later.
Deadwood
The small piece of forward deadwood in SL 4
is merely the tail end of the apron and formed
a ramp for the rising floor timbers. It was
treenailed in place prior to the floors being
laid and was through-bolted between the keel
and the keelson.
Frames
With the deadwoods in place the framing was
begun.
The operation of joining together the different
timbers in constructing the frames, or the
methods taken for that purpose, may vary a
little according to the custom of the place.
[Hedderwick]
Both authors emphasise the necessity of
avoiding grain cut timber [floors or futtocks
cut out of insufficiently curved wood]. SL 4
shows several examples of grain cut or cross-
grained pieces [fig. 88, T3, T30] and this is
discussed in more detail below.
First the floor timbers were set on the keel.
Steel implies all of them were bolted into
position but often this was not the case even
in warships or East Indiamen. Hedderwick
says this should be done when building afine
vessel but in his general text he refers to every
other floor being bolted first. In humbler ships
it was sometimes every third or every fourth
floor that was placed first. After they were
bolted to the keel the futtocks for these floors
were assembled and raised into place. These
timbers were framed great care being taken
with their shaping as it was to these that the
intermediate futtocks were faired.

[Fig. 1441
Diagram showing the moulded side of
frames [shaded] running forward 19
and aft [A] from the midship section.
Op de plattegrond [fig. 941 is
aangegeven welke inhouten aan
elkaar gekoppeld zijn. De gekoppelde
leggers en buikstukken zijn naar de
ma1 afgetekend en verder in vorm
gebracht. Het systeem waarin de
inhouten vddr de midscheeps zijn
afgetekend en aan elkaar gekoppeld, is
achter de midscheeps juist in
spiegelbeeld gevolgd.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
In SL 4 from the deadwood aft every third
floor was bolted in place i.e. every third pair
of timbers was framed. Over the deadwood
the system was less regular. Those timbers
that were certainly framed or bolted together
are indicated on the plan [fig. 941. The
aftmost frame timber left in place, a first
futtock, was bolted to the second futtock aft
of it. This shows that the sequence of every
third pair of timbers did not extend for the
whole length of the hull but probably only to
the midship point. Aft of that the frames were
bolted in mirror image. This was because the
floors forward of the midship section were
moulded on the forward side. This is best
explained by the diagram [fig. 1441. The
chocks orfilling under the floor timbers that
increased in size as the floors became
progressively more angled above the
deadwood are illustrated by Hedderwick
[fig. 143: FIG. 351 [see also fig. 88,
T22, T231.
The procedure for raising the futtocks of the
main frames varied. Steel describes the
system that was used in the Royal and East
India Company yards for large ships. The
futtocks were cut and assembled on the
ground. The cross bolts were secured and the
chocks were treenailed in place. The whole
unit was then hoisted into place with sheers
but not without considerable reinforcement to
prevent it losing its correct form. First the
chocked joints had quartering [short lengths
of plank] nailed over them. Then a prop or
shore was fixed in the inside of the frame,
fastened at the head and heel with cleats.
Then a length of chain was passed round the
back of the frame.
This was a considerable rigging operation,
although in smaller ships these frames would
have been reasonably easy to handle.
Hedderwick mentions a method for larger
vessels [over 300 tons] that must have been
much easier in the small merchant yards with
a small labour force: For larger. vessels, only
thefirst and second, and third and fourth
futtocks are bolted together on the ground;
but the bolt-holes are all bored, and the bolts
driven when the frames are set up.. .
As they were set up they were supported by
shores and connected athwartships by cross-
pawls: temporary planks of wood nailed
between opposite frames, tying them together
until the beams were fitted.
Harpinslribbands
When the main frames were up, strong strips
of wood were nailed along their outer sides.
These ran from stem to stern and followed the
sheer of the hull. They were set at or just
below the level of the floor heads, first and
second futtock heads and the level of the
wales and provided support against which the
intermediate or filling frames could be
erected. Although temporary they were made
out of good quality timber and carefully
worked so that they formed an even curve.
This was important as they were also the
guide for trimming and adjusting the outer
face of the futtocks of the intermediate
frames. They were called ribbands where they
ran along the main frames and were usually
made of fir. Where they curved round to the
stem and stern post - the cant bodies -they
were called harpins and were made of oak.
First the lower ribbands were nailed to the
outside of the frames at the level of the heads
of the floors and the first futtocks.
Alternatively, Hedderwick says two of the
bilge planks could be fitted instead.
The staging [the working platform erected
around the ship] was then put up so as to be
able to fix the upper ribbands [to the heads of
the third futtocks and at the height of the
wales and top timbers].
When the main frames were up, shored, cross-
pawled, and the ribbands had been run, the
intermediate floors were placed.
Keelson
After the intermediate floors were in place the
keelson was fitted. Made of several lengths,
the scarfs were arranged so as to alternate
with those of the keel. There was often an
upper and a lower keelson. Where this was the
case Hedderwick says both pieces were
individually scarfed and bolted as though they
were single keelsons. They are currently
termed a double keelson or a keelson and
rider keelson depending on whether the upper
element ran all the way aft or not. Fig. 145
shows a plan of the collier Earl of Pembroke
bought by the Navy, renamed Endeavour and
converted for use by Captain James Cook.
Using straight timbers for the keelson
assemblage as in the bow of SL 4 would be
cheaper in both cost and labour than the large
curved pieces shown in this drawing and in
Hedderwick's plate [fig. 143: FIG. l:'T'].
Lloyd's surveys of vessels built at this period
and the first half of the 19th century refer to
the upper element as a false keelson or riding
keelson [see Appendix 111.
When in place bolts were driven through both
keelsons and the floors to the keel. In SL 4 the
keelson bolts were driven through the
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
intermediate floors. Through the floors of the
built up frames there was already a bolt.
Intermediate timbers
With all the floors bound by the keelson the
futtocks of thefilling frames could be erected.
Individually set up upon the head of the one
below, nailed to the harpins and chocked.
The first futtocks in SL 4 begin about 20 cm
from the keel. This was the practice in
merchant ships whereas in warships the first
futtocks were united across the keel by a cross
chock. The merchant ship practice allows
water to collect and run to the pumps without
coming above the ceiling and damaging the
cargo.
...the heels of the lower futtocks run no lower
than to take a treenail in the outer edge of the
Garboard Strake in each timber. To have a
bolt driven from the outside, and clenched
upon the Limber Strake through the heel of
every lower Futtock from the After Hatchway
to the Formast [Steel 18051
Some of SL 4's limber strake fastenings are
exactly as described but others are blind bolts
driven from inboard.
All the timbers of SL 4, framed or otherwise,
are similarly sided and set close together. In
larger and finer ships small pieces of wood
were usually set between the timbers through
which the bolts passed. This is another aspect
of framing well illustrated in the
contemporary drawings and models [also
fig. 143 Plate X: FIG. 261.
The chocked joints of SL 4 are also slightly
different in the manner the timbers are cut to
that commonly illustrated. One futtock is
trimmed in an angled butt and the other is cut
at an angle all the way across [fig. 85, 951.
In all cases possible to see it is the head of the
futtock that is cut this way. Perhaps this made
a better platform for the upper futtock to rest
on during building than if they were both left
with one third of their depth as a butt.
This would only apply if the futtocks were
still being erected individually. There would
be no advantage in frames that were pre-
assembled, yet the bolted frames of SL 4 also
have this type of joint. A possible explanation
is that the futtocks of the bolted frames were
being erected in pairs as described by
Hedderwick and in this case the system would
ease handling. Another factor might be the
way in which the futtocks were trimmed
a little at a time until the shape of the futtock
was fair with the mould. It would be easier to
do this with the foot cut at an angle as the job
could be done quickly and easily with an
adze.

[Fig. 1451
A plan of the collier bark Earlof
Pembroke 366 tons. Redrawn from an
Admiralty draught by David
MacGregor, showing her as she would
have been before she was bought into
the Navy and converted for a voyage of
exploration by James Cook. She was
built by Thomas Fishburn at Whitby in
1764.
De collier bark Earl of Pembroke die
door de Britse marine werd
aangekocht en verbouwd voor een
expeditie onder James Cook. Zowelin
dit schip als het schip dat Hedderwick
op Plate X afbeeldtis voor hetzaathout
en het bovenzaathout krom gegroeid
hout gebruikt. Dat is veelzeldzamer en
duurder dan het rechte hout in SL 4.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
Cant frames
At the bow the first cant timbers forward of
the frames proper were bolted and probably
one or two other pairs of timbers were framed
each side both at the bow and the stern. The
intermediate cant timbers were not fastened to
each other but erected in a similar manner as
the filling frames. Set in place supported by
shores, they were then nailed to the harpins
and possibly reinforced with temporary cleats.
Planking
Prior to planking Hedderwick recommended
that the whole outer surface of the timbers be
dressed to a smooth even surface so that the
planks lay solidly against them. In some
places in the SL 4 hull there is a slight lip in
the surface of the futtock at the seam between
planks. This is a common effect of dressing
the timber for each plank individually, as the
planking proceeded. Although it was.a less
satisfactory alternative to the method
prescribed by Hedderwick we must conclude
that it was done that way.
First the outer bilge planks were fitted then a
few more strakes were fitted working upwards
so as to bind the feet of the second futtocks.
The wales were begun at the same time
starting with the second from top and working
down as far as possible on the staging.
Staging was then raised so the planking could
proceed upwards.
If the timber used was green the bottom
planking was left off as long as possible while
work proceeded with fitting deck beams.
Hedderwick says this planking was worked
from the garboard outward to the bilge planks.
This was almost certainly the case in SL 4.
The last strake to be fitted would be the one
next to the lowest bilge plank. The stealer
described above [fig. 1151 that had been fitted
between existing planks [as evidenced by the
cut treenails] lies in this position [fig. 95,
plank no. 61.
There are various opinions respecting the
methods of planking the bottom [the hull in
general below the wales] some preferring to
work from the bilge upwards, others to begin
at the wales and work downwards; . . .
[Hedderwick].
Hedderwick recommended working upwards
as the weight of the plank made it easier to fit
closely to the one below. Even when working
upwards it was common to leave out the
strake next to the bilge planking so the chips
of wood resulting from work inside the hull
could fall through. This too was probably
done in SL 4 as very little in the way of
shavings and offcuts were found between the
frames.
113
Beams
There are many ways of fastening the deck
beams to the ship's side, as by wooden for-
and-aft knees and iron hanging knees. Others
have no for aft knees, but have their beams
fastened by dovetailing them into the shelf
and clamps, letting them down one third of
their thickness; and then on the upperpart are
fastened the two legs of a strong plate of iron,
which passes round the timber opposite the
end of the beam. [Hedderwick]
The first method is almost certainly the way
that the deckbeams of SL 4 were fastened.
The alternative method described is similar to
the hold beam fastening in SL 4 except the
ends of the beams were not dovetailed
[fig. 103, 1041. Although the iron knees
shown in the Plate are staple knees their
shape, due to the horizontal shelf, is very
similar to those of SL 4 [fig. 143 Plate X:
FIG. 16,331. A variation is that the shelf
[fig. 143,33:F] is placed against the clamp
[fig. 143,33:G] whereas in SL 4 it is placed
above it, which would seem more logical and
stronger [fig. 1041.
Pillars
Once the beams were in place pillars or
stanchions were placed under them for
support. In SL 4 there was probably one pillar
to each hold beam stepped onto the false
keelson. They could be located in a small
mortise as shown in fig. 107. Alternatively
they could be located on a small step nailed
onto the top of the keelson. This was often
preferred as it avoided cutting into a main
strength timber. More seriously, a mortise also
acted as a trap for water and was a potential
site for rot.
Breasthooks and crutches
With the cant frames in position a series of
large wooden knees were placed across the
bow, binding the stem assembly and the
forward cant frames. The equivalent members
at the stern were called crutches. Both hooks
and crutches were bolted at right angles to the
fore and aft line. Consequently the arms of
those low in the hull ran diagonally across the
frames. The alternative arrangement in the
stern were timbers that ran diagonally up to
the wing transom. They were called sleepers
or pointers. Sometimes both crutches and
pointers were used. Like deck knees these
elements were later commonly made of iron.
Ceiling
Neither Steel or Hedderwick is explicit on the
subject of internal planking but much of it
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
was done after the outer planking was
complete. The limber strake [binding the feet
of the first futtocks] bilge stringers [over the
joint between the floors and second futtocks]
and the beam clamps were fitted first [as with
the wales and outer bilge planks].
Treenails
As the stringers and intermediate ceiling
planks were fitted the rest of the treenails
would now be driven right through from the
outer hull planks. The outer planks being
fastened initially with the butt end bolts and a
small number of treenails.
Hedderwick: as to the treenailing of the
bottom and the top sides, it is the general
custom to double-bore each timber on the
breadth of each strake if it exceed I0 inches
and to double and single bore all the narrow
strakes: that is, to double-bore one timber,
and single-bore the next alternately. The size
of auger for the bottom plank, for vessels of
100 - 300 tons measurement, is inch and
quarter, and for the top-sides inch and eight.
[31.75 mm, 28.57 mm].
As the fastenings in SL 4 show many different
aspects we need to enlarge on the subject.
In SL 4 the outer hull planks wider than ten
inches [25.4 cm] are mostly double bored as
Hedderwick specifies, those less: double and
single bored. Those less than 7" wide
[17.8 cm] are single bored. The diameters of
the treenails range from 25 mm to 38 mm but
are concentrated at 29 - 30 mm, 32 mm,
34 - 35 mm, 37 - 38 mm, [ l 1/8" 1 1/4",
1 3/8", 1 1/2"]. The majority of the holes in
the loose bottom planks are 35 and 32 mm.
However it is difficult to be certain about the
size especially when measuring a treenail that
is flush to the surface of the wood. It is never
perfectly circular. One reason is that treenails
were not initially turned on a lathe but split
out of straight grained oak. Sometimes they
were finished with a circular plane or moot in
which case they were more evenly cylindrical.
Alternatively they were hand finished with a
spoke-shave or drawknife hence the octagonal
section and irregular shape. They were also
cut slightly larger in diameter than the hole
through which they were to be driven. A
selection of treenails is illustrated in fig. 110.
The grouping into sizes is the result of
measuring several hundred. More certain and
more significant is the measurement of a
treenail hole i.e. the auger size used. Although
a measurement taken too near the surface can
also be misleading. Sometimes the treenail
was intentionally cut wider at the head as
Hedderwick recommends.
 . ..treenails should be well rounded, and of
equal thickness from the point to within 114th
of their length from the head, where they
should begin to swell a little. By properly
driving such a treenail, it will draw the plank
close up to the timbers.. .
This and the use of wedges, either at the time
or later to tighten them up can distort and
enlarge the mouth of the treenail hole. One
beneficial side effect of the violent salvage of
SL 4 is that there were plenty of loose timbers
in which either the treenail holes or the
treenails themselves could be examined.
Calipers were used to measure the treenail
holes at least 2 cm below the surface of sound
or complete timbers and in the centre of
several fractured pieces.
Wedging and tightening
Depending on certain factors such as wood
variety, position in the vessel and its age etc.,
treenails are often wedged or otherwise
tightened to further increase their tightness.
Its necessity in so many boat and shipbuilding
traditions has resulted in a wide variation in
methods used. Of the methods used in SL 4,
firstly there are the common flat wedges,
found in scandinavian shipbuilding and
throughout Northern European shipbuilding
both in clinker and carve1 hulls [fig. 991.
Another common form is the square wedge
driven centrally into the treenail and common
in Dutch shipbuilding [deutel]. A third
method seen in SL 4 is the use of several
small wedges in one treenail; usually three but
occasionally four and in at least two cases
five.
Hedderwick's description of the latter is
particularly interesting in the context of SL 4:
in the north of England, where an immense
number of vessels are employed in the coal
and coasting wade, their vessels are much
esposed to striking the ground in going over
bars in entering and leaving harbours, and in
lying on the ground at times wirh heavy
cargoes. The ship builder and masters of such
vessels ought to know well what methods
answer best to keep their treenails tight, and
prevent the planksfr-om drawing or starting
over them. Accordingly at these places, and
several others, they tighten the treenails by
driving three small tapering wedges or plugs
rnto the head of each treenail. These plugs are
made of well seasoned oak, and are about
1 112 inches long, and 318th~of an inch
square at the head, and drawn to a sharp
point; they are called punches.
He continues to say that punches were not
favoured in vessels that were going to hot
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 115
climates, being found to shrink and fall out. In
these ships cutting then caulking the treenails
in the manner of yards in the south of England
was more effective. This latter method was
not found in the hull of SL 4.
Hedderwick implies the method he used
himself was the single square wedge: the
most general method used in Scotland is to
drive one large plug or punch into the centre
of each treenail, these being made of dry oak,
about 2 112 inches long and 518th~of 314th~
of an inch square at the head.
Fig. 146 shows two treenails in an oak outer
hull plank of SL 4, one with a plug, the other
with punches. The various types are also
shown in fig. 110.
In SL 4 the various types are generally
applied according to function. For
convenience in describing them, single square
wedges will be referred to as deutels to
distinguish them from punches.
Deutels and punches are used almost
exclusively on the outer hull planks and the
flat wedges almost exclusively in the ceiling.
One reason is that square wedges tighten the
treenail around its whole circumference
without splitting it and is thus more suitable
for use outboard. A flat wedge on the other
hand splits the treenail across its diameter
which could result in leakage as the wedge is
often nearly as long as the thickness of the
plank. In the ceiling planking this is of no
consequence. Of the three techniques flat
wedges are, however, probably the strongest.
This may be the reason for the main exception
to the above, in that outboard the treenails
fastening the garboard and first three or four
strakes of SL 4 are mostly flat wedged. On the
bottom strakes and bilge planks deutels
predominate, then punches from there
upwards. Hedderwick does say that the
treenails on the bilge and other round parts of
the ship should be wedged to prevent the
plank from starting over them with strain of
caulking. This implies that the others need not
be. Indeed they were commonly left plain for
it was supposedly not necessary to wedge oak
treenails outboard when new. The wood
would swell when wet and thus become
tighter. Inboard this would of course not apply
as long as the ship remained relatively leak
free. In SL 4 it was obviously the standard to
finish a treenail inboard with a wedge. In
other historic ships known through excavaton
such as a cog that sunk off Bossholmen island
in the 13th century, the Mary Rose rebuilt
1536, and Sea Venture [lost 16091 wedged
treenails are in the minority. In theory an oak
treenail need only be wedged if driving it is
found to be relatively easy. If so it was
obviously not as tight as it could be and so
was wedged to make it as secure as possible.
The ideal case was a treenail that could only
just be driven through the timbers being
fastened. Normally the faceted nose of the
treenail is driven 4 - 5 cm clear of the timber
before being cut off. Fig. 110 includes such an
off-cut found between the cant frames of SL 4
[A1 111. However, in some cases in SL 4 the
treenail obviously proved s o tight it could not
be driven quite far enough, the nose of the
treenail being visible below the surface of the
plank. When this happened it was usually left
unwedged and another treenail was driven
nearby. In at least two cases a treenail in SL 4
could not be driven any farther than the
inboard surface of the futtock. The hole in the
ceiling was filled by a dummy treenail
[probably an off-cut] that was duly wedged
and so indistinguishable from the genuine
fastenings! Another example was observed in
an outboard plank where a treenail hole was
augered right at the edge of futtock. The auger
was deflected off the timber so another was
drilled on the other side of the plank and the
redundant hole plugged and wedged.
Many of the planks on the outer hull have
treenails of various sizes yet most are wedged
with punches as though all the treenails were
treated this way irrespective of type and
condition. A few are left plain and others have
deutels, interestingly, it is often the latter that
break the regular pattern. In the context of
this vessel, the punches are probably the
standard tightening method, while those left
plain or finished in another way have
probably been fitted at a later date.
The frigate Unicorn built in 1834 and now
preserved at Dundee in Scotland also has her
treenails punched in this fashion and also has
yellow metal bolts fastening the butts of the
planks.
If wedging existing treenails was not thought
to be sufficient the next course open to the
shipwright, short of replacing the plank, was
either to drive out the treenail completely and
replace it or to drive extra treenails. There
was a limit of course as too many would
weaken the timber. A way round this was to
drive a new treenail partially cutting an old
one. On the port side of SL 4 there are four
examples of this in a small area that are so
similar in treatment they presumably
represent the same repair. The secondary
treenail hole has been augered to cut the first
at a divergent angle [fig. 1471. In all cases the
second treenail is blind but curiously three out
of the four are flat wedged while the fourth
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
has a deutel. There are other cases where the
secondary treenails cut the first at a
convergent angle and which from a
mechanical point of view would seem to be
far more secure. Certainly some of these are
fortuitous but others by their uniform angle
and the degree to which they cut the first
treenail would seem intentional. Examples of
blind secondary treenails cutting the existing
ones can be seen in some of the timbers
shown in fig. 88.
4.4.4 Developments in ship construction
The consruction of the hull of SL 4 as
reconstructed above illustrates three very
important factors in the long-term
development of large carve1 shipbuilding.
Firstly, the design of vessels to fullfill a
specific requirement, in this case the carriage
of bulk cargo. Secondly, as a structure it is a
good example of the framing system that was
widely used over two centuries in the English
tradition but which is poorly represented in
the remaining wooden hulls either afloat or
preserved in museums. Thirdly, a factor very
much bound up with the first two, that of
timber availability and conversion. A rough
sketch of this development with emphasis on
these interconnected aspects is given below.
The first period of large camel hull building
in England was characterised by relatively
round hull sections and complex but flexible
framing systems where the futtocks were
scarfed to each other in a variety of ways.
Although the basic system was regular,
variation due to the necessity of repair or
simply through the use of different lengths
and thicknesses of the timber to hand appear
not have compromised the overall strength of
the hull [fig. 148, a]. Such systems, even
when rigidly applied distributed the futtock
joints evenly over the whole hull. Up to a
point ad-lib repairs would only enhance this
effect. With a certain amount of strength in
the joints themselves and clamped by heavy
ceiling and stringers fastened through to the
outer hull planking, the result was a strong
hull.
During the second half of the 16th century
there were marked changes in the hull form of
large ships. The section became much more
angular, something that is well illustrated by
various contemporary manuscripts. This had
major implications for the techniques of
construction. Any sharp curve in the hull
section tends to concentrate the futtock joints.
The sharper the curve, the harder it is to find a
timber that follows the radius of the curve and
continues for any distance beyond. The

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
[Fig. 1461
Outer hull treenails, one with a single
square wedge - a plug or deutel-the
other with three small wedges or
punches.
Aan de buitenzijde zijn de beknagels
op uiteenlopende wijze stijf gezet. Oe
ene toont een gewone vierkante wig of
deutel, de andere drie kleine pennetjes
of deuteltjes [foto j.a.1.
117
[Fig. 1471
Strengthening the plank fastenings.
Secondary treenails partly cutting
existing treenails at a divergent angle.
h h e r e this is done the secondary
treenails are blind like those illustrated
in fig. 109.
Op deze foto is duidelijk te zien hoe de
bevestiging van de huidplanken op een
gegeven moment verbeterd is door
nieuwe treknagels in re slaan. Oe
nieuwe nagels zijn blinde nagels. Deze
werkwijze is ook weergegeven in fig.
109 [foto IPLI.
[Fig. 1481
Comparison of framing systems
showing the major changes that
occurred particularly between the 15th
and the 17th centuries. These are
generalised and not representative of
individual ships.
Bij grote schepen zijn de spanten
opgebouwd uit een aantal inhouten. In
de loop der eeuwen zijn er
veranderingen opgetreden in de wijze
waarop datgebeurde. Dit is een
schematische weergave van de
ontwikkeling zoals die in grote lijnen
tussen de 15e en de 17e eeuw heeft
plaatsgehad.
shipwright therefore has to place the futtock
joints either in the curve itself or not far either
side of it purely because the timber will not
allow otherwise [fig. 1491. With all the joints,
however well scarfed, aligned at the same
heights along its length, the hull would be too
weak. The answer was to change the emphasis
from end to end joints to overlapping timber.
When this is done sufficient hull strength can
be achieved with little or no strength in the
futtock joints and without any horizontal
connection between adjacent timbers
[fig. 148, b]. In fact in this system many of
the timbers did not even butt against each
other, the gaps left between them being called
spurkets.
Characteristic of late 16th -early
17th century shipbuilding in England, this
system was also more economical in the use
of timber. With all the joints concentrated in
the most acutely curved section of the hull, a
high proportion of the futtocks could be
formed out of virtually straight timber. This
may have had little bearing on the
development of this form but its economic
advantages would have been appreciable.
When these ships made their appearance the
timber crisis was yet a century and a half
away but already in Henry VIII's reign there
had been legislation concerning its sale in
response to scarcity. Of various references
made concerning the problem, the most apt in
the context of this report appears in
Harrison's introduction to Holinshed's
Chronicle, [Holinshed 15771:
of cole mines,. . . we have such plentie in the
north and westerne par-tes of our Islande as
may suffice for all the Realme of Englande.
And so must they doe hereafter indeede, if
woode he not better cherished than it is at this
present.
The next significant development in English
shipbuilding occurred, probably gradually,
during the 17th century. This time it did not
primarily concern the hull form. Apart from
the radically sharp hulls of the early frigates
exemplified by the Dartmouth [I6551 hull
form changed fairly slowly. There was a trend
towards wider floors and a more rounded
lower section but the method of designing
hull form based on arcs of circles remained.
In the framing system there was probably an
increasing tendency to reduce the gaps or
spurkets between the frames. This, coupled
with the ever increasing cost as well as the
difficultly in obtaining compass timber
directly influenced the next developments. It
is these changes that the hull of SL 4
illustrates.

ARCHAEOLOGY O F THE SLUFTER 118

 [Fig. 1491
In a hull of round section the frame
timbers can be arranged so the joints
are disposed evenly throughoutthe
structure [a]. Sharp curves in the
section tend to concentrate the joints
in or near the curve [bl. The sharper
the angle the more marked this effect
will be [cl.
De lassen tussen de opeenvolgende
delen waaruit een spant is opgebouwd
kunnen in een schip met een
afgeronde dwarsdoorsnede goed
verspringen. Hoe hoekiger die
dwarsdoorsnede is, des te meer lassen
zullen er dicht bij de kim komen re
liggen. Dat komt de sterkte niet ten
goede.
[Fig. 1501
The effect of cutting funocks of the
same curvature and dimensions out of
increasingly straight timber, also of the
same girth.
Een inhout met dezelfde vorm word? uit
stammen met dezelfde dikte maar
uiteenlopende kromming genomen.
Dat heeft direct gevolgen.
[Fig. 1511
An example of stretching timber
resources to the limit is seen in the
way the first funocks of SL 4 were cut.
Bij de buikstukken voor het schip van
SL 4 zijn de mogelijkheden van het
beschikbare hour tot het uiterste
benut Eigenlijk is men zelfs iets te ver
gegaan.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
When the futtocks in SL 4 are examined it
becomes apparent that in many cases they
have been cut out of timber that curves rather
less than it should. In most cases true cross
grain has been avoided but in others the
futtock has been cut out of virtually straight
timber and several have cracked as a result.
The characteristic shape of these timbers is
the angled end cut to accomodate the chock.
The reason for the chock is illustrated by the
diagrams fig. 150 and 15 1.
In fig. 150 futtock a] is cut from a timber of
matching curvature or radius. It is the
maximum length and thickness that could be
cut from this piece of timber without
including rot-prone sapwood. The ends can be
butted or scarfed to the next futtock by any
method [although if scarfed the length of the
overlap will be lost]. In futtock b], of the
same curvature and size but cut from a
straighter timber, there is no alternative to
sacrificing the ends. Even where the
discrepancy in the radius of the futtock and
the timber is not so great, conscientious
removal of sapwood will still result in an
angular end. So too would this be the case if
futtock a], was extended [a2]. Although not
ideal, the timber of futtock b], is sufficiently
curved for the central grain to run
continuously from end to end. Futtock c], on
the other hand, is cut from virtually straight
timber. It is truly cross grained in that the
grain runs across from the inner to the outer
surface constituting a significant weakness. If
all the sapwood is removed, the outer surface
of the futtock will have a rounded section,
something that is common in SL 4 timbers. In
extreme cases the futtocks cannot even
conform to the required shape. Many of them
are a compromise, being fairly rounded but
with a considerable quantity of sapwood
remaining. In the terminology of the Lloyd's
surveyors [see Appendix 11] they would be:
not well squared or- well sapped.
Butting futtocks of type b], or c], to each
other leaves a gap which if not filled will
reduce the area of hull available for solid
through-fastening of treenails. The gap is
therefore filled with a chock. The chocks vary
in size depending on how much had to be
trimmed off the futtock. Fig. 15 1 shows a
typical first futtock from SL 4 [see also
fig. 88, T301. It is cut from almost straight
timber and on many of them the heel chocks
are substantial. In the futtock joints in general
some are diminutive [in a few cases there is
no chock at all] while others are quite large.
The latter make an effective end to end joint
between the futtocks but this is a secondary
function. A joint made this way even when
the chocks are butted does not have the
strength of a properly scarfed joint and this is
demonstrated by the considerable
reinforcement that was necessary when
raising the frames into place.
Joints of this type are well illustrated in the
various treatises on Naval Architecture in the
18th and 19th centuries. However they are
always shown as being butted and of a regular
size [fig. 1521. As suggested above, the
treatises have a strong bias to the finer built
large merchant ships or warships. On the
proper jointing of timber in this fashion, Steel
says:
.. .each [timber] sho~ildstand upon its proper
head. The heads and the heels of all the
timbers to have one third of the substance left
the moulding.
In other words at least one third of the
moulded depth of the futtock should meet in a
true butt. The implication is that they were not
necessarily to be the same size as long as they
did not exceed the specified depth. If this was
exceeded to the point where the chock became
the same thickness as the frame this was a
through chock:
. . .ifone timher happens to he short, provide
the next long enough to make good the
deficient length, as through chocks should
always be rejected ... He goes on to specify
that: the seats of the chocks should not exceed
once and a half the siding of the timber
[fig. 1531. By limiting the amount that is
trimmed off the timber and the length of the
chock one is limiting the extent to which the
available timber can be utilised. It is
interesting that rather than flout these rules he
advocates compromising the regularity of the
framing system as the lesser of two evils.
The chocks in the hull of SL 4 do not seem to
answer to a set proportion at all. One of the
chocks is no longer wedge shaped but more
like a very short futtock. Similarly a wreck on
the beach between Zandvoort and
Bloemendaal, investigated by the Ministry of
W.V.C. in April 1986, shows extremely long
chocks [fig. 1541. With its general
characteristics and its yellow-metal bolts in
the plank butts it too looks like an English
vessel.
The other development in the framing of ships
was the use of bolts fastening adjacent
futtocks horizontally. This may have begun as
a constructional aid but it led to a change in
the constructional sequence. It may have been
connected with the new way of converting
timber involving chocks and would have
become economically more viable with the
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
reducing cost of iron. Prior to this futtocks
had been raised individually, shored, nailed to
the harpins and additionally secured until
planked by various means such as knocking
wedges between them or with temporary
battens. The details of the procedure certainly
varied widely but it would not be so easy with
chocks. Not only were there double the
number of pieces involved but there was less
surface for the heel of one futtock to rest upon
the head of the one below.
The next logical step was to bolt the
component futtocks of a frame together on the
ground and then raise them in one unit, as
described above. At the time the termframe
implied framed timbers as opposed tofilling
frames orfilling timbers. As discussed above,
even when fully developed as a construction
sequence not every frame was so formed, the
filling frames being erected in the earlier
manner.
In what order these changes occurred is
difficult to say. Various authors have stated
the practice was introduced in 1714. The
source for this 'fact' can be traced back
through John Fincham [I85 11 who gives that
date for the introduction of chocks when
describing the system introduced by Sir
Robert Seppings that superceded it. Seppings
[I8201 in the presentation of his method in the
Philosophical Transactionsfor the year 1820
had cited an old work in my possession,
dedicated to George the first and on the basis
of this, supposed the practice was introduced
around 1714, being the year in which George
I came to the throne. As a matter of fact it is
also the year that William Sutherland's
treatise: Britain's Glory of Ship-Building
unveil'd was first published, so that might be
the old work to which Seppings refers. In fact
Sutherland describes chocks in some detail
and recommends correct proportions in
relation to the futtock. It is obvious that the
practice was in use considerably earlier than
this and was demonstrated to be so by the
excavation of the Darrrnol~th[built 1655,
rebuilt 1678, sunk 16901 [Martin 19781. In the
case of the Dartmouth there were no
horizontal fastenings between the futtocks in
the section of hull excavated and salvaged.
This suggests a transitional stage although
some bolts may have been used higher up.
Sutherland describes bolting the futtocks
together although he says that in large ships
they were only bolted up to a certain height
[a similar compromise as that recommended
by Hedderwick over a century later]. As with
most new practices change probably occurred
at different times in different areas. It is also
 [Fig. 1521
Cross section of a man of war from A
History ofNavalArchitecture by John
Fincham [18511, showing the oldchock
method and the buttand coaksystem
introduced by Sir Robert Seppings.
Lassen met kruisklampen zijn
regelmatig afgebeeld. Op de
afbeeldingen zijn de kruisklampen
echter altijd met een borst of stuik
uitgevoerd en zijn zij regelmatig van
vorm; zo ook hier in een afbeelding van
Fincham.
[Fig. 1541
A chock from the
Zandvoort/BloemendaaI wreck. Its
extreme length is significant.
Bij een scheepswrak dat in april1986
op bet strand tussen Zandvoort en
Bloemendaal is onderzocht zijn ook
kruisklampen gebruikt. Ze zijn erg lang
-zoals hier afgebeeld -maar vaak
laten zij bovendien geen lijf meer over
van de eigenlijke inhouten [foto IPL].

[Fig. 1531
Diagram showing the maximum size of
a futtock chock according t o Steel
[18051.
In deze schematische tekening zijn de
maximale afmetingen en verhoudingen
weergegeven die een kruisklamp
volgens de regels van Steelzou mogen
hebben.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER 121

possible that the use of chocks was well
established as a remedy, the occasional one
being used where inadequacy of specific
timber made it necessary. With rising timber
prices its use presumably became increasingly
widespread until it became standard practice.
Developed in the 17th century, the method
was the norm throughout the 18th and well
into the second half of the 19th century. The
new method introduced by Sir Robert
Seppings in 1818 involved butting the
futtocks and joining them with circular coaks
or large dowels. The system made use of
futtocks of a shorter length in order to reduce
the curvature required in each piece and to
ensure a solid butt-end [fig. 1521. In
Philosophical Transactions [I8201 he
criticised the practice of only bolting alternate
pairs of frame timbers:
In forming the frames or ribs, half the timbers
only are united.. .the intermediate two timbers
[termed fillings] being unconnected with each
other, and merely resting on the outer
planking, instead of giving support to it.. .This
loose practice is, I believe, peculiar to the
English merchant ship-builder; and indeed
was persued till very lately even in His
Majesty's Navy, while the preferable system
of connecting the ribs was common to other
maritime powers.
While ships with all their timbers horizontally
bolted were undeniably stronger, his assertion
that the filling frames were only resting on the
planking ignores the strong binding effect of
the latter. More than two centuries earlier
ships with all their timbers resting on the
planks had circumnavigated the world.
He was even less complimentary about the
use of chocks: but the present mode of joining
together the several pieces of the same rib, is
also highly objectionable. It is done by the
introduction of a third piece, technically
termed a chock or wedge piece.. . Of these
chocks not one in a hundred is ever replaced
[i.e. reused] in the general repair of a ship; for
they are not only found defective, but very
generally to have communicated their own
decay to the timbers to which they are
attached. Besides this, the grain of the rib-
pieces being much cut, to give them the
curvature required, has a considerable share
in weakening the general fabric. That they
occasion a great consumption of materials, is
obvious, as the ends of the two rib pieces
must first be cut away, and then be replaced
by the chock.
This last statement is interesting, for as
demonstrated in fig. 150c and 15 1, in timbers
where the grain was much cut, to obtain the
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
curvature required, the space occupied by the
chock was not cut from solid timber. This
apparent contradiction continues in the next
paragraph:
the introduction of chocks was no doubt to
procure that curvature which is so necessary
in the formation of a ship, when crooked or
compass timber became scarce.. .
It probably stems from the fact that as the
chock system had become the formal method
in the Royal yards, timbers were cut to be
joined in this manner whether it was
necessary or not. When a curved piece was
cut from straight timber there undeniably did
occur waste along its length [fig. 150~1,even
though it can be used for chocks and other
small pieces.
Seppings' alternative method was certainly a
great improvement and survives in one of the
ships he built; the Unicorn [I8341 which is
still afloat in Dundee. In thephilosophical
transactions he advocated the use of his
system to merchant ship builders, particularly
for East Indiamen. Apparently some merchant
vessels were subsequently built on this
principle [Hedderwick illustrated it in his
treatise see fig. 143, plate X, FIG. 24, but
despite general consent that there were better
ways, merchant yards continued to use chocks
for many years. In 1842 William Hutchins
proposed a new method of framing and
jointing for merchant ship construction very
similar to and presumably derived from that
advocated by Seppings, which by then had
become the norm in the Navy. John Fincham
in 185 1 referred to chocks as the old method
but plans of merchant ships built after this
date as well as Lloyd's surveys show that it
had remained the standard method for wooden
framed English ships.
SL 4 and ship from Zandvoort/Bloemendaal
both exhibit that unbutted chocks were
normal in vessels up to about 350 - 400 tons.
The great similarity with those illustrated by
Sutherland [I7291 indicate this rougher
application of the technique had probably
remained constant since the 17th century. It
had certainly stood the test of time.
Hedderwick's opinion was that although there
were better methods, such as dove-tailing the
chock, or the Seppings system of butt and
coak used by some of the Navy People, chocks
if well fitted would answer every purpose.
Whether it was chocks or the butt and coak
method, both were the result of the constraints
imposed by the price and availability of
timber. This is best summed up by
Hedderwick's final remark on the subject of
joining futtocks:
 I consider a method of scarphing them, where
it can be obtained, as preferable to either.
4.4.5 Historical setting of ship and
shiptype
To be able to assess to what type of
ship SL 4 can be attributed it is important to
assess size. Initially her extreme breadth was
estimated to be around 8.20 m [27 feet]
which, based on the dimensions of other
similar vessels, would have given a tonnage
of something over 300 tons according to the
old tonnage rules in force between 1773 and
1836, and perhaps 10 - 25 tons more by the
new rule of 1836 [see Glossary: entry tonnage
and tonnemaat]. On the basis of the sections
[fig. 951 as compared with contemporary
drawings such as Hedderwick's brig of
303 tons [fig. 1.551 and taking into account
some distortion of the hull during salvage
[although this is difficult to judge] the main
breadth could be nearer 7.90 m [26 feet] as it
became obvious that the extreme breadth was
neither far astern of the aftmost surviving
floors, nor much greater than that of the
surviving structure. This would also result in
a smaller tonnage.
Even though it is hard to calculate SL 4's
tonnage accurately, this estimate is supported
by comparison of the dimensions of floor
timbers and plank thicknesses of SL 4 with
those that appear in the survey reports of
merchant vessels carried out by Lloyd's
surveyors in the major English ports. These
prove to be an extremely informative source
of information on ships built from the late
18th century onwards. They make fascinating
reading, containing not only details of
constructional elements but also of any
repairs carried out. As they are not easily
accessible for the general reader a selection of
these reports with data relevant to the
discussion of SL 4 is given in Appendix 11. In
the course of the present study some 1,300 of
these survey reports were examined, but even
this is a very small proportion of the total
number.
Comparison of dimensions in the survey
reports and in SL 4 suggests that this vessel
was under 300 tons. On the other hand the
number of bilge stringers, outer bilge
planking and other features like the iron hold
beam clasps suggest she was not much less.
The dimensions given in the surveys were
presumably those in the main body of the
ship. Steel specifies dimensions for floor
timbers that gradually reduce in size towards
the bow and the stern, so the 29 cm [ l l 1/2"]
floors forward of the midship section in SL 4
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 123
would be consistent with this. Floor timbers
from further aft were recovered loose that
were approximately 30.5 cm [12"] square. On
this point it should be born in mind that these
timbers are not particularly regular in shape,
this can be seen in the sections of the floors in
fig. 86 so it is difficult to be specific. Another
point is that although timber size is a good
general guide it was not invariable.
Occasionally a ship is referred to as having
timbers of light scantling which meant they
were smaller than was usual for a vessel of
that size.
The ship SL 4 was carrying coal. Many ships
in this kind of trade however, were not
originally built as a collier. Old ships were
retired into the coal trade, where their leaky
hulls were not such a disadvantage in the
carriage of a cargo that was not subject to sea
damage. Nevertheless the evidence suggests
that this particular ship was indeed built for
the trade of bulk goods such as coal, and most
probably in one of the North Eastern English
ports, e.g. Sunderland. Apart from the fact
that her construction and hull shape are
typical for medium and large size bulk-
carrying cargo vessels there are several
arguments for this.
Her size is within the range of vessels
engaged in the English foreign coal
trade. Thomas Richardson [I8331
regarded vessels between 200 and 300
tons as most suitable for European
trade.
The lower beams were not decked
over [at least in the middle of the
ship], hence the term holdbeam rather
than deckbeam. This is highly typical
for colliers and other bulk carriers.
The beams were not intended to
support any great weight [reflected by
their shallow depth at the ends] but
functioned as tie beams. In view of
this their method of fastening would
seem ideal.
The flat floored hull shape with
thickened strakes at the turn of the
bilge is well adapted to take the
ground at low water in shallow
harbours and creeks along the North
Sea.
The hull is not sheathed as it would
have been if it had been intended for
trading to e.g. the West-Indies or the
Mediterranean.
She appears not to have been very old
on sinking.
The northeastern English origin is supported
by the typical use of punches to tighten the
treenails. Furthermore SL 4 has a marked
similarity to vessels built in Sunderland as
they appear from the Lloyd's surveys. It is
even quite possible that the survey of SL 4
herself was among those reports studied.
Usually the destination of the ship was given
but of course that might only refer to one
subsequent voyage. A large number of the
surveys were carried out in the summer and
although colliers often made repeated voyages
between the same ports many of the vessels of
the size of SL 4 would be trading to the Baltic
and elsewhere during that season. This might
explain why so few destinations are recorded
[in the surveys seen] for either Rotterdam or
Holland in general, at a time when from
Lloyd's list it is apparent that trade with this
area was frequent. Unless the survey was very
detailed [and more often they are not] there
would be nothing apart from the size to make
the connection.
Occasional Baltic trading for SL 4 is
suggested by the flint shingle found
compacted in her limbers. Flint occurs widely
on the East-Anglian and south coasts and has
been the common ballast material in English
ships for centuries. Ships often sailed to the
Baltic in ballast, returning with timber. A
similar voyage in its earlier career might be a
likely explanation for the presence of shingle
in SL 4.
As a product of the English northeastern yards
the hull type represented by SL 4 has its
origin at the end of the 17th century, the
period of the final divergence of warships and
merchant ships with regard to design and hull
form. The major developments have been
discussed at length by Davis [I9721 and
McGowan [1980]. Cheap imports [esp. fluits,
either bought or taken as prizes] had caused
the position of southern English merchant
shipyards to decline by 1700 whereas those in
the northeast seem to have been more
enterprising. For various reasons [timber
supply; iron foundries in the vicinity] they
were better placed to build large capacity
ships cheaply than those of the south. With
the specific need for this kind of vessel they
seem to have begun building an English
equivalent of the fluit in large numbers. The
ships they built, although structurally very
different from the Dutch model, incorporated
its proven virtues as well as those of the
similar Norwegian Cat, another successful
bulk carrier much used in the Baltic timber
trade and closely related to the fluit.
So wholesale was the north-east takeover of
this sort of shipbuilding that terms such as
Cat Built and collier bark became
ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
synonymous with north- eastern building.
Because of their sturdy construction and good
sailing qualities several of these Collier Barks
were bought by the Royal Navy and adapted
for use in the voyages of discovery under
Captain James Cook in the 1770's [fig. 1451.
From that time up to the mid 19th century
there was a progression towards longer and
shallower hulls using increasing amounts of
iron in their construction. While this was
cheaper than using expensive grown timber it
did not alter the basic principles of
construction. The method of securing the hold
beams in SL 4, which was impossible with
wood, is unusual in this respect. Generally
iron was used for reinforcing existing
structure or to fabricate an element that was
formerly cut out of wood, such as the upper
deck hanging knees of SL 4.
SL 4 represents the last generation of wooden
merchant vessels of this form from a period
when sail power was still predominant. They
were built in their thousands and were the
work horses for the bulk trades for nearly two
centuries. SL 4 probably is the largest section
of a collier of this period to survive. An
interesting parallel may be wreck 44Y088
[Broadwater et al. 19851, a robust merchant
ship of about 130 tons, which is suspected to
be a collier brig. It sank in the York river in
Virginia [U.S.A.] in 1781 at the Battle of
Yorktown. In terms of shipbuilding SL 4 and
44Y088 are just one generation apart and a
comparative study would be most interesting.
Rig
Unfortunately few rigging elements from
SL 4 were recovered. She could either have
been three masted and rigged as a bark or two
masted and rigged as a brig or a snow. In
general at this period brigs were usually under
290 tons and barks generally larger but there
was quite a large overlap. Brigs and certainly
snows over 300 tons were not uncommon.
Fig. 155 for example shows the brig Williani
Yoling of 303 tons. The Lloyd's survey reports
in Appendix I1 review the snow Mary of
323 tons and a small bark such as the
Clarinda of 246 tons. By their very nature
these surveys are chiefly concerned with the
condition of the hull. However, fittings and
rigging were also considered for wear and
general condition. Sometimes the inventory is
fairly detailed but usually it is brief.
Fig. 156 shows a large brig that was thought
to be the Ellen Simpson [310 tons, new
measurement] but the male figure head
suggests otherwise. Photographed in the late
1840's by the Reverend Calvert Jones, she
 [Fig. 1551
Plate XX of Hedderwick's Treatise
showing a lines plan of a Brig of 303
tons, the William Young built in 1824. A
fairly short and deep hull typical of the
vessels of this size engaged in foreign
trade.
Lijnenplan van de brik William Young
volgens H e d d e ~ l i c kHet
. schip meet
303 ton. De gedrongen romp met grote
holte is typerend voor Engelse
schepen van deze afmetingen.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

gives a good impression of the appearance of
a vessel of the size of SL 4. Another of his
photographs [fig. 1571 shows the bark
Countess of Bective, 329 tons built at
Sunderland in 1843, to the right of a small
ship: the Mary Dugdale built at Hull in 1835
of 375 tons.
Unfortunately the position of the mast in SL 4
is not significant. There was fairly wide
variability in the positioning of masts within
each rig type and the position of SL 4's
foremast is consistent with either two or three
masted rig. A good illustration of this;
fig. 158, shows a sail plan by David
MacGregor of the bark Arab built 1839 at
Garmouth [269 tons]. The mizzen mast is
stepped unusually close to the main although
she was by no means an isolated case. The
other factor is that it was quite common for a
vessel to change from one rig to another, the
bark rig becoming increasingly popular in the
1830's. Brigs became barks and vice versa.
The Ellen Simpson, mentioned above was
built as a bark in Sunderland but was
registered as a brig in 185 1. Appendix I1
features an account on what a voyage in such
an ordinary cargo vessel, the Charles Kerr
from Shields, could be like.
4.4.6 The cargo
The ship at SL 4 was carrying coal, a
typical import to The Netherlands and a
typical import to the port of Rotterdam
[fig. 1591. The analysis indicated a series of
English coalfields, headed by those in county
Durham to be its likely source. This is
perfectly in line with the circumstantial
evidence of the ship it was contained in and
its historical setting. Nevertheless the
situation on the coal market saw quite a few
changes in the period of wrecking of SL 4
which are worthy of mention.
In the coalfields the late 18th and early 19th
centuries saw a rapid increase in production.
The industrial revolution and the widespread
adoption of steam power both increased the
demand for coal and the efficiency of mining.
Not only was coal being won in ever
increasing quantities from deeper seams but
improved logistics and increased demand
made it economically viable to transport it to
the ports for export from farther inland. Thus
in considering the sources of SL 4 coal the
criteria of abundant and accessible seams near
to the coast became less important after the
1830's and 1840's. The majority of English
coal was transported to London but a foreign
export market had existed at least as early as
the 16th century. As a result of heavy taxes
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
the export market only grew at about half the
rate of the domestic market as foreign
customers turned elsewhere.
The trade to Holland was typically variable.
An early alternative was Scottish coal which
in the 17th century was not taxed at the same
rate. The coalfields in the Land van Llrik
[Libge] were a source nearer by.
The purposes for which coal was used in
Holland were both domestic and industrial. In
the latter capacity it was used for sugar
refining, brewing and the distillation of
Jenever, vast quantities of which were in turn
exported to England. However, peat and
wood, being easily obtainable, remained the
predominant fuels into the 19th century. There
was a healthy demand of coal but it was not
particularly vital to the economy. With
alternative, albeit lower quality sources
available, consumption remained susceptible
to changes in circumstances.
For a brief period duty on English coal was
reduced to revive the export market but this
created the anomalous situation of artisans in
Holland paying less for their coal then their
competitors in the Thames Valley. To add
insult to injury they were able to undercut
them when selling their finished products in
London. In 1709 the tax on coal carried in
English ships was abolished but reinstated the
following year. From then on it rose steadily
throughout the 18th century and into the 19th.
Trade did however continue to a certain extent
for merchants were often able to negotiate
private concessions. The alternative was to
defraud the Customs and Excise altogether.
This being the case and given the relative
efficiency of the English mining and shipping
operations, coal from the North East and
Scotland retained its attraction. In the 18th
century there were even Dutch merchants
living in Rotterdam who owned a mine at
Hallreath, Inverkeithing. By the end of the
century it was Sunderland that had taken over
as the main source and at this period there
were four agents for Sunderland coal
stationed in Delfshaven, Schiedam and
Dordrecht [all in the Rotterdam area] as well
as Amsterdam.
Trade with Holland was then interrupted by
the Napoleonic wars [I793 - 18 151. The
effect was not felt immediately but in 1795
the French invaded Holland. Pro French
Patriots proclaimed the Bataafse Repuhliek
and thus allied to France, Holland duly
declared war on England. From then on there
was a sharp drop in shipping movements.
In the brief Peace of Amiens in 1802 there
was a vigourous revival of the coal trade and
[Fig. 1561
A large brig thought to be the Ellen
Simpsonof 310 tons [it has however
been pointed out that the figure is male].
She has been photographed by the
Reverend Calvert Jones in the Swansea
area [Wales] in the late 1840's.
Foto van een grote brik die op het eind
van de jaren veertig van de 19e eeuwis
gemaakt door de Eerwaarde Calvert
Jones. De opname is gemaakt in de
omgeving Swansea in Wales. Hoewel
het schip een mannelijk boegbeeld heeft
is gesuggereerd dat het om de Ellen
Simpsonzou gaan, een schip van 310 ton
[National Maritime Museum,
Greenwich].

[Fig. 1571
Taken at Swansea in the mid 1840's. also
by the Reverend Calvert Jones, this
photograph shows the small ship Mary
Dugdale of 375 tons on the left and the
bark Countess of Bective 329 tons, built
in Sunderland in 1843. Well clear of the
quay she shows the way these vessels
sat upright in the mud at low water.
Een andere foto van Calvert Jones toont
links de Mary Dugdale -met375ton is
dit schip vrij klein voor een volgetuigd
schip - en de Countess of Bective, een
bark van 329 ton die in 1843in
Sunderlandis gebouwd [National
Maritime Museum, Greenwich].

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER 127

arrival of large numbers of colliers from
Newcastle and especially Sunderland are
recorded in the Zee Brieven of Hellevoetsluis
[at the Goereesche Gat, a main channel into
Rotterdam]. Even after 1802 trade did not
cease altogether. The risks of trading in time
of war are well illustrated by numerous
references to both French and Dutch ships
being taken and brought to English ports and
vice versa.
Despite these dangers merchant vessels
continued to ply their trade to Holland even
after 1803 when England imposed a blockade
of all ports in the Channel and the North Sea
-...---
from Brest to the Elbe. Obviously the ARAB

potentially high profits to be made if they

were successful outweighed all other
considerations. Often such vessels were
apprehended and turned back.
During the subsequent course of the war the
status of Holland changed repeatedly until in
1813, when after the defeat of Napoleon at
Leipzig, the Kingdom of The Netherlands was
established under William I. The comparative
peace stimulated trade and the frequency of
shipping rose considerably with ships from
the North East of England being well
represented. For various reasons, after the
threat of Napoleon was renewed, William
annexed Belgium in 1815. This had a marked
effect on the coal trade with Britain.
William's policy was to encourage the
development of the coal mines in what was
now the Southern Netherlands. In 1816 a
tariff on imported English coal was
introduced. This was compounded when the
English duty was also increased in 1819 to
22 shillings a ton for coal exported in English
ships and 35 shillings and 4 pence for export
in foreign ships. A reduction of this duty in
1825 had little effect. Table 20 shows the
steady decline in the frequency of English
shipping, especially from North East ports,
entering the Rotterdam area in the years
between 1815 and 1821.
It can be seen that Sunderland as the major
exporter of coal to Holland suffered the most
dramatic decline, while trade with Hull and
Newcastle was more broad based. On account
of its quality a small amount was still
imported but it was extremely expensive. The
British Consul at Rotterdam in 1818 in a letter
to Castlereagh said: the consumption of
British coal, indeed, is confined at present to
the upper class of private houses in
Rotterdam. This general pattern continued for
over a decade, then the political situation
changed once more.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

Table 20 The people of Belgium had become
Ships arriving in Rotterdam from Nothern Ports increasingly discontented with the union with
(after: Van Mechelen, 1929) Holland and with the encouragement of the
French a revolt was mounted in 1830. Despite
William's efforts to maintain unity a
temporary government declared independence
Hull 39 49 39 28 and then the Kingdom of Bel,'alum was
Newcastle 22 41 39 62 declared on November 22nd 1830. It was not
Sunderland 113 173 97 42 until 1833 that William, subject to military
and political pressure from the French and the
Total 173 263 175 132 English respectively, formally suspended
hostilities. One effect of this political
Total incoming English upheaval was to interrupt the supply of cheap
shipping 846 796 600 596 Belgian coal. The reaction in North East
England was swift and in the last months of
Tussen 1815 en 1821 nam de vaart [Fig. 1591 1830 trade began to boom once again. The
vanuit havens i n noordoost Engeland Holland still imports large quantities of next year the process was accelerated by a
op Rotterdam gestaag af. coal, though no longer from England. It large reduction in English duty payable on
comes from all over the world, much of exported coal and the volume of trade
[Fig. 1581 it being distributed throughout Europe increased dramatically.
A sail plan illustrating the rig of a bark: or re-exported to Scandinavia, Spain Table 21 shows the number of ships from the
the Arab of 269 tons built in 1839 at and ironically, even to England, where North East ports in relation to the rest of
Garmouth in Scotland. The plan was certain types of coal are imported for Great Britain. In 1829 ships from Sunderland
reconstructed from the spar power stations. Only two kilometres and Newcastle accounted for less than 4% of
dimensions on the builder's lines plan from where SL4 sank, another English the total English shipping entering the ports in
by David MacGregor. For the features ship: the Hornchurch lies at the coals the Rotterdam area. By 183 1 they accounted
not detailed he used the proportions wharf at Mississippi Haven in the for 31.6%, Sunderland alone accounting for
given by Hedderwick. Europoort area west of Rotterdam. The 22.26%. Facilities for exporting coal from the
Zeilplan van een bark. Het is een ships are loaded or unloaded by graps Durham collieries now underwent rapid
reconstructietekening die David on gantry cranes. The record moved in development through the construction of
MacGregor heeftgemaakt aan de a 24 hour period is 130.000 tons. At that railways to the coast and the building of
hand van het lijnenplan en de rate the volume of coal carried by SL 4 docks. Seaham harbour started shipping coal
beschreven afmetingen van de would have been unloaded in 6-7 in 1831 and in the same year Middlesborough
rondhouten van de Arab, een schip dat minutes. Dock was opened. In 1834 the Stanhope and
i n 1839 i n Garmouth i n Schotland i s De huidige kolenoverslag i n de Tyne Railway was opened and Hartlepool
gebouwd. Waar h i j moest interpoleren Mississippihaven ligt op nog geen Dock opened in 1835. With existing facilities
heeft MacGregor zich zoveel als twee kilometer afstand van de at Newcastle and South Shields on the Tyne
mogelijk door her handboek van vindplaats SL 4. De hoeveelheid kolen and Sunderland on the Wear, the means for
Hedderwick laten leiden. die her daar gevonden schip kon laden exporting more of the increased output of the
wordt tegenwoordig i n 6 a 7 minuten North Eastern coalfields now existed.
verwerkt lfotoj.a.1. In the thirties and fourties the coal fields of
County Durham in particular underwent a
marked expansion. Several new pits were
opened, old ones reopened and new seams
were won at those already in production.
This reinforces the hypothesis that the coal
carried by SL 4 came from County Durham.
Sunderland, at the mouth of the river Wear, is
the port much of the coal would have been
shipped through. It had begun to develop as a
port in the mid 17th century when Wear coal
began to compete with Tyne coal and had
taken over from Whitby as the focus of north
east shipbuilding. The small shipyards along
the banks of the Wear built most of the
200 - 300 ton collier brigs in which coal was
exported, not only from the Durham mines
but from Northumberland and Yorkshire as
well.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

That being the case, and in view of the
increased capacities of the industry at this
period already considered, a Sunderland built
ship might well have been transporting
Northumberland or Yorkshire coal. As is
shown in table 21, incoming ships from Hull
in 1831 were second only to Sunderland in
number. However, trade between Hull and
Rotterdam had remained active during the
years when Belgian coal was being imported
into Holland. It continued largely unaffected
by the large influx of Sunderland and
Newcastle ships. The inference is that even
after 1830 the majority of ships from Hull
were not carrying coal but other commodities.
On balance therefore, Durham remains the
most probable source.
4.4.7 Date of shipwreck
In considering the likely date of
sinking of SL 4, the time span indicated by
the body of evidence fits fairly well with the
mean felling date of 1836 suggested by the
dendrochronological analysis.
The structure in terms of the principle of
building is not particularly helpful as it was
used over a long period of time but the variety
of wood species used and the presence of iron
knees suggests the end of the 1820's or later.
This would correspond to the decorated pipe;
estimated as being from the beginning of the
second quarter of the 19th century.
The iron hawse pipes [as opposed to lead] and
the apparently iron plated windlass whelps
both indicate chain anchor cable rather than
hemp. The various lengths of stud-link chain
recovered from the site could be part of it
[stud-link chain being used for anchors rather
than open link chain]. Chain started to replace
hemp for anchor cable around 1800 [officially
adopted by the Royal Navy in 18111.
The windlass is of the hand-spike type which
suggests a date prior to 1850. Patent
windlasses appeared in the late 1820's and
were widely adopted during the eighteen
thirties and fourties. The seamen of colliers,
renowned for their competence in general,
would seem to have been skilled in anchor
recovery using handspike windlasses:
...I happened to employ a mate and seven
menfrom a Collier, to transport the ship to the
Graving Dock at Deptford, when these seven
men, only, hove up this anchor ... in a quarter
of the time that it used to be done by 18
men, ... [Hutchinson 1777,961. So it may be
that traditionalism and pride retained the
handspike type longer in this trade. On the
other hand as MacGregor points out, any
innovation that made a back-breaking job
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
significantly easier would tend to override the
seaman's traditional conservatism
[MacGregor 1984b, 491.
The standing rigging was hemp, as attested by
the deadeyes. This suggests a date prior to
1850 - 60 when it began to be replaced by
wire.
The evidence of the coal pointing to the North
East as a likely source and the boom in the
coal trade to Holland that occurred in the
1830's also fits this general picture quite well.
Judging by her repairs, although she was not a
great age, she must have had a few years
service behind her. Adding at least a year to
the felling date for transport and building, one
is looking at a date in the early 1840's for her
sinking. The 1840's thus seem a good starting
point for research into the documentary
sources to attempt to indentify the ship, her
place of building, her master and owner and
her date of wrecking. Wreck registers of the
1840's and early 1850's have been searched
but none of the vessels that wrecked in this
period off Rotterdam would seem to be of the
right size. If the estimated felling date is too
early and if the ship had a longer life than at
first thought, she could have sunk somewhat
later, although this is near the end of the
period indicated by her windlass, hemp
rigging and general hull form. Also judging
from Lloyd's List, by the mid 1840's the
frequency of shipping movement between the
English north-east and the Rotterdam area had
substantially reduced. It is most probable that
her origins can eventually be determined as
her loss will certainly be on record.
4.5 CONCLUSION
Whether the identity of the ship be
discovered or not the research of the remains
from wrecksite S L 4 has evoked the picture of
a vessel engaged in the coaltrade between a
north-eastern English port and Rotterdam. It
is the kind of everyday trade that gradually
made Rotterdam the largest port in the world.
The ship itself was built around or shortly
after 1838, at a north-eastern English
shipyard, possibly one at Sunderland and its
shipwreck may have occurred somewhere in
the 1840's.
Like its trade the ship had an everyday nature.
It was humble in construction and finish. It is
the very reason why no such ships remain. No
one at the time regarded them as worthy of
preservation or study. All were broken up for
reusable timber, but for those that wrecked.
Although contemporary handbooks do contain
a lot of information on early 19th century
shipbuilding and shipping it is only through
Table 21 the study of archaeological material that this
Ships arriving in Rotterdam from Nothern Ports information can be checked and enlarged. The
(after: Van Mechelen, 1929) recovery of the hull section from SL 4 gave
the opportunity to scrutinize and study
everyday shipbuilding as it really was
opposed to how it should have been,
Hull 138 171 157 according to the handbooks.
Newcastle 24 46 120 Its study elucidates what is equivocal in the
Sunderland 8 49 286 archival record and provides detailed
Shields - 2 7 information that was never written down. It is
a firm clue to understanding the often
Total 170 268 579 shorthand and cryptic but very informative
Lloyd's survey reports. Much of the
Total incoming information gleaned confirms what we know
English shipping 834 943 1285 or could assume from documentary and
pictorial sources. However it is especially in
De vaart tussen Engeland en detail of construction, repair and the
Rotterdam nam vanaf de laatste application of materials that its study
maanden van 1830 weer provided new facts. Some examples are the
enorm toe. Het aandeel van de havens typical plank-butt fastening with one treenail
in noordoost Engeland komt in de tabel and one copper alloy bolt, the systematic
goed uit. augering of holes for secondary treenails that
cut the first at a slightly divergent angle, the
alternate punching and deuteling of treenails
and there are many more, such as the variety
of wood species used, the framing with
chocks that often are larger and of rougher
manufacture than tolerated by the handbooks
and the experimental use of iron. These latter
aspects strikingly reflect the scarcity of
suitable timber for shipbuilding in mid 19th
century England.
Many aspects of ship design, construction and
use that are shown by S L 4 can be traced right
back to the very beginnings of carve1
shipbuilding in northern Europe, while at the
same time representing its final form in the
context of modest medium sized merchant
vessels. In this way and as one of the few
hulls providing factual information SL 4 is a
much more important example of the
development than one might anticipate.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
 [Fig. 1601
SL5 T04. Futtock.
Oplanger[foto IPL],

[Fig. 1611
SL5 T04. View of the same funock,
showing the rebated head.
Oezelfde oplanger. De bovenzijde is
ingekapt [foto IPL].

[Fig. 1621
SL5 T07. Foot of a funock or cant
frame, tapered t o scarf against another
timber.
Een inhout dat taps toeloopt, mogelijk
een draaispant of een oplanger [foto
IPLI.

[Fig. 1631
SL5 T05. Lodging knee with a rebate for
a half beam.
Een horizontale knie met een inkeping
waar vermoedelijk een dekbalk, een
zogenaamde halve balk in heeftgerust
[foto IPLI.

[Fig. 1641
SL5T03. Fragment of a tapered ceiling
plank.
Gedeelte van een wegering [foto IPLI.

[Fig. 1651
SL5T11. End of a tapering hull plank.
Gedeelte van een huidplank.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
 5.1 CIRCUMSTANCES O F
DISCOVERY
On September 1st 1986 the cutter
suction dredger Hector hit wood when
working at a depth of 22.5 m. This happened
in the position x 59.884 and y 438.467
[fig. 131. About a month later wood was again
encountered in approximately the same area at
a working depth of 17.5 m. This time 15 loose
timbers were recovered. The remains did not
cause any delay to speak of and no on-site
inspection was ventured.
5.2 DESCRIPTION O F THE
RECOVERED REMAINS
SL5 T04. Curved timber 1.35 m in
length, 17 x 11 cm in section it is probably a
futtock. One end, probably the head, is
stepped, in that it has a rebate 17.5 cm deep
and 6.5 cm across cut out of one side. Planks
had been fastened to it with treenails and a
bolt [fig. 160, 1611.
SL5 T07. One end of a treenail fastened
timber [futtock?] that is curved in two
directions. It is 17 x 14 cm in section. The end
narrows, possibly where it met the next
futtock in a simple plain [unfastened] scarf
[fig. 1621.
SL5 T06. Fragment of a treenailed, slightly
curved timber 16 x 13 cm in section.
SL5 T05. A grown knee with two bolt holes
passing through the long arm and traces of
one through what remains of the short arm.
The bolts are aligned in the same plane and
there is a rebate in one side of the long arm. It
is probably a lodging knee, the rebate being
for a half-beam [fig. 1631.
SL5 T03. End of a plank 27 cm wide and 6 cm
thick. Marks of the futtocks to which it was
fastened are visible on one side. As there was
no trace of caulking on the edges this in
probably a ceiling plank [fig. 1641. It was
fastened with treenails, bolts and nails.
SL5 T l I. Piece or a tapering plank 17 cm
reducing to 11 cm wide x 6.7 cm in thickness.
The edge is sloping rather than square and
there is a rebate at the thick end. No treenails
but two bolts. Possibly the end of a stealer
[fig. 1651.
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER
SL5 T13. Piece of planking 6.5 cm in
thickness with the edge sloping in the same
manner as T11. Fastened with treenails and a
bolt.
SL5 T01. End of a plank 34 cm wide and 4 cm
thick. It was fastened with treenails [one of
them softwood] and was also nailed along the
edges. Both edges are moulded so it would
seem likely to be panelling from below decks
[fig. 1661.
SL5 T02. Small fragment of plank of the same
type as T01.
SL5 T15. End of a deck support beam
preserved for a length of 1.80 m and which is
14.5 x 11.5 cm in section. Its curvature
indicates it ran athwartships and is a [half?]
beam rather than a carling. The end is
dovetailed to sink into a shelf. Its upper
surface is pierced by the holes of the plank
nails [fig. 1671.
SL5 T08. Fragment of a softwood deck plank
5.5 cm thick, which had been fastened with
nails and a bolt.
Fastenings were treenails, iron bolts, spikes
and nails. The treenails are hand finished,
some of them almost octagonal in section.
Some of them had been cut and caulked in the
manner shown in fig. 76. The bolts were
21 mm square with a flattened or chamfered
edge. The spikes were square in the shank
with faceted heads. Both are very similar to
those shown in fig. 18.
5.3 ANALYSES
No SL 5 remains have been analysed
in any other way than through careful
comparison of their attributes with those of
the material from other sites. The striking
similarities in types of fastenings used
between remains from SL 5 with those of both
SL 1 and SL 3 have been commented upon in
paragraph 1.4.
5.4 DISCUSSION
The site SL 5 was not inspected. The
fact that the cutter suction dredger Hector was
not really hindered by the remains, whereas
they clearly belonged to a large vessel
suggests that the site only contained a
fragmented hull section. No associated finds
were collected. The remains themselves
indicate that they represent a fragment of the
same hull as those at wrecksite SL I and SL 3,
as has been discussed at length in paragraph
1.4 where the remains from the three sides are
treated as one assemblage. This means that
upon wrecking the wreckage of the ship has
been dispersed over a large area, substantial
fragments being embedded at least at three
sites, as far apart as 1.075 km [fig. 131.

[Fig. 1661
SL5T01. Moulded plank, probably from
below decks.
Plank met lofwerk, vermoedelijk van
de betimmering [foto IPLI.

[Fig. 1671
SL5 T15. Deck beam with dovetailed
end for location in a clamp.
Dekbalk. Het uiteinde is zo bekapt dat
het in een uitsparing in de balkweger
past [foto IPL].

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER

 Between october 27th and 29th 1986 the
cutter suction dredger Triton hit wood, pieces
of iron anchors and a quantity of general
debris. Much of the wood consisted of large
tree stumps but some of it appeared to be from
a wooden vessel. Five pieces were salvaged,
along with a large concreted swivel link, part
of the shank of a small anchor and an iron
strip with fastening holes along its length.
There is not necessarily any association
between these materials. The work was being
carried out right at the edge of the Slufter and
the dredger was cutting the correct profile
partly into the existing deposit of the
Maasvlakte. The dredgemaster was of the
opinion that the material might have arrived
there as a result of the dredging operations
that created the Maasvlakte in 1960's. The
material as a whole had the character of
jetsam found on a beach after a storm so this
is certainly possible. In support of the jetsam
idea is the fact that on the face of it the
material was deposed since the Maasvlakte
was formed. Against it is the localised
occurrence of the timbers.
The wooden pieces recovered were entirely
iron fastened, both with small iron bolts
10 mm in diameter and iron nails 4 - 6 mm
square. Both wood and iron were in very good
condition. This is not necessarlily significant,
particularly in the light of the condition of
wood from for example SL 1 but together
with the lack of wood fastenings it suggests
the vessel from which they come could be
relatively modern. The iron strip looks similar
to those protecting the keels and bilge keels of
small fising vessels. Alternatively the pieces
may all be from the deck and bulwark level of
an otherwise wood fastened vessel. The shape
of all the pieces where a surface is preserved
are angled and rounded suggesting they were
from this level. In any event no more of the
vessel was found during the dredging
operation in this area.
The timbers of SL 6 if not re-dredged from
another location may be a small section of a
vessel that was deposited here after being
wrecked or abandoned elsewhere.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER 135

 [Fig. 1681
Scupper pipe.
Houten bos met daardoorheen een
spuigat Vermoedelijk is hier sprake
van hergebruik van een stuk hoot oh
een steven van een schip. De
ingesneden merktekens Iijken
diepgangsmerken te zijn zoals die vaak
op stevens zijn aangebracht.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF T H E SLUFTER
 MISCELLANEOUS FINDS

Scupper pipe
A member of the public brought in a piece when this had set the surface was sealed with
of timber having found it on the beach some lead. It was probably a mooring block
years before [fig. 1681. It is the upper part marking the former channel.
of a wooden scupper pipe and similar
examples are seen on ships of the 16th, Anchors and chain
17th and to some extent the 18th century, These were regular finds and this is not
although by this time lead was more common. surprising considering the number of dragged
A reconstruction of their fitting can be found and or lost anchors that inevitably litter a busy
in Ketting [1979,56]. This piece is of sea way.
additional interest as it appears to be re-used
wood. On one face there are what appear to be Faunal remains
draught marks. Also, lodged inside it when From the pleistocene layers large quantities of
found was a small cast iron shot but this was fossil bones were recovered. As they were not
in very poor condition. Judging by its collected in an archaeological context they are
condition, this piece was not exposed on the not dealt with in this report. With respect to
seabed for long. It may have been transported the general characteristics of the fossil faunas
to this area during the extensive dredging from the Maasvlakte-Slufter area the reader is
operations in the 1960's entailed in creating referred to Vervoort-Kerkhoff and Van
the Maas~llakte.Alternatively, it may Kolfschoten 1988.
originate from one of the wrecks in the
immediate area. SL 2 is a possibility, being of
the right approximate date and fairly close to
foreshore where the find was made. Variation
in seabed level due to tidal patterns and
storms, especially in a sandy deposit like this,
can repeatedly uncover a wreck leading to
further scattering of fragments of the vessel
and its contents. This could have been
accentuated by the change in patterns of scour
and deposition wrought by the forming of the
Maasvlakte. SL 2, lying at a relatively
shallow depth [around 10 m] and close to the
new coast line, would have been particularly
susceptible.

Mooring block
An isolated find. This consisted of a large
piece of granite into which was set an eye
of wrought iron. To this was attached a
linking mechanism for the mooring chain.
Both were made of square section wrought
iron bar 30-33 mm in cross-section. The hole
in the stone had been chiselled out below the
surface so that the base was wider that the
opening. The two ends of the bar forming the
eye were then set in the hole, probably red
hot, and beaten so that they flared outwards.
Mortar was then poured into the cavity and

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SLUFTER 137

EVALUATION

1. Dredgers and archaeology

2. Objectives and planning

3. Prospects

4. General approach and limitations

4.1 Formal setting
4.2 Technical scope
4.3 Methods

5. Results
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Direct results
5.2.1 Shipping and shipbuilding
5.2.2 Wrecksites and site formation
5.2.3 Geology and geographical history
5.3 Experience

6. Recommendations
 DREDGERS A N D ARCHAEOLOGY

An evaluation of the way in which

archaeologically relevant documentation
could be intertwined with daily procedures of
a large-scale marine engineering work is
given here to indicate what has been learned
through the experience of the Slufterproject.
Of course on-going construction imposes
severe restrictions on the scope of
archaeological research as compared to a
laboratory situation. Nevertheless where
planning necessitates large-scale moving of
sediments it is that stage that offers a last
chance to make specific observations. It thus
offers a unique occasion and neglect of the
archaeological values involved will leave
them destroyed.
Within the bounds of the Sluftesproject a
serious attempt was made to pay proper
attention to these aspects. It had its flaws and
its bad luck, but nevertheless it had clear-cut
results. Both its assets and its inadequacies
are subject matter to keep in mind in future
planning.
The third part of the report will discuss what
has been gained by the archaeological survey
in terms of archaeological information,
historical interpretation and the way in which
archaeology and large-scale engineering can
be matched. Of course these results will be
reviewed within the framework of the
objectives and planning, the prospects, the
general approach and its limitations.

EVALUATION
 OBJECTIVES AND PLANNING

The purpose of archaeological research as

part of the Slufter project was to record what
would be lost by its realization.
Archaeology - as all other modes of scientific
inquiry - depends on the accumulation of
many bits of information. Concealed in traces
and remains in the subsoil archaeological
information has the special quality of directly
reflecting past reality. When viewed apart
each bit of information may seem
insignificant but as a basis for inductive
reasoning and a check on deductions
archaeological data is vital to a reliable
reconstruction of man's past.
The data can be collected through excavation,
a procedure that destroys part of the evidence.
Where modern development necessitates
clearance of the subsoil important information
can be safeguarded through a serious effort to
record what has long been left untouched and
concealed.
In the Slufter project where it was urgent to
move on at great pace once work had started
primary recording was to be the predominant
objective of any archaeological effort. It
would not only make data available for
immediate interpretation but more
significantly it would preserve them for future
use.
This general approach puts a premium on
flexibility in response to any discoveries and
sets the scope for planning. Allowing for
rapid changes in emphasis the line of action to
be followed was deployed within the
framework of:
the prospects for archaeological
discoveries;
the feasibility of archaeologically
relevant observations on-site and
through controlled recovery;
the limitations dictated by the
circumstances, the tight time-schedule
and the technical approach of the
project;
the restraints determined by choices
in advance as to what kind of sites
must and can realistically be handled
at what cost.

EVALUATION
 PROSPECTS

Although there was a fair chance that

evidence of occupation in Mesolithic times
would be destroyed, it was decided in advance
not to try to avoid this, as meaningful results
could not realistically be expected. Also all
sediments predating the Subatlantic
[900 B.C.] were treated as being
archaeologically sterile. The same applied to
the shoal-deposits within the subatlantic
sequence of marine sediments, as these were
only liable to contain dispersed material. It
was decided to concentrate all efforts on the
gully-fillings which had for the greater part
been deposited after 1300 A.D.
The prospects were that these gully-fillings
which had been deposited in the outer delta of
one of the main gateways for shipping into
continental Europe would enfold evidence of
maritime activity in the form of wreck.
Historical research of geographical
information showed that the main navigation
channel in the 16th century had passed the
area some 300 m to the north and had shifted
northwards since. Had it shifted in that
direction before - i.e. in a period for which
the historical sources are mute, whereas the
general direction of sedimentation suggests as
much - it would have passed much closer in
the previous centuries. During the 18th
century a new channel came into use, not
more than 100 m south of the area.
If sites predating the 16th century were to be
discovered, the northern part was the most
likely place, while sites relating to the
younger channel - and to a period of sharply
increased intensity in shipping - would tend
to concentrate in the south. Of course it does
not follow from this argument that excavation
of the northern part would reveal medieval
wrecks. As these, however, were deemed to
be of such importance as to deserve maximum
attention the decision to excavate the northern
gully-fillings first was readily endorsed.

EVALUATION
 GENERAL APPROACH AND LIMITATIONS
4.1 FORMAL SETTING
The administrative scope for
archaeological survey during construction of
the Slufter disposal site was set by the
relevant provisions in the permits granted for
its realization. In view of the urgent - socially
accepted - need to quickly realize the disposal
site and thus to alleviate environmental
problems these provisions were rather
restrictive. The Director of the State Service
for Archaeological Investigations [R.O.B.]
was to be given a reasonable chance for
archaeological investigation, in sofar as this
would not cause any delay in the overall
realization of the project. Also a tight time
schedule was defined within which any
discovery should be dealt with on site. The
provisions did not imply any obligation on the
originators to financially support
archaeological work.
4.2 TECHNICAL SCOPE
The tight time-schedule of the project
as well as its technical approach determined
archaeological procedures to a considerable
extent. On the basis of experiments it was
assumed that remains measuring 5 x 7 m or
more could be detected by sonar while being
uncovered in the dredging breach. Sites
containing no coherent structure of that size
were conceded to pass unnoticed.
Great emphasis was put on the necessity of
on-site inspection. Even though the
circumstances for under water work would
hardly be favourable it was only on the basis
of on-site observations that any decision on
further handling of a site could be taken.
Another principle was that clearance of
archaeological sites should take place by
recovery of units as large as would be
realistically possible in order to allow for
further observations and documentation off
site.
4.3 METHODS
As foreseen the removal and
deposition of 37 million m3 of sediments in a
16 months period puts a lot of stress on
EVALUATION
archaeological observation. The
circumstances in a sand digging pit in full
production put their restrictions on such
archaeological methods that come into view.
Free diving is out of the question. Lifting
operations must be carried out with great care,
whether it be by direct hoisting or with lifting
balloons. Particularly the latter are accident
prone where there is no underwater visibility.
For archaeology it was a major drawback that
the contractor decided to use cutter-suction-
dredgers in phase I instead of conventional
suction-dredgers. For the construction work
itself it was an asset as the machinery had
great capacity. It meant however that all
dredging of sediments considered to be of
archaeological potential was done by means
of cutter-suction-dredgers and these sweep to
and fro constantly while the cutter grinds its
way through the sediments. They thus lack the
quality of a stable platform and cause great
turbulence both in the water and the fluidised
silts. Both aspects seriously affected the
possibilities of detection by sonar. In each
instance it was the destructive cutter itself or
blocking of the pumps that caused detection
of archaeological remains. The original goal
of detection of all remains measuring 5 x 7 m
or more was by no means attained. It was the
structural strength and resistance of the
remains as opposed to their size that
determined their detection. It is thus highly
likely that what has been discovered shows a
definite bias towards the solidly built. While
good results are to be expected with a sonar
mounted on a stationary suction-dredger, for
cutter-suction-dredgers its use is not to be
recommended.
The method of dredging did also seriously
affect the possibilities for on-site inspection.
Either the site was disrupted before giving
cause to action [wrecksite SL 3, SL 5, SL 61
or it was immediately covered by spill
[wrecksite SL 1, S12]. Only the sturdy near-
complete hull at wrecksite SL 4 resisted the
dredging in such a way as to allow it to be
cleared for inspection without major damage.
The remains at wrecksite SL 1, that must have
formed a substantial integral unit, had totally
 lost their integrity before coming within
reach.
Nevertheless the importance of on-site
inspection cannot be overstressed. Where it
was done [wrecksite SL 1, SL 41 it produced a
clearcut result, essential both to the
archaeological interpretation and to the
tackling of clearance.
A serious problem was the removal of
overburden of silt from wreck-material that
had already been detected. The dredging
material present featured high-capacity
instruments only. These had to keep up
production and had obvious side-effects when
used for clearing purposes. A cutter-suction-
dredger can be fiercely destructive and
drawing near with a deep working suction-
dredger carries the risk of collapse. It will not
ease on-site inspection.
A partial solution for this problem was found
in the use of a prop-wash deflector, an
instrument not normally acceptable in an
archaeological context but often used in
treasure hunting. A waterprobe lowered down
from the surface was of great help to
determine the distribution of solid remains.

EVALUATION
 RESULTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The results that have been reached
through archaeological research as part of the
Slufter project fall into five categories:
archaeological information on
specific ships, their build, their
functioning and their wrecking;
archaeological information on
wrecking processes and on the
formation of sites in a shallow
estuarine area;
specific archaeological information
on trade through the port of
Rotterdam;
understanding of shipbuilding
techniques through the assessment of
specific archaeological data in the
context of relevant historical
information;
understanding of the development of
the area through matching of
archaeological, historical,
geographical and geological
information.
Their significance lies in three fields which
will be dealt with separately:
shipping and shipbuilding;
wrecksites and site formation;
geology and geographical history.
An additional result is the experience that was
acquired with the integration of archaeology
into a large marine dreding project.
5.2 DIRECT RESULTS
5.2.1 Shipping and shipbuilding
The archaeological work in the
Slufter project shed light on three seperate
vessels: the ship at SL 2, the ship from SL 4
and the complex from the sites SL 1, SL 3,
SL 5.
SL 2
The few timbers with moss caulking raised
from SL 2 show it to be an interesting find.
Obviously a keeled vessel of substantial
dimensions it might be of medieval date. Most
of it, however, was left in situ where it was
covered with newly deposited sediments and
EVALUATION
where it remains safe for future investigation.
SL 4
SL 4 was completely dismantled.
Documentation of its remains proved to be the
chief task of the archaeological team.
Preliminary assessment on the basis of on-site
inspection prompted the decision to clear the
site as such and to study only what would be
brought up through clearance operations. This
proved to be highly rewarding and most cost
effective. A detailed picture could be drawn
of how this particular - very ordinary -
English vessel from the early decades of the
nineteenth century was built. It showed
surprising evidence on choice and conversion
of timber.
The inconsistent use of wood species, a birch
keel and the framing system implying the use
of chocks combined with the restricted use of
wrought iron strengthening members such as
knees and beamstraps reflect the
resourcefulness of the shipbuilding industry
and of the particular shipbuilder to cope with
the situation of increased demands for ships
and tonnage and deficient supplies of
appropriate timber.
Evidently this ship carrying coal was a
purpose-built collier and as such the only
surviving representative of this very common
class of vessel from this period yet to be
studied. The detailed recording of such
elements as its rider-keelson and mast-step,
its butt-joints with the specific arrangement of
treenails and butt-end-bolts and the punches
in its treenails shows us how this particular
ship was built, but it is also an indispensable
key to the proper understanding of the
shorthand but very informative survey-reports
drawn up in commission of Lloyd's of
London. As such it contributes not only to our
knowledge and understanding of this
particular ship, but through facilitating access
to the contemporary surveys it significantly
adds to our knowledge and understanding of
early nineteenth century shipbuilding in
general.
With its ordinary cargo the ship was evidently
on its way to Rotterdam. As such it represents
 the bulk trade through which this port was
developing at the time.
SL 1, SL 3, SL 5
The weight of the evidence on this late 18th
century dutch-built vessel fell short of
expectations aroused on its discovery. For one
thing the hull had not been preserved as an
integral unit: at the main site SL 1 deck-
structure had been present upside down, as
shown during on-site inspection. For another
thing what had been there was severely
damaged during operations.
Nevertheless the recording of the assemblage
showed interesting detail on the waterway, the
coaming and decking in general. The
arrangement of planking in the bow is quite
peculiar and the assessment of the find
showed how little specific informaton is
available on common Dutch kofs and related
types with round bows and round sterns. The
evidence emerging from the
dendrochronological analysis is quite
comprehensive and is a valuable addition to
the aggregate data on timber use and wood
trade. So is the apparent evidence on the use
of dogs when the wood converted for SL 1,
SL 3, SL 5 was transported as logs in a raft.
The associated finds which evidently were
part of the ship's inventory or fittings were
documented. No serious attempt was made to
assess their significance. The data, however,
are collected and are available for future use.
5.2.2 WRECKSITES AND SITE
FORMATION
In general the theoretical
considerations on the formation of wrecksites
that lay at the basis of the deployed line of
action [see paragraph 1.51 were confirmed by
the results of archaeological work at the
Slufter location. Two aspects, however,
definitely stand out.
One is the clear confirmation that the remains
of a ship run aground can get dispersed over
an extremely large area and that even
relatively large portions of the same ship can
get dug in far apart. On the face of it this may
not seem very significant but hardly ever is
marine archaeological investigation carried
out over such an extensive area and hardly
ever have parts of the same vessel actually
been found over 1 km apart. In the case of
SL 1, SL 3, SL 5 the ship must have rolled
over first. The hull broke apart at a later stage
with large parts drifting off and settling
elsewhere.
The other conspicious aspect is that wreckage
at both SL 1 and SL 4 were encountered at a
EVALUATION
depth beyond the average depth of sediments
from the subatlantic period. After sinking the
extent of scouring must have been
considerable in both instances. The ship at
SL 4 must immediately have sunk in a rather
deep gully. The remains at both sites,
however, must have slipped deeper into a
localised gully formed by scouring. In view of
the generally good state of preservation the
whole process must have elapsed rather
quickly.
5.2.3 Geology and geographical history
The archaeological information and
the geological and historical- geographical
data assessed as part of the preliminary survey
do in general favourably agree. On the face of
it there seems to be a slight contradiction in
the fact that the preliminary survey stressed
the need to carefully scrutinize the northern
part whereas most finds were made in the
south. The reasoning was however that any
finds relating to the navigation channel which
ran to the North of the area in later medieval
times were more likely to be encountered
there than anywhere else. Moreover it was
decided in advance that any finds relating to
that channel - and thus of that early date -
which comprised structural elements of a size
not defying timely detection through the
current methods was to be deemed extremely
important due to the relative scarcity of such
remains. It is however by no means surprising
that no such discoveries were made. This can
be accounted for by the scarcity as such on the
one hand and by the relatively coarse method
of surveying on the other.
Discoveries relating to the southern channel,
which was in use from the mid 18th century
onwards - a period of sharply increasing
intensity of shipping - were made in some
number. These include the major assemblages
as well as the items contaminating the sites,
from a clay pipe at SL 4 predating the wreck
by 75 years to the more recent material.
As such the results of excavation do not
challenge the geological interpretation of the
area. However, the localised effects of the
scouring processes around wreckage have
been underestimated and so has the
importance of a rather recent gully. For
indeed the fact that the top of the SL 4 wreck
occurred at a depth of about 11 m below
N.A.P. means that a gully of that depth
crossed the area in the eighteen fourties. The
remains at SL 1 occurred at an even greater
depth, indicating that the [same?] gully was
more important at that particular spot around
1800 A.D. The recent Gat van de Hawk was
 no deeper than 7 m in 1985 [see depth contour
lines in fig. 131.
From the historical information it was not
apparent that a gully of any importance
crossed the area at the time of sinking of the
wrecks at SL 1, SL 3, SL 5 and SL 4. It is thus
highly unlikely that the channel had any real
meaning as a navigation channel.
Nevertheless it must have been quite deep.
5.3 EXPERIENCE
Integration of a meticulous discipline
as archaeology into the coarsely dynamic
approach of dredging and marine engineering
is not as antithetic as it may seem. Although
the tight time-schedule puts considerable
constraints on archaeological work this did
not prove to be the most serious problem.
With a detailed line of action featuring an
assessment of discoveries and practical
situations one can expect to meet with, as well
as clearly defined guide-lines on how to cope
with them, it is quite possible to adequately
react with the necessary energy and
flexibility. The guide-lines must of necessity
imply decisions in advance on priorities. The
assessment must be as detailed and reliable as
possible. Where feasible a detailed pre-
disturbance survey can be a powerful tool. A
thorough survey and a good liaison between a
positive archaeological input and the project
direction and engineers to explore all the
possible ways of introducing flexibility into
the work schedule are two factors that are
vital to the overall success of the
archaeological effort during construction
work. It can also guarantee a good
relationship between the archaeological team
and the contractor.
In itself, however, the reliable assessment of
the archaeological potential of a particular
area is not without problems. What can be
assessed is which areas and which sequences
of sediments have or have no archaeological
potential. By the identification of areas with
no archaeological potential at all -or a very
limited one - the area on which to focus
attention can be considerably reduced.
However, even if an area or sequence of
sediments can positively be identified to be
potentially rich one is left with a certain
measure of uncertainty: specific predictions
as to what will actually be found during
excavation of potentially rich areas can never
be made. This is a great impediment in
planning. It is a crucial problem that what is
to be constructed can be clearly defined in
plans whereas what will be destroyed is never
known in detail in advance. It is actually the
EVALUATION
fact that sediments are untouched and thus of
unknown content that determines their
archaeological importance.
Time and again this simple truth leads to the
situation where the archaeological potential is
not taken into account at all and where chance
finds during construction work will lead to
hectic efforts to rescue what has already half
been destroyed, whereas their presence could
to some extent have been foreseen.
In a way the Slufter project was no exception
to this rule. Even though a preliminary survey
had been carried out prior to the start of work
it was that very situation which occurred and
which created the most serious problems. The
construction permits provided that occasion
should be given for archaeological research,
but who was to pay for what had to be done?
Was it the responsibility of the authorities
responsible for cultural heritage management
or of those responsible for the realization of
the large-scale dredging project. The deadlock
was finally broken by the municipality of
Rotterdam allocating a restricted budget.
It allowed for the mounting of sonar-
equipment and the engagement of
archaeological staff and was supplemented
with small grants from the Ministry of
Welfare, Public Health and Culture and the
Ministry of Transport and Public Works to
meet with day-to-day expenses. However, all
this only happened after the first sites had
been discovered. On-site inspections had by
then been organized provisionally and on an
ad hoc basis. However, the intensity of
archaeological work had necessarily been
low. Four out of six sites had already been
discovered and dismantled. Especially in view
of the tight time-schedule it was valuable time
lost. Thanks to the initiative of the
municipality it still proved possible to achieve
the main objectives. In the future however it
is essential that clear-cut arrangements as to
responsibilities and finance be made well in
advance.
 RECOMMENDATIONS

In cases where planning necessitates large-

scale dredging unanticipated confrontation
with archaeologically significant material can
be avoided through the assessment of
archaeological potential in advance. Such an
assessment can significantly narrow down the
spatial limits of potentially important
sediments.
If it is convincingly probable that important
archaeological values are at stake a serious
effort should be made to record what will be
lost. To this end the deployment of a line of
action indicating how and according to what
priorities archaeological information and
remains will be handled can be a considerable
help in planning.
Budgetary consequences are divisible in a
fixed and a variable part. The first is the
minimal requirement for general
documentation and - if necessary - on-site
presence of archaeological staff. Its height is
more or less a function of the technical and
organizational approach of construction. The
second part consists of what is needed to deal
with important sites, including excavation,
documentation, conservation, report and
publication. Its amount is more or less a
function of the kind of archaeological
discoveries actually made.

EVALUATION
APPENDICES

Appendix I Introduction to dendrochronological analysis 157

Appendix I1 Selection of historical documents that are relevant to the study 161
of the ship at SL 4
Appendix I11 Conservation and artefact filing 167

Glossary 169

Verklarende woordenlijst 18 1

References 191

Acknowledgements 197
 APPENDIX I
INTRODUCTION TO
DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Dondrochronological analysis of ancient
ship's timbers has several assets. On the one
hand it is - of course - a powerful tool in
dating. On the other hand - and more
important still - it provides information that is
vital to a proper understanding of the timber
trade and the timber choices as made in
shipbuilding. This appendix is both meant as a
general introduction to the principles
underlying the method and as an account of
its application during the Slufter-research.
Biological foundation
The production of new wood cells in trees is
chiefly controlled by temperature and
precipitation. Thus in the temperate climatic
zones, tree growth is linked to the annual
cycle of seasons.
Within this general relationship, local
variations of temperature and precipitation,
coupled with the particular physical aspects
effect the growth of new wood in any one
year. In general the worse the conditions the
less new wood formed. Due to the differing
characteristics of cells formed at various
stages of the annual cycle, the wood laid
down during the life of a tree is seen in the cut
section of a bole as a series of concentric
growth-rings or tree-rings. The differing
thickness of these reflect the variations in
climate during the life of the tree.
The dating of tree-ring patterns is based on
the assumption that trees growing in the same
climatically homogeneous area at the same
time will produce the same sequence of broad
and narrow rings. Starting with living trees a
chronology can be built up from progressively
older timber. Such a chronology is known as a
standard, master, or reference chronology,
where the values for each ring width are in
fact a mean derived from several samples. In
principle, timbers from archaeological sites
can then be dated by comparing their growth-
ring pattern to that of the chronology, there
being only one position where the two will be
truly synchronous. In addition, the master
chronology will only be representative of the
APPENDICES
climatically homogeneous area where it was
built up. The nearer the origin of the timber
being dated to that area, the better the chances
of a good match. Thus in addition to dating
wood, dendrochronological analysis can often
indicate its area of origin.
Having said that, the relationship between
climate, microclimate, environmental
conditions and growth can be disturbed by
various factors such as mechanical forces,
insect attack and disease. Growth ring
patterns formed under such circumstances are
atypical and cannot be dated.
Procedure
A. Sample preparation and measurement
The first stage is the selection of samples
suitable for dendrochronological analysis.
Three criteria play an important role in the
selection process:
the number of rings of the sample;
the completeness of the sample, i.e.
does the sample possess sapwood or
bark?
the association of the sample with the
structure.
In the case of SL 1 and SL 3 not much of a
selection could be made, since this had
already been done by the cutter-section-
dredger. Although SL 4 had partly at least
been salvaged in integral assemblages,
most of the samples were also taken from
loose timbers. The selected samples were cut
from the timbers in slices of 10 - 15 cm
thickness.
For the next stages of processing the samples
were frozen. The thickness of the slices was
reduced to 2 - 3 cm and from each slice two
or three wedge-like samples were sawn. The
surface of the samples was made smooth with
a craft knife and in the case of sapwood, with
a razor blade. The smooth surface so created
gives a clear view of the boundaries between
the tree-rings. By working the wood in a
frozen state, damage, especially to the
sapwood is prevented.
Next the sample is examined under a
binocular microscope and every tenth tree-
ring is marked with a pin, as an aid for
measuring tlie sample. The sample is then
mounted on a travelling stage and viewed
through the [stationary] binocular microscope
with cross-hairs. The edge of the sample is
aligned with the cross-hair, then the travelling
stage is moved until tlie first growth-ring
border. The distance travelled by the
travelling stage is measured to the nearest one
hundredth of a millimetre and recorded as a
ring width. The recording of these
measurements and their subsequent analysis
were carried out using the apparatus and
computer program developed by R.W. Aniol
[Aniol 1983a, 1983bl.

B. Dating
When all tlie ring widths of the samples from
one ship have been measured, the samples are
internally synchronised. This means that the
samples are compared with each other and
where significant matches appear they are
combined to form a mean site-curve. The
reason for working with mean site-curves is tc
reduce the influence of the individual tree[s]
and maximise the climatic component of the
ring width-sequence. Because ship-timbers,
even of the same ship, often have different
origins it is often not possible to internally
synchronise all the samples. The resulting
mean curves and tlie curves of individual
samples are therefore dated against as many
standard cl~ronologiesas possible [Van Holk
1986, 19871.
The computer program CATRAS gives one or
more possible synchronous locations of the
saniple curve [or mean site curve] on the
reference chronology. Synchronising annual
ring patterns means checking if and to what
extent two ring series match. The algorithm of
the computer program for comparison ring
widths series is based on:
Gleichlaufigkeit, [GL], this is the
percentage of agreement [Eckstein,
19691;
the t-value [Baillie & Pilcher 1973;
Baillie 19821 calculated from the
correlation; in CATRAS a different
kind of algorithm [Aniol in
preparation] is used to compute the
product-moment correlation-
coefficient;
the percentage of agreement in
Weiserjalire [pointer years] [Aniol &
Schmidt 19821.
Since the computer program only suggests a
synchronous match, the drawn curves of the
sample and standard chro~iologysliould be
compared and tlie date suggested by the

APPENDICES
Table 22
Age class of tree Estimation of missing sapwood
< 100 years 16.0 f4.5
100-200years 20.4 f 6.2
> 200 years 25.9 f 7.5
Estimation of number of sapwood rings of
West-German oaks (after Hollstein 1965).
Schatting van het aantal spinthoutringen
van West-Duitse eiken, verdeeld naar
ouderdomsklassen.
Number of oak sapwood rings of trees
Table 23
Age class of tree Number of sapwood rings
from Northwest England and Wales,
divided according to age class. The
samples are all at breast-height (after
Hughes et al. 1981,388).
Aantal spinthoutringen van eikebomen
afkomstig uit Noordwest Engelanden
Wales, verdeeld naar ouderdomsklassen.
De monsters zijn genomen op
borsthoogte.
[Fig. 1691
Map showing the areas represented by
reference chronologiesthat were used in
the present analyses. 1 Western
Germany 2The Netherlands 3 Lower
Saxony Coastal Area 4 Hamburg 5
Weserbergland 6 Schleswig-Holstein 7
Southern Germany 8 Poland 9 England
De standaardcurves die voor de analyse
gebruikt zijn behoren tot de volgende
gebieden. I West-Duitsland2 Nederland
3 Nedersaksisch kustgebied4 Hamburg
5 Weserbergland6 Sleeswijk-Holstein 7
zuidelijk Duitsland 8 Polen 9 Engeland
APPENDICES
computer program checked visually with the
help of a light-table. The curves are drawn on
semi-logarithmic paper, where the time axes
[absissa] is linear and the ring width
[ordinate] is plotted on a logarithmic scale.
The ring-widths [points] are connected by a
line to form the curve.
In the present analysis several reference
chronologies have been used. They
correspond with several larger or smaller
areas which have been indicated on the map
in fig. 169.
Sapwood
An important factor which influences the
accuracy of a dendrochronological date is the
presence or absence of sapwood.
The growth of a tree is by the cambium, a
layer of cells immediately beneath the bark.
Wood is developed towards the inside of the
tree and bark towards the outside. The woody
part of the tree can be divided in heartwood
and sapwood. The sapwood consists of the
most recently developed tree-rings within the
cambium. It is through the vessels of these
still living cells that sap, containing the
nutrients for the tree, is transported. With
each year's growth, previously formed
sapwood cells are left progressively further
from the cambium. They undergo various
chemical and physiological changes,
including the deposition of durable lignin and
cellulose, becoming heartwood. Heartwood
gives the tree its strength, while sapwood,
apart from being weaker is filled with
nutrients and is more susceptible to decay.
Shipwrights, although unaware of the causes,
were well aware of the result and usually
trimmed the sapwood off timbers to be used
for shipbuilding.
This means that the outermost rings of most
dendrochronological samples of ship timbers
are missing. On this basis three different
conditions of samples can be distinguished:
the sapwood is complete [with or
without bark];
the heartwood/sapwood boundary is
present, with some sapwood rings;
there is no sapwood and also an
unknown quantity of heartwood rings
is missing.
In the last two cases the number of missing
sapwood rings have to be estimated. In the
last case only a date as a terminus post quem
can be given. Research has been done to
establish an estimate of the mean number of
sapwood rings for different areas [Baillie
1983; Eckstein und Bauch 1974; Holstein
1965, 1980, Hughes et al. 19811.
Unfortunately the range of variation of the
estimates is rather wide.
Hollstein's [1965, 16-19] estimate of sapwood
rings of West-German oaks is based on the
examination of 200 oaks with complete
sapwood. The results are shown in table 22.
It can be seen that the number of sapwood
rings of oak trees varies with the age of the
tree. At a 95% probability level it can be said
if there is only one sample with sapwood
available that the true felling date of a tree
lies between 11 and 34 sapwood years after
the heartwood/sapwood boundary, with a
mean of 20 years. More or less the same
figure is used by Eckstein [Eckstein & Bauch
1974,351. In the case of missing sapwood 20
+ 5 sapwood years are added to the
heartwood/sapwood boundary. The difference
is that he does not give a confidence interval
for the different probability levels. Another
problem concerning the estimation of missing
sapwood rings is touched upon by Hughes et
al. [I98 1, 38 1-90]. From their research it
became clear that even within a tree the
number of sapwood rings can vary greatly,
according to height. Because it is often
unknown which height in a tree an
archaeological sample comes from, a still
larger range of variation of sapwood rings has
to be taken into account.
The estimation of the number of oak sapwood
rings of trees from Northwest England and
Wales by Hughes et al. [I9811 is based on a
sample of 175 trees. The number of sapwood
rings are given in table 23.
To correct for the fact that archaeological
samples might originate from different
heights in a tree a mean figure of 30 sapwood
rings is added to the heartwood/sapwood
boundary. At the 95% probability level the
true felling date lies between 19 and 50 years
after the heartwood/sapwood boundary
[Hughes et al. 1981, 389; Baillie 1983, 551.

APPENDICES
 APPENDIX II
SELECTION OF HISTORICAL
DOCUMENTS THAT ARE RELEVANT TO
THE STUDY OF THE SHIP AT SL 4.
First are given a selection of reports of
Lloyd's surveyors; second there is a narrative
of a journey by the Charles Kerr from
Shields. It is an illustrative account on the
kind of hazards a ship in the mid-19th century
coaltrade might be confronted with.
Selection of reports of Lloyd's surveyors
Notes were taken from surveys of vessels
built in North East ports that were near
enough to the tonnage of SL 4 to show similar
constructional features and timbers of similar
scantlings. Some passages from surveys of
ships built elsewhere are included for
comparison. Where applicable, below each
extract the similarities or otherwise to SL 4
are noted.
Barque ROBERT & ANN 322 tons
Built in Whitby 1789 by George Fishburn
[Thomas Fishburn had built two of the
colliers used by James Cook]. Surveyed at
Newcastle.
Timbers well sound, has been originally well
squared, and as yet are sound, and well cross
chocked at the first futtock and floor heads,
but not sunk at points.
At this day 7 April 1834 r'p'd to first futtock
head replaced 7. first futtocks, and all the
cross chocks fresh beded, 4. new Hold Beams
an 3. New Deck Beams,- all new refasten'd
with 5. new Knees, and new ceiled to first
futtock heads, 1. new Transom ...
- caulkedfiom Keel to Gunwall, and treenails
punched and overhauled.
This vessel in a good seaworthy condition,
andfit to carry cargoes not liable to sea
damage on any voyage were a wood bottom
should Navigate ... Signed: Mathew
Poppelwell. [Character assigned E l ]
The chocks of the futtock joints are referred
to as cross chocks a term also used to describe
the large chock between the first futtocks in
the built up frames of naval ships. That they
are not sunk at points means that their ends
are not butted in the manner shown for
APPENDICES
example in Hedderwick plate X, FIG. 16
[fig. 1431.
The reference to the treenails being punched
as a general tightening is interesting and this
was possibly the case in SL 4. Their
description by Hedderwick, particularly in
connection with the North Eastern shipyards
was noted above.
Snow MARY 323 tons. Built Sund. 1804,
lengthened 1810
Mostly all Eng Oak. sound and fairly squared,
seen entire in the lower hold,- some Foreign
White Oak well squared put in at present for
floors and futtocks-.
Deck good R. [red] pine, Plank sheer, and
[flat?] topsides, blacken strakes, wales to
light marks all Danz and Memel, some Eng.
Oak, Elm in Bottom, all properly shifted in
butts well worked to timbers, appears
firm,- Deck and Hold Beems fastened by
double lodging Oak Knees,- with 20. extra
hanging Iron Knees under deck beams, an a
shelf 7. by 13. in Oak on the arms of hold
beams,- 6. Hooks forward, one aft ...
[Repairs] [done in Shields]
At this date. Rip'd entirely in the lower hold
to Clamps, entire new Am Elm Keel 11 sided
10 in hanging, 16. floor timbers, 14. first
futtocks, and other defective timber
replaced, all cross chocked but not sunk at
points,- New Am Oak main and R. pine false
Kelson,- all new ceiling,- 4 lower hooks
refitted to timbers,- 2 new pointers, 2 new
hold Beams, 8 Strakes of Am Elm and
R. pine doubling with lin wood sheating
over Abbot felt to Keel copper nail'&- new
Am. Oak false stem post, and new R. pine
within [trunk?],- mixed treenails drove shave
from axe, caulked and generally
overhauled,. . . That this Vessel having gone
thro' this great repair, and in conformity with
the foregoing Scale of dimensions is in my
opinion entitled to be classed for two years
according to the rules of classification laid
down ...AE 1.
This survey, like that of the Boreas referred to
in paragraph 4.4 and quoted below, illustrates
the wide variety of timber species used in
construction.
Lengthening was a common procedure and
involved inserting extra frames at the midship
section.
Blaclteii strakes were the strakes above the
main whale. They were the lowest strakes of
the hull that were painted, usually with tar
hence hlackeii or hlack strakes.
In many of the ships built before c. 1825 the
iron knees are referred to in these surveys as
extra as they were commonly added to
strengthen an old ship.
The treenails that were drove shavefrom the
axe were like those of SL 4.
Many of the ships surveyed were sheathed,
sometimes with wood as here or with copper
which was more expensive. The sheathing
material was laid over a layer of tarred felt or
paper and nailed into place. Sheathing was
usually applied if the vessel was destined for
tropical waters. SL 4 was not sheathed but
some of the ships referred to in the surveys as
being destined for Holland or the Baltic were,
indicating that they had been to the West
Indies or elsewhere on previous voyages.
Snow B O R E A S : 216 tons built Sunderland
1828
[surveyed Shields] Destination Holland
Length aloft 83' 24'9"extreme, 14'9" [depth].
Butt end bolts: copper [short]. Keel to bilge
planks 3" Bilge planks 3 112" and 4" Bilge to
wales 3" Wales 4". Floors sided 10 moulded
l l 112 Moulding of 1st 2nd and 3rd Futtocks
10" Top timbers S; 6" M; 4".
OWNERS DECLARATION: this is to certify
that the Boreas was ripped in July 1830 and
had the following repairs- 3 midships floors, 7
first foothooks, 2 Hold beam knees, Oak
Keelson and new Oak Ceiling the Hold beams
fresh fastened with new bolts and fourteen
hundred new treenails in Midships.
Robert Ness.
The copper hlrtt end bolt were the bolts
securing the butts of the outer planks. The
term short means they were blind like those of
SL 4.
The siding of the frames was not reduced until
the top timbers. In SL 4 the frames are also
sin~ilarlysided at least up to the hold beams.
Snow M E X I C O 225 tons built Sunderland
1825
Copper butt end bolts, 1,1/16th Iron Keelson
bolts, scarphs of keel copper bolted. Built of
mixed Oaks, timbers said to be reasonably
squared and free of sap [sliver chocked].
APPENDICES
Planks:
Keel to is F' heads; Eng Beech. 2 112"
ist F' heads to LWM* Eng & mixed oak. 3"
[Bilge 41
Upper planks
and wales Mixed oaks. 3"
Keelson American oak.
False Keelson Red Pine.
[*light water mark]
A good proportion of t~.eenailswedged in flat
of ceiling. Eng oak ones used, but not mooted
[the other parts of the ceiling has not many
treenails thro'] main Keelson bolted every
other floor into keel, false bolts into the
futtocks rooms and not clenched.. .
Timbers described as being well squared and
freefrom sap or well sapped had been cut out
of good sized timber and all the sap wood
trimmed off. Many of the timbers in SL 4
would probably have been described as not
well sapped or sappy. Sliver chocks are those
not sunk at points or not butted at their ends.
The word implies they were relatively
shallow and long.
The reference to the small proportion of
treenails through the ceiling is interesting in
the light of the discussion on treenails above.
A moot was a circular plane used for finishing
treenails thus making them uniformly
cylindrical. These were shavedfiom the axe
like those of SL 4.
The reference to false bolts might mean that
those of the intermediate frames were not
clenched under the keel which may have been
the case in SL 4.
SWALLOW 249 tons
Built: Sunderland 1834
[Owner: Thompson] Destined for Rotterdam
86'7", 25' 1 l", 10'6" & 4'7" Floors Sided
10 - 12" Moulded 12". Eng. & Foreign Oak
"[some of the Eng. floors are "Wainy']"
. . . plank butts fastened with one short bolt &
one treenail forward they are double bolted.
[copper]
The plank fastening is the same as SL 4: one
treenail and one short bolt although judging
by the few curved planks that must have come
from the bow of SL 4 she was not double
bolted like the Swallow.
Barque D U C H E S S O F KENT 342 tons
Built Surzderland 1835
All American oak framed throughout
13" square floors 10x10 at ends. Lower outer
planks: 3", 4 1/2", 3". Chocks butted.
13 frames a side bolted together.
 A case of butted chocks in a slightly larger
ship. This was usual in ships of 350 tons or
more. 13 frames amounts to every other pair
of timbers in the square body of the ship.
Barque CLARINDA 246 tons
Built Sunderland 1828 [Adams] Surveyor:
George Bayley Timbers moulded a n d
sided 12" 3 Bilge planks outside, 2 inside
[4"1
Lower Deck Beams secured with a strap
I-ound the timbers- the upper Deck Beams are
secured with one wood lodging Knee and one
Iron Hanging Knee with three arms on the
side thus [drawing] Butts and thickstuff at
Floor Heads Bolted and clenched 5 Breast
Hooks, 2 Pointers, Iron Crutch & bolted
through both Keelsons at every Floor.
This is the first of several references to the
method seen in SL 4 of fastening the lower or
hold beams with an iron strap passing around
a futtock. It seems to be most common on
ships built on the River Wear, particulary in
Sunderland. Hedderwick mentions the
technique although he prefers the method
shown in Plate X FIG 28 [fig. 1431 the upper
deck beam arrangement is also similar to
SL 4.
Brig WILLIAM 284 tons
Registered in Hull, built on the Wear? 1832
Oak built, Af. oak beams 3 internal bilge
planks 4" ceiling 3"
FASTENINGS: lron bolts irz Riding Keelson
otherwise Copper fastened- Coppered 1833
Lower deck secured with a strap passing
along the end of the beam and round one
timber a waterway and stringer bolted through
every timber and up and down through the
beam ends,- the beams are dowelled to the
stringer- the upper deck is secured in a similar
manner with stringer & waterway & wood
lodging knees- & the waterway is dowelled
down to the beams- 2 pointers aft Crutch
Wing Transom Knees 5 breast hooks No butt
bolts through but few treenails through the 5
strakes of the ceiling below the upper Deck.
The general appear-ance of the ship is
favourable, but the omission of through Bolts
in the Butts and the very slight connexion of
the lower Deck Beams with the side being
only a plate of iron about 3" wide & 314 inch
thick are in my estimation great drawbacks to
her durability and therefore in my opinion she
ought not to be classed more than 9A.
George Bayley
[she was classified A1 for 8 years].
APPENDICES
This ship is also similar in co~~structionto
SL 4 and closer in size. She also has three 4"
bilge stringers. The iron straps retaining the
beams are the same size. Another detail is the
description of the stringer [below] and the
waterway [above] the beam, that is not only
bolted through each frame timber but also up
and down through the ends of the beams as in
SL 4.
Barque S A P H I R E 296 tons
Built Sunderland 1832 by T. Dixon.
Destination Qriebec.
Floors 12.5" in middle ... Masts Yellow pine.
Timbers African, Dantzig ant1 English Oak.
Planking: African and Dantzic oak.
The hold beams secrrr.ed with cr str.inger and
lron strap t.orrnc1 one timber, Clamp and Iron
'T' Hanging Knee the deck beams with one
oak Lodging Knee, [Clamp] and Iron
Diagonal one. . . . Orrtt bolts [ropper-f clinched,
three bilge strakes and two limber strakes-
Again a similar method of fastening the hold
beams but with additional knees. The butt
bolts were clinched [clenched] i.e. They were
driven all the way through the hull and
clenched over washers inboard.
Brig OCEAN 229 tons
Built Sunderland 1832. Destination:
Archangel
. ..theframe where seen apper.es to be English
Oak except for one floor timber which is birch
the beams are of foreign Oak the timbers are
not well squared and the workmanship is
generally inferior. The use of birch for a floor
is interesting and was probably a repair. Many
of SL 4's oak floors would have been termed
not well squared.
New Barque AUGUSTA J E S S I E 385 tons
Built Sunderland 1834 by Adctmson
[commenced building Jan 1833, launched
March 18341.
TIMBERING: The wholefr.cr~~ie of the vessel
throi~ghoutis composed of English Oak, well
squared and well cleared of sap, the stem,
Stern Post, beams, Transoms, Aprons, Knight
Heads and Hawse timbers all English and
African Oak, sound and good, Floor ends and
first foothook heads are regularly cross
chocked, but chock ends are not butted 14
frames put up on each side, bolted together
from the floor ends up to the 2nd foothook
heads. Cant bodies are not framed or
bolted;. ..
The ~jholeof the outside plank from the Shear
Streaks [waterway included] down to the light
water marks is of African and English Oak.
From the light water marks to the Keel is
American Elm: the whole of the Ceiling plank
Inside is of Afrikan and English Oak. The
shift of outside plank in midships have three
streaks through between butts and at the force
and after end of the ship 2 streaks through.
Ceiling planks shifted 2 and 3 streaks between
butts.
Hold beams fastened with an Iron Clasp 5"
broad ~.oundthe outside of one timber with 4
bolts in each arm. Also an Iron Knee both
above and below each beam end, bolted and
clinked throughout. Deck Beams are fastened
with one wood ledger Knee and one Iron
Knee under each Beam End with a lug. .. also
the 2nd waterway dowelled into the Beam
Ends ... 4 forecastle deck Beams fastened with
D.W.L. Knees of Eng Oak ... Butt Ends are
double bolted, one bolt in each Butt End is
clinched inside.. . All treenails used are of the
best English Oak, the principal part turned
with a machine.
Surveyor: John Brunton.
Streaks = strakes;
Sheer Streak [Strake] = the uppermost
outboard hull plank;
clinched = clenched;
D.W.L. Knees = Double wood
lodging knees;
Ledger Knee = Lodging knee.
Narrative on the Charles Kerr from
Shields
By way of describing what a voyage in one of
these colliers could be like the following
letter provides a graphic illustration. It was
printed in the Hastings and St. Leonards News
on Friday, March 12th 1852.
Narrow escape from shipwreck
The following letter has been received by Mr.
Daniel Sargent, of Hastings, from his brother
Mr. George Sargent, who sailed from
Newcastle in the middle of last month, in the
Charles Kerr, of which he had the command,
bound with a cargo of coals for the dep6t at
Aden. The spirited and unvarnished story of
the perils which were encountered in the
endeavour to make the voyage, though the
letter was not intended to meet the public eye,
will doubtless repay our readers for the
trouble of a perusal. The letter is dated from
Cuxhaven, February 25.
'My dear Dan, Have this time had a narrow
escape, the ship was leaky in harbour, but not
APPENDICES
so much so as I thought 'twould be a risk to
go the voyage, but the first night at sea it
came on to blow heavy at S.W. with a heavy
sea; the ship being deep, nearly 1000 tons of
coal on board, she laboured very much, I
double-reefed topsails and reefed courses, and
stood to the S.S.E., as with such a ship,
drawing 19ft. 6in., I wanted sea-room. -The
second night, gale and sea increasing, being
on the starboard tack washed away our fore
and main guard boards, they being the old
fashioned ones, two feet broad, our starboard
rigging was then all adrift, immediately wore
ship to secure our masts, but in rounding-too a
heavy sea came on board carrying away the
gripes of the long boat and stove her
broadside in, we got her secured to the ring
bolts to leeward, the ship all this time making
much water, kept the pumps constantly going,
took in the slack of our starboard rigging and
again wore bend to southward; close-reefed
topsails and handed courses, water in hold
having increased to four feet. The remainder
of time at sea, heavy gales, hove-to four days,
no rest, and after a week at sea five men laid
up, so you see we had few enough at the
pumps, the leak gradually increasing on us. At
all events we fetched the Texel, more
moderate, gave her canvass, wind lulled
round to N.W., hoping to get to some port in
de English Channel, or if I could have got into
the Downs I would have taken her up to
London, sold the coal, and again taken her to
the north to be repaired, but the wind again
came round to the S.W. and blew a heavy gale
with rain and thick hazy weather, the crew
fairly tired out, myself also; bore up for
Shields and had got half way over when it
again flew into the N.W., having at this time
double-reefed topsails and reefed courses,
rattling the old barque through the water to
get hold of the land, but no go. I then made up
my mind to run for the Elbe, but nothing but
thick hazy weather and not getting a sight of
Heligoland, but knowing by my soundings I
was in the Channel on the fair way of the
Elbe, I made up my mind to run while
daylight continued; wind at N.W., very thick
with rain, kept the lead going, shoaling our
water gradually into seven fathoms, when it
cleared up a little, and as Providence ordered
it got a sight of the Light Vessel before it
thickened in again, at this time six feet water
in her hold, shoaled our water to four fathoms,
when all at once bump she goes.
I thought the masts would have gone by the
board, laid all flat aback. The tide making, she
came off after about fifteen minutes, water
 increased in that time to eight feet, it again Shields [near Newcastle]. She had been
cleared up, when we saw the Light Ship about surveyed in January 1852 when she is noted
a mile off, dark coming on fast; we rounded in Lloyd's register as having had some repair
the Light Ship close to the Dark, asked them andpart new deck. In the 1853 register she is
for a pilot and told them we were sinking, but noted as having had a large repair,
they could not give me one. I then gave her all presumably precipitated by the rigourous
the sail I could pack on, up the Elbe for the voyage described above. In 1853 George
second Light Ship, but coming on very thick, Sargent is no longer listed as her master and
gale increasing, could not hail the second she is not listed in Lloyd's register after 1857.
Light Vessel, so steered for the pilot galliot This episode illustrated an important point;
she having a small light, expecting the masts that ships often came to grief a long way off
to go over the side with the quantity of sail on their intended course. Had the Charles Kerr
the vessel, but neck or nothing, a pilot or a gone down in the Elbe, in the absence of
bump; sure enough bump it was, eleven feet documentary evidence it would be a natural
when we struck, after a time managed to get assumption that she was bound for one of the
the sails stowed, then out boats, after which ports in the area such as Cuxhaven. It is a
got the people's clothes on the poop in case possibility that SL 4 was also bound for
we should have to leave her before daylight. somewhere else, though in her case the weight
Our long boat being stove we had only a gig of evidence suggests otherwise.
and second cutter, having left our first cutter
in Shields. While busy with getting the
clothes on the poop, the wind having backed
into the West, she came off the sand all at
once into deep water, a pretty predicament for
a sinking ship; let go both bowers slap, sorry I
did not do so to keep her fast when I had her
fast, nothing now but the pumps for it. Poor
George asleep on the poop among the
people's bags covered over with a sail, pumps
going all night, leak still increasing, twice the
people knocked off and wanted to take to the
boats, but I refused, as I thought she would
keep up till daylight and then we should be
sure of assistance. At daylight they saw our
signals of distress, when they came to our
assistance from the pilot ship, ten pilots and
five sailors with two boats, they all clapped
on to the pumps, now having twelve feet in
well. Eleven a.m., flood having made, hove
the anchors up and made sail, thank god fair
wind up, but just as we got off Cuxhaven the
wind came right out, and, expecting her to go
down under our feet, a steam-boat came to our
assistance and in half an hour stuck her in the
mud, 15ft. 6in. in the hold, a near touch Dan
my boy; than God, all right. Poor George saw
no danger, he left the poop in the night
without my knowledge, went into the cabin,
took a book of maps and my dictionary that he
has had at school, went back again, crawled
under the sail, and went again to sleep; when I
found him when the people came to our
assistance fast asleep with the books in his
arms. I awoke him and asked him what he had
there, he told me, and said that if he was
saved he should save those books.'

The Charles Kerr was a bark of 463 tons built

in Sunderland in 1826 and was registered in

APPENDICES
 [Fig. 1701
A section is cut from the S L 4 hull for
display in the Prins Hendrik Maritime
Museum in Rotterdam.
De vondsten, maar ook een doorsnee
van de romp van SL 4 zullen
tentoongesteld worden in het
Rotterdamse Maritiem Musuem Prins
Hendrik [foto IPL].

APPENDICES
 APPENDIX Ill
CONSERVATION AND ARTEFACT
FILING
The main purpose of the archaeological
survey during the Slufter project was to
produce the documentation that constitutes
the basis for the present report. A conspicuous
side-effect of archaeological investigation,
however, is the collection of larger or smaller
amounts of artefacts and samples. These need
to be given proper care. For one thing
artefacts should if necessary be given
conservation treatment, for another a
collection emerging from any one excavation
or site should as a principle remain together.
The institutes that are - under the ancient
monuments law -entitled to carry out
archaeological field research in the
Netherlands are not normally at the same time
museums. Still they are responsible for what
they excavate. In the long run, however, that
is after completion of post-excavation
research, they are supposed to dispose of their
collections for the benefit of museums,
exhibitions, long-term filing and secondary
research. In order to achieve these aims
regional or rather provincial depots have been
established in which archaeological
collections are accomodated. For the province
of South Holland this depot is part of the
National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden.
Deposition of the Slufter collection in this
depot would thus be the obvious procedure.
Nevertheless it has been proposed to deviate
from this line in view of the strong nautical
bias of the Slufter collection and to put it at
the disposal of the Prins Hendrik Maritime
Museum of the City of Rotterdam.
After recording a careful selection was made
of items to be kept. These include a selection
of significant timbers from the various
wrecksites which were buried for long term
preservation in the national underground
depot for archaeological ship's timbers which
has been established some years ago in the
IJsselmeerpolder area, where the timbers are
kept well below the ground water table. A
section of the hull from SL 4 which had
slowly dried was selected, cut off and kept
above the ground. A similar section was
APPENDICES
offered to the Tyne and Wear museum for
display in Sunderland, the small northeastern
English town where this collier was
presumably built.
The smaller finds which needed conservation
were treated by mr. T. v.d. Horst from
Zaanstad. The methods used can be
summarized as follows. Wrought iron items
and fittings were treated according to North &
Pearson with a duration of two months and a
fourfold replacement of the solution. The
remaining salts were treated with unsoluble
barium sulphate. The treatment was finished
with tannine. In the composite items the iron
fittings were sometimes of needs cut to enable
separate treatment. The blocks and other
wooden items were treated by freeze drying,
with an approximate duration of one month
for every six kilos of waterlogged wood.
Item SL1 A5 1 , described as a traveller
[fig. 431 was somewhat problematical. The
iron ring was served with rope and a leather
cladding and could not be treated as one unit.
The leather would be destroyed during the
iron treatment and removing the leather
would damage the rope serving as well as
some concretion. The latter solution,
however, was chosen. After treatment the
traveller was reconstructed with modern rope.
Pewter, yellow metal and lead items were
cleaned electrolytically. After neutralization
they were treated with wax.
Restoraton and plaster filling of ceramics and
a grindstone need no further comment. When
sheepshead block SLI A60 was taken apart
for treatment it showed a repair which has
been commented upon in the text [fig. 411.
Removing the metal pin from the marked
double sheaved block SL4 A01 [fig. 12 11
posed some problems. The sheaves had
yellow metal bearings.
Rope was cleaned in a phosphoric acid
solution. After neutralization loose parts were
reinforced with new rope.
The complete collection of artefacts and
samples including the SL 4 hull section will
be given into the care of the Prins He~zdrik
Maritime Museum, where part of it will be on
display [fig. 1701.
 GLOSSARY

The glossary is meant as an aid to understand
maritime terms as used in this report. It has no
claim to being exhaustive. It has a bilingual
format. In the English part each lemma gives
the English definition of an English word. To
the right of the page the Dutch equivalent is
given. If it is marked with see the meaning is
more or less identical, if it is marked with cf.
the English and Dutch versions do not really
match. In the Dutch part Dutch definitions are
given for Dutch words, while the English
equivalents are marked with zie or vgl..
Alternative words or terms are placed in
brackets after the main entry. Words followed
by an asterisk* are the subject of a separate
entry.

Adze Wood working tool. It is similar to an axe but the blade is set at
see: dissel right angles to the handle.

Apron Part of the stem* construction, it runs through the same arc as
see: binnensteven the stem and is fastened inboard of it. It is sometimes called a
false stem.

Auger A large wood-boring drill with a simple wooden T-bar as

see: avegaar handle. The design of the bit varied. The type commonly used
by shipwrights was of the shell type although the corkscrew
shaped twist types were also used.

Bark [barque] Originally a specific hull form but later a vessel with three or
see: bark more masts in which the aftmost mast is rigged fore and aft, the
others being square rigged.

Beam-shelf [shelf] The large stringer* on which the deckbeams*' rest.

see: balkweger

Bevel Angled or sloping face on the edge of a timber, so cut to fit

Afschuining another.

Bilge The lowest part of the hold of a ship or the flattest part of the
cf.: ruim, vlak, kim hull upon which the ship rests when aground. Turn of the bilge
see: kim The upward curve of the ship's hull approximately at
the end of the floor* timbers. Bilge planks cf.: kimgang,
kimweger Thick planks lying at the turn of the bilge either
outboard or inboard although the latter are sometimes referred
to as bilge stringers.

Blind A fastening where neither the nail or the hole augered* for it
see: blind passes right through the timber to which another is being
joined.

Block The wooden block or shell enclosing one or more sheaves [or
see: blok holes in the case of a deadeye*]. One or more blocks are rigged
together to increase the mechanical power applied to ropes used
for various tasks on a ship, such as raising topmasts and yards,

GLOSSARY
 controlling sails and lifting or restraining heavy equipment.
Blocks vary in size, number of sheaves and shape depending on
where in the vessel they are rigged and their purpose.

Bowsprit The spar projecting forward from the bow, either above or to
see: boegspriet the side of the stem*, to which the stays* of the foremost mast
are attached. The extension of the bowsprit is called a jib-
boom*.

Breasthook Large grown* timber that is placed internally across the apron*
cf.: band forming a strong connection between the two sides of the hull.

Brig A vessel having two masts: the foremast and the main mast,
see: brik both of which are square rigged.

Bulwark The structure above the upper deck forming a strong waist high
see: boeisel rail providing crew safety, preventing heavy seas washing
across the decks and also securing various lines associated with
the running* rigging.

Butt The end of a timber or plank when cut square. Butt joint: the
see: stuik junction of two timbers finished in this manner.

Camber In the context of deckbeams camber is the arc of the beam

see: balktrek making it higher in the centre of the ship.

Cant frame In the main body of the ship the frame* timbers were laid at
see: draaispant right angles to the keel but where the hull curved in towards the
bow the frames were often set radiating outwards,
approximately from where the stem* scarfed* to the keel.
Timbers were often canted in a similar fashion at the stern but
not to the same degree.

Carling A deck timber running between the deckbeams* i.e.

see: klamaai longitudinally.

Carve1 A word that has come to mean the method of ship construction
see: karveel where the hull planks are flush-laid against a skeleton of
frames* and are not fastened to each other at their edges.

Caulking The method of making a seam between planks watertight, for

see: breeuwen instance in deck planks or the hull planking [of carvel* built
ships]. Various materials are twisted into lengths, several of
which are driven into the seam with a caulking iron and a
caulking mallet. They are then sealed with a waterproofing
compound such as tar. A common caulking material is oakum*
but others include animal hair, wood fibres and moss. Often a
compound of more than one is used.

Ceiling The internal structural planking of the hull, i.e. not lining or
see: wegering panelling.

Chain plate [chains] Originally chains bolted to the side of the ship, the upper end of
see: putting which was joined to the iron binding of the lower deadeye*.
Later, flat iron strap was used [hence the term plate] or a
combination of the two.

GLOSSARY
 Chamfer The angled surface formed when the sharp corners of a timber
afschuining are cut back or bevelled* for safety or good appearance, such as
the under side of deckbeams* or the edges of deck pillars*.

Chock 1. Generally any angled or wedge shaped block of wood added

see: klamp as packing to constructional timbers to build them up to the
required dimensions, or between them to effect a joint.

Clamp
see: 1. balkweger 2. klamp
1. The stringer upon which the ends of the beams are supported.
They are often rebated into it in various ways. The term is used
synonimously with beamshelf or shelf, although this implies a
timber laid horizontally or at least that is not rebated.
2. A general term for offcuts or small pieces of wood used for
temporary fastenings. In the context of the Dutch shipbuilding
tradition, particularly those pieces used to fasten hull planking
during construction, prior to fitting the frames.

Cleat 1. A small piece of wood used in construction to hold timbers in

see: klamp place or prevent them from moving until permanently fastened
[such as preventing a shore* from slipping]. See also clamp 2.
2. A small piece of wood attached to for example a spar in order
that a rope can be belayed.

Clench [clinch, clink] The method of securing metal fastenings by hammering the end
see: klinken over a washer or rove*. This could either be done by simply
turning it over the rove or rivetting, i.e. beating it until it had
tightened sufficiently not to pull out.

Clinker built The method of boat and shipbuilding in which the strakes of
cf.: overnaads, klinken hull planking overlap and are fastened through the overlap with
nails clenched* over washers or roves*.

Coaming The timbers framing the edge of a hatch in the deck.

see: luikhoofd

Companion way A flight of steps or ladder, strictly speaking leading from the
see: opgang quarter deck to the upper deck but generally used to refer to a
personnel, rather than a cargo hatch.

Compass timber Naturally curved wood used for correspondingly curved

see: krommer elements in ship construction. It is much stronger than if the
same shaped piece was cut out of straight grained wood. The
term is synonimous with grown* or crooked* timber, although
it is the more suitable of the three for describing the evenly
curved pieces required for frame timbers. Grown timber is the
most general term while crooked implies a sharper or more
irregular shape and is often used in the context of knees* or
crooks*.

Crook Grown timber* used for knees* or the V-shaped floors* used at
see: knie the bow and stern of some vessels.

Cross grain A curved timber cut from straight wood to the extent that the
cf.: draads hout wood grain passes from one side of the piece to the other,
amounting to a serious weakness.

Cross-pall [-spal1,-pawl,-pale] A temporary plank used to tie the frames together during
zie: zwieping construction prior to fitting the deckbeams.

GLOSSARY
Crutch Similar to a breasthook* but positioned at the stern.
cf.: band, wrang

Deadrise A term referring to the upward angle of the floor timbers* as

see: tilling they run out from the keel* towards the turn of the bilge*.

Deadeye A block* with holes instead of sheaves, used in pairs to tighten

see: jufferblok the shrouds* and stays*.

Deadwood As the form of a ship's hull becomes sharper forward and aft,
see: slemphout the frames can no longer be brought down to the keel and so
they are fitted on or against solid timber built up over the keel.

Deckbeam The main athwartship timbers of the deck structure also

see: dekbalk effecting a strong union between the sides of the vessel.

Deckhook A breasthook* that is at the level of a deck* and so forms part

cf.: band of its support in addition to binding the cant* frames.

Deck pillar Deck support or stanchion*.

see: dekstut

Dottie See plug, punch.

see: deutel

Dub The action of working timber to a smooth surface with an

cf.: dissel adze*.

Dutchman A repair to a timber where the flawed or damaged section is cut

cf.: half houtje out so as to form a rebate*. After preparing with a luting
compound a new piece of wood is let into it and fastened in
place.

False keel A protective layer of timber fastened along the bottom of the
see: loze kiel keel, being relatively easy to replace when worn.

Fashion piece The curved timbers set across the stern post* forming the base
see: rantsoenhout of the stern.

Floor [floor timber, rung] The lowest piece of a ship's frame running across the keel.
cf.: legger, wrang

Frame [rib] Transverse timbers forming the skeleton of a ship and to which
see: spant the planks are fastened. In large vessels they are made from
several pieces [see floors, futtocks, top timbers].

Framed timbers Timbers constituting a frame which has been erected in an early
see: spant van oprichting stage of shipbuilding.

Futtocks [foothooks] The timbers that together with the floors* and the top timbers*
cf.: zitter, buikstuk, form a frame*. They are numbered lst, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, the 1st
oplanger, stut being the lowest and the 4th the highest.

Garboard The plank next to the keel [garboard strake: the lowest strake of
see: zandstrook planking].

Grown timber General term for naturally curved wood suitable for
see: gegroeid hout shipbuilding but it often refers to the sharply angled pieces
from the branches of trees used for knees* [see also compass
timber].

GLOSSARY
 Half beam The small timbers supporting the deck planking that lie
cf.:dekbalk between and parallel to the deckbeams. They are rebated into
the carlings* and possibly into the beam shelf*.

Handspike A wooden lever used for turning a windlass* [as distinct from
see: handspaak the hand spike; used like a crow bar for manoeuvring guns].

Harpins [harpings] Lengths of timber [usually oak] used to support and bind the
see: boegsent cant* frames at the bow and the stern during construction. They
are scarfed* to the ribbands* so forming a band of timber
running the whole length of the ship.

Hatch An opening in the deck, for loading of cargo and equipment or

see: luik for access from one deck to another.

Hawse holeltimbers/pipes The holes through which the cables from the anchors pass into
see: kluisgat the ship. In large wooden ships they are generally cut through
the cantXframe timbers next but one to, and either side of the
stem [hence hawse pieces or hawse timbers]. They were often
lined with lead, or later, iron hawse pipes.

Heartwood As successive rings of new sapwood* are formed the innermost

see: kernhout cells become too far from the growth region to function.
Through various chemical changes including the deposition of
cellulose and lignin the cells become heartwood.

Heel The lower end or foot of a timber; e.g. the heel of the sternpost.
cf.: teen, hieling

Helm port The opening in the stern of a ship or the raised structure of a
see: hennegat smaller vessel through which the head of the rudder, or the tiller
passes.

Hold The lowest space within the body of a ship.

see: ruim

Hold beams Strong athwartship beam in the hold. Hold beams were not
see: ruimbalk decked over.

Jib-boom The spar fastened to the bowsprit, extending its reach, and to
cf.: kluifhout which stays and jib sails can be attached.

Jigger-mizzen A small sail rigged on a mast stepped right aft on smaller

see: druil sailing vessels.

Keel In wooden ships: the lowermost fore and aft constructional

see: kiel member, formed of one or more timbers, running along the
centre line and joined to the stern post* and stem*.

Keelson [kelson] The internal backbone of a ship. A large timber [or timbers]
see: zaathout running parallel to the keel* above the floors*. It clamps the
floors by being through-fastened to the keel.

Knee An angled or curved piece of wood or iron used to connect

see: knie various elements of the hull that lie in different planes, such as
the deckbeams* to the frames*. When made of wood they were
best cut from grown* timber but were superseded by iron knees
as grown timber in general became increasingly scarce. Those

GLOSSARY
 set with one arm running down from the side or underside of a
beam were referred to as hanging knees. Those set horizontally
against the beam were lodging knees and those rising vertically
from the top of the beam are standards. When knees of iron
became common, the forms knees could take became much
more varied. A staple knee is a double iron knee; either a
hanging knee where the lower arm continues down and along
the top of the deck beam below [becoming the standard] or
where two lodging knees are combined in a similar way.

Limber Channels for the passage of water to the pumps. They were
see.: waterloop usually cut in the underside of the floor timbers*. Alternatively
Limber hole they were formed by the gaps left between timbers for the
see: loggat purpose.

Limber boards A series of short boards between the keelson and the limber
see: vullingplank strake that were removeable to allow access to the space
between the floor timbers and to the limber holes.

Limber strake The first ceiling* plank either side of the keelson*.
see: vullinggang

Margin plank The outermost deck plank.

see: lijfhout

Mortise A square or rectangular recess cut into a timber into which the
cf.: pen- en gatverbinding tenon* of another timber fits [forming a mortise and tenon
joint].

Moulded depth The depth or thickness of a ship's timber when viewed in

dikte section i.e. looking forward or aft [from the old term mould
referring to the cross section of a ship].

Moulding Carved decorative finish to a timber.

see: kraallijst

Oakum Fibres of old rope teased apart and then twisted together in
see: werk strands for caulking* seams between plankingY.

Parcelling Strips of tarred canvas wound round a rope after it has been
see: smarten wormed* after which it is served*.

Pawl Pawl bitt; the heavy pillar or vertical post set in front of the
see: pal windlass on which the pawl mechanism is mounted. Pawl rim;
the heavy iron toothed rim around the centre of the windlass
barrel. In older windlasses it was just a series of notches cut
into the barrel. Pawls; iron dogs or flaps hinged on the pawl bitt
with their ends resting in the teeth of the pawl rim. This simple
ratchet mechanism prevents the windlass turning in reverse
when under load.

Plank Technically the slabs of timber sawn or split from a bole that
cf.: huid are between 1.5 inches [4 cm] and 4 inches [ l o cm] in
thickness. Timber thicker than this is referred to as thick stuff
and thinner timber as board. The term planking is i.a. applied to
the planks of the ship's hull.

GLOSSARY
 Plug [dottle] A square hardwood wedge driven into the centre of the end of a
see: deutel, spijkerpen treenail* to tighten it. Homonymous are the plugs that are used
to plug a disused nail-hole and which go by the name of
spijkerpen in Dutch.

Pointer See sleeper.

Punches Small square wedges used to tighten a treenail* as opposed to a

cf.: deutel single square wedge, see plug.

Rebate A recessed channel cut in a timber to accommodate another,

[rabbetlsponning such as the V-shaped rabbet cut into the side of the keel* into
which the garboard* is fitted or rabbetted.

Ribs An old term for the frames of a ship, now applied loosely in this
cf.: spant context but more specifically to the frames of a small boat
where they are cut from one piece of timber.

Ribband Lengths of timber [usually fir] nailed along the outside of the
see: sent frames* to bind and support them during construction.

Rider Heavy internal reinforcing member of wood and later of iron,

see: kattespoor laid across the keelson*, ceiling* and stringers*, usually in line
with the frames to which they were strongly fastened. Standard
in warships, they were sometimes added to merchant-ships
during repairs or in old age.

Rigging The collective term for the whole assembly of ropes, blocks*
see: tuigage and spars on a sailing vessel.

Rise of floor A term describing the progressive increase in the depth of the
cf.: oplopen floors* or the height that they are set above the keel fore and aft
of the midship section.

Room and space The room occupied by a frame* and the space between it and
cf.: spantafstand the next frame along on the keel. In effect the distance between
the centres of two frames.

Rove A round washer or square metal plate against which a nail of

see: klinkring bolt is fastened by being turned or clenched* over it.

Running rigging All rigging used to raise or lower yards and to raise, lower and
see: lopend want trim the sails.

Sapwood [xylem] The outer rings of wood formed within the cambium of a tree
see: spinthout through which sap is transported and in which food is stored.

Scarf joint [scarph] A method of joining two pieces of timber end to end with a
see: las tapering overlap, generally so that the width and thickness of
the timber is not altered. There are many types of scarf joint
varying in complexity. To scarf: to join two timbers in this
fashion.

Scupper pipe A pipe which passes through the ship's side on a level with a
see: spuikoker, bos deck to allow water to run away.

GLOSSARY
Serving Yarns of rope wound tightly around a rope over the worming*
see: kleden and parcelling* to form a protective layer.

Sheathing The layer applied to a ship's hull to protect the planking from
see: dubbeling attack by marine borers such as gribble [Limnaria] and
shipworm [Teredo Navalis]. It was made of various materials at
various times. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries there
were various combinations dictated by price and the destination
of the vessel. Tarred paper, or tarred felt covered by pine boards
was a common and relatively cheap option. A final layer of
copper sheeting was more expensive but the most effective.

Sheers [sheerlegs] Two or three long timbers or poles lashed together to form an
see: schrank 'A' frame or tripod from which a block* could be hung,
enabling heavy weights to be hoisted [such as frame timbers in
ship construction].

Sheer strake The uppermost strake of the outer planking.

see: scheergang

Shelf See beamshelf.

see: dekweger

Shift The arrangement of planking* so that the butt-joints in adjacent

see: verscherven strakes are not too close together so creating weakness. In
general planks were arranged so that there were at least two
planks running between any two butt-joints.

Ship rig The rig of a vessel with a bow sprit and three or more masts
cf.: volschip [including topmasts and topgallants] all of which are square
rigged.

Shore A timber used as a temporary prop or support for frames, stem

see: schoor and stern post etc., during construction of the vessel.

Shrouds The lateral stays* of the masts.

see: hoofdtouwen

Side-binding strake ... is scored [rebated] down and into the beam-ends at some
cf.: schaarstok distance from the side, and bolted through the side between the
beams. The scoring into the beams connects the in and out
fastenings of this strake with the longitudinal tie of the
beams, ... Andrew Murray 1863.

Skeg The triangle formed by keel*, stempost* and deadwood*.

see: scheg

Sleeper [pointer] Internal stern reinforcing members of wood or [later] iron,

see: worpknie running diagonally upwards and inwards to the underside of the
transom* or just below it. Formerly the term had referred to
what are called bilge stringers here.

Snow A vessel with two masts: fore and main, which are both square
see: snauw rigged but with an additional small mast [a trysail mast]
stepped immediately behind the main mast.

Spar Any of the timbers used to support the rigging of a sailing

see: rondhout vessel, such as the masts, yards and booms etc.

GLOSSARY
 Spike A large square shanked metal nail used for general fastening
see: spijker purposes, particularly planking.

Spurket When frame timbers are not jointed end to end the spurket is
see: lucht the resulting gap. [Not to be confused with spirketting: the
stringer set above the ends of the deckbeams or above the
waterway if present.]

Stanchion [deck pillar] In general a vertical support pillar, for example of a deckbeam*
see: dekstut usually stepped* into the keelson* or riders*.

Standing rigging The rigging supporting the masts, consisting of shrouds* and
see: staand want stays*.

Staple knee See knee.

Stave Component plank of a cask or other stave built container such

see: duig as a bucket.

Stays The thick rope [or wire] guys for the masts and bowsprit.
see: stag

Stem The large timber scarfed* onto the keel that determines the
see: voorsteven shape of the bow of a ship and into which the ends of the outer
planking are rabbeted*.

Step The rectangular recess into which the heel or foot of the mast is
cf.: mastspoor locked or stepped so that it cannot move. It can be cut into the
keelson or formed by blocks of timber above the keelson or a
deck depending on the size of the vessel and the position of the
mast.

Stern post The large timber set on the upper face of the aft end of the keel
see: achtersteven to which it was joined. It can be variously formed depending on
the type of vessel but commonly the ends of the outer hull
planking are rabbeted into it in a similar fashion as with the
stem and the rudder is hung on its aft side.

Stopwater A hole or channel cut along the interface of a seam into which a
see: keernagel dowel is driven to prevent the passage of water. It is a technique
used in seams that cannot be effectively caulked, such as that in
the scarf joint of a keel. As well as a dowel or treenail, moss
and fat or other waterproof material can be rammed into the
hole which is then plugged with short treenails.

Strake A run of plankingY

see: gang

Stringer A thick internal plank running longitudinally along the hull.

cf.: weger They can either alternate with the ceiling* planks or are placed
where extra strength is required such as over a line of joints or
under deckbeams.

Siding The thickness of a ship's timber e.g. a futtock* or a deckbeam*

breedte when viewed from the side or above.

Tabling The face of timbers cut to be scarfed* together, often including

cf.: las quite complex keys and notches.

GLOSSARY
Tack The foremost lower corner of a fore-and-aft sail as well as the
see: hals tackle to tighten it downwards. In square rigging the tack is the
rope or tackle on the lower corner of a sail which is used to
brace it when sailing to windward.
In this connection the term is also used to indicate over what
side of the ship the rigging is hauled and thus its direction in
relation to the wind.

Tenon A square or rectangular projecting tongue of wood cut to fit

cf.: pen- en gatverbinding into a mortise* so forming a mortise and tenon joint.

Thimble A heart shaped eye of wood or metal around which the end of a
see: kous rope is spliced to make a hard eye [as opposed to a soft eye
without the thimble].

Tiller The lever by which the rudder is turned.

see: helmstok

Timbers At its most general: wood that is suitable for, or has been
cf.: inhout converted for carpentry or construction. In the context of ship
construction it can refer to any of the pieces used as main
strength members in the hull [as opposed to planks] but more
particularly refers to frames*.

Tingle A temporary repair patch of lead nailed over seams of deck

planking or hull planking to stop leaks.

Tonnage The measurement of capacity, formerly in all ships, now in

see: tonnemaat merchant-ships only [war-ships being classified by their
displacement tonnage i.e. their actual weight]. In English ships
the capacity had originally been equated to the number of
Bordeaux wine casks or tuns that could be stowed. The early
formulae by which this could be calculated consisted of
multiplying the length of keel, by the breadth, by the depth in
the hold and then dividing the product, commonly by 100. This
remained the basic principle of the many methods of tonnage
measurement until 1836. The differences were the exact points
between which the measurements were taken, the divisor used
and that depth and keel length were not actually measured but
were proportions of those distances that were. The rule in force
between 1773 and 1st Janury 1836 is a good example.
The calculation still entailed Length x Breadth x Depth which
was then divided by 94. The breadth was measured between the
outside of the plank at the widest part of the hull. The length
was the distance along the rabbet of the keel* from the aft side
of the stern post* to a perpendicular from the foreside of the
stem* below the bowsprit*. From this was subtracted the rake
of the stem which for convenience was taken to be three fifths
of the extreme breadth. This gave a theoretical keel length. This
was multiplied by the breadth which in turn was multiplied by
half the breadth [taken to be the depth]. The sum was divided
by 94, the answer being the tonnage.
This method was inaccurate in many cases as it took no account
of hull form. The method introduced in 1836 attempted to
remedy this. It involved measuring the internal breadth at
various heights and the depth from the underside of the
deckbeams to the ceiling beside the keelson. This was done at
three specific stations along the length of the hull, thus the
resulting figure more accurately reflected the true capacity.

GLOSSARY
 In northern Europe and the Low Countries one measured with a
ship's carrying capacity expressed in lasten a weight
measurement of grain. Nevertheless conversion from tuns into
lasten was frequently done.

Top mast Spar that is fitted as an upward extension of the mast.

see: steng

Top timber The uppermost timber of a frame*.

see: stut, oplanger

Transom Heavy horizontal stern frame timbers set across the sternpost.
see: worp The uppermost is the wing transom, set just below the top of the
stern post. Set at the height of the deck is the deck transom, the
others being filling transoms.

Traveller An iron ring to which [most commonly] the tack [lower forward
see: travelaar corner] of a jib sail is attached allowing it to be hauled out
along the bowsprit* or jib-boom*. The leather covering reduced
friction and prevented it chafing the timber.

Treenail [trenail, trennel, trunnel]

see: treknagel Wooden dowel used for fastening timbers together.

Wale A thick outer hull strake corresponding to the internal stringer*

see: berghout providing additional longitudinal strength such as at the height
of decks, the water line below gun ports etc.

Waterway The outermost deckplank, often made from hard wood and
see: waterloopsklos usually thickened towards its outer edge to prevent water lying
over the seam and seeping down between the frames.

Whelp Supplementary pieces of wood on the face of a windlass* barrel

see: spilklamp saving it from being abraded, especially when hauling a chain
cable or giving a hemp cable extra grip. They are easily
replaced when worn.

Windlass A winch for raising anchors or yards that was set horizontally
see: spil on the deck and in early forms turned manually by levers
[handspikes*] located in sockets in the barrel or shaft. In the
1830's various patent mechanical devices were introduced to
reduce the work load, in which pump handles were used to
lever two vertical bars acting on purchase rims either side of
and similar to the pawl* rims.

Worming Laying a small rope or line in the lay of a larger rope or cable
see: trenzen prior to parcelling* and serving*.

GLOSSARY
 VERKLARENDE WOORDENLIJST

De verklarende wool-denlijst geeft inzicht in
de wijze waarop maritieme termen in het
voorliggende rapport zijn gebruikt. Er is niet
naar volledigheid gestreefd. De opzet is
tweetalig. Het Engelse deel geeft Engelse
definities van Engelse woorden, het
Nederlandse deel geeft Nederlandse definities
van Nederlandse woorden. Bij elk woord
wordt een ver.wijzing gegeven naar een
lemma in de andere taal. Is de betekenis van
de hetreffende woovden nzin of meel.
gelijkluiderzd dun wordt verwezen niet see
resp. zie. 1s er ve~.schilin hetekenis dun wor.dt
cf. resp. vgl. gebruikt. Wooden woaraan een
afzonderlijk lenzma is gewijd zijn waar van
belang voorzien van eel1 sterretje*.

Achtersteven Zie steven

zie: sternpost

Avegaar Grote handboor die met een dwarsstang of dwar.shoutje word[

zie: auger rondgedraaid.

Balktrek De bolling van de dekbalken* in de lengterichting [d.w.z.

zie: camber dwarsscheeps] die de dekrondte bepaalt.

Bark Schip met dl-ie of meer masten, waarhij de achterste nzast

zie: bark langsscheeps getuigd is en de overige masten vierkant geti~igd
zijn.

Balkweger Zware weger* waarop de dekbalken* of ruimbalken* rusten.

zie: beam shelf Deze balken zijn veelal in de balkweger ingelaten.

Band Dwarsscheeps verbanddeel in het opgannde deel van voor- of

vgl.: crutch [band in lzet ruim] achterschip. Het is een symmetrische kromn~er*die aan de
breasthook [stevenwrang] binnenzijde op de steven* of binne~zsteven*hevestigd is.

Berghout Zwaar uitgevoerde huidga~zgdie het schip 01s een l~orizo~~tale

zie: wale hoepel omsluit en in belangrijke nlate bijdr.angt tot hecktheid
en sterkte.

Binnensteven Opgaand verbanddeel dat aan de binnen-ijde legen de steven*

vgl.: apron ligt. Soms opgaande voortzetting van het slenzpho~t'~.

Blind Gezegd van pennen, nagels erz gaten die niet door en door
zie: blind gaan.

Blok Hulpmiddel voor het geleiden van tortwwerk en /let scheren van
zie: block takels. Veelal is eerz blok van CCn of nleer schijve~z[katr~ollen]
voorzien.

Boegsent Dee1 dat tijdelijk op de draaispanten* in voor.- en achte~.schip

zie: harpin wordt aangebracht om deze tijderls de b o i r ~te~ondersteune~z.
Het is een logische voortzettirzg van de overige senten*. Anders
dan deze is dit eclzter geen strooklat* maar eel1 in 1lor.m
gebracht deel.

WOORDENLIJST
Boegspriet Rondhout dat over. de voorsteven* naar voren steekt en dat
zip: howspr.it dienst doer als aangr-ijpingspunt voor voorstagen en
voorzeilen; soms nog verlengd nzet een kluifiout* of boom.

Boeisel Verhoging van het boord door een of meer gangen*.

zie: bulwark

Boord Opgaande scheepswand.

ship's side

Bos Houten spuikoker*.

zie: scupper. pipe

Braadspil zie: spil

vgl.: ujindlass

Brik Schip met vierkant tuig, gevoerd op w e e masten waarvan de

zie: brig achter.ste de grote mast is.

Breeuwen Het afdiclzterz van naden en scheuren door het indrijven van
zie: caulkin,p vezelig materiaal. Bij een karveel* gehouwd schip worden
bijvoorheeld strengen werk* in de naden gedreven met een
breeuwijzer [rabat- of kalefaatijzer] en een breeuwhamer.

Bzlikstuk Inhout* dat deel uitmaakt van een samengesteld spanr*.

vgl.: furtock,first fi~frock
Meestal krom inhout dat de verbinding tussen vlak en zijde
verzorgt en als zodanig de legger* of wrung* verlengt, om op
zijn heurt door een oplarzger verlengd te worden. Soms
onderscheidt men een recht onderbuikstuk dat tot op de kieI
reikt en een krom bovenbuikstuk dat het naar boven toe
verlengt.

Dekbalk Dwarsscheepse verbindingsbalk tussen de boorden* waarop

zie: deckbeam een dek rust. Dekbalken die niet de gehele breedte overspannen
- bijvoorbeeld ter hoogte van een luik of bij een constructie
met klamaaien* - worden halve halken genoemd.

Dekstut Stijl of paal ter ondersteuning van een dekhalk. De stijl is

zie: stanchion, deck pillar n~eestalzowel in de dekbalk als in het constructiedeel waarop
hij rust ingelaten. Indien het om een rnidscheepse dekstut onder
her eerste of erzige dek gaat is dat meestal het zaathout*.

Deutel Vierkanten hardhouren wig die in het eind van een treknagel*
zie: dottle of pen is geslagen om deze te beklemmen.

Dissel Stuk handgereedschap voor de houtbewerking: Iijkt op een hijl,

zie: adze maar het snijvlak staat haaks op de steel.

Draads hout Horit dat volgens natuurlijke vezelstructuur is bewerkt. Loopt

vgl.: cross grair~ het werkstuk uit de draad, dun is her veel minder sterk.

Draaispant Spant* in voor- of achterschip dat niet haaks staat op de

zie: cant frame lengreas van /let schip maar iets naar voren respectievelijk
achteren gedraaid om de lijn van de huid* beter te volger~.

Druil [broodrvinner] Klein dr-iehoekig zeil dar op kleine schepen gevoerd wordt op
zie: jigger-mizzen een mast die tegen de achtersteven is geplaatst.

WOORDENLIJST
 Dubbeling Bekleding die op de huid* is aangebracht onz deze te
zie: sheathing beschermen, met name tegen aangroei eri aantasting door
organismen als paalworm [Teredo Navalis]. De dubbeling karz
van hout zijn, maar ook van metaalplaat.

Duig Elk derplankjes waaruit een vat of klrip is opgebouwd.

zie: stave

Duim Lengtemaat; in dit rapport komt de Engelse duim [25,4 mm]

vgl.: inch regelmatig voor.

Fokkemast Voorste mast bij schepen met drie of meer masten en bij
vgl.: foremast schepen met twee masten waarvari de achterste de glnte mast is
[briktuig*, schoenertuig*].

Gang Strook in de beplanking van een schip, bestaarlde uit een of

zie: strake meer, in elkaars verlengde liggende, delen.

Gegroeid hout Hout waarvan groeikenmerken als een kronime drand of

zie: grown timber vertakkingen zijn benut; behalve op kronzmers kan de term dus
ook van toepassing zijn op constructiedelen nzet eerz scherpe
hoek zoals wrangen en knieen.

Half houtje Stukje hout dat bij benadering tot de halve dikte in een plank of
zie: dutchman deel is ingelateti om een zwakke plek bij te wer-ken; buitenwerks
loopt het halve houtje vlak met het gerepareer-de deel.

Hals Voorste onderhoek van een langsscheeps zeil.

zie: tack

Handspaak Houten of ijzeren spaak die aan het ene eind rond is erz aari het
zie: hand-spike andere vierkant; dient om een windas te draaierz en als
hefboorn om zware Iasten te tillen en re verplaatsen.

Helrnstok [helmhout] Houten of rnetalen stok waarmee het roer bediend wordt.
zie: tiller

Hennegat Opening in het achterschip waardor de helnzstok* binnenboord

zie: helm port steekt.

Hieling Onderste gedeelte van een mast, steng* of boegspriet*. Veelal

vgl.: heel vierkant bekapt. Ook her onderste gedeelte van een steven*
wordt hieling genoemd.

Hoofdtouw Touw dat voor zijwaartse steun tussen het hoveneincl van een
zie: shroud mast en een punt aan het scheepsboord gespannen is.

Huid Buitenbeplanking van de romp.

vgl.: planking

Inhout Algemene benaming voor de st~tkkenhoitt die het geraarnte varz

vgl.: timbers her schip vormen en die zorgen voor het dwarsverband.

Insteker Taps toelopende huidplank die met name in het voor- en

zie: stealer achterschip wordt ingezet warineer de doorloper~degangen een
spievormige opening zoctderz laten. Wanneer een gang taps
tegen het berghout wegloopt spreekt nzen van een verloren
gang.

WOORDENLIJST
Jz~ffer Blok* zonder schijven; in plaats daarvan zijn drie gateri
zie: dead eye aangebracht. Het aantal verklaart de benarning.

Karveel B o u ~ ~ w i j zwaarbij
e elke volgende huidgang glad tegen de
zie: car'vel onderliggerzde aansluit. De huidgangen zijn zijdelings niet met
elkaar verborzderi.

Kattespoor Dwarssckeeps verbanddeel dat 01s extra versteviging boven de

zie: rider inhouten* over- zaathoutX en wegering* is aangebracht.

Keernagel [scheinagel]
zie: stopwater.
Nagel die als waterkering is aangebracht in een naad die
walerdicht moet zijn, maar die niet of nauwelijks effectief
gebreeuwd kan worden, bijvoor.beeld een /as waarvan het ene
uiteinde zich binnen- en het andere uiteinde zich buitenboord
bevindt. De nagel kan een houten pen zijn, maar ook slechts
aan de uiteinden met een korte houten pen zijrz afgepropt. Over
de rest van de lengte is het gat dan volgestopt met een under
materiaal, bij~~oorbeeld mos en vet. In het laatste geval wordt
ook we1 van nzosna~elgesproken.

Kiel Centraal langsscheeps verbanddeel. Deelt het vlak* in tweeen.

zie: keel

Kim Overgang tusen vlak* en zijde.

vgl: [turn of the] bilge

Kimgartg Z~laarderuitgevoerde gang* in de huid*, ter hoogte van de

vgl.: bilge planks kim *.

Kim weger Weger* ter hoogte van de kim*.

vgl.: bilge planks

Klamaai Langsscheeps verbanddeel in de dekconstructie.

zie: ca/.ling

Klamp I .Algemerie benarning voor klein stuk hout dat dient voor
zie: I . chock, clamp 2 . cleat tijdelijke steun of extra verster-king.
2. Een opgezet stuk hout waarop touwen belegd kunnen worden.

Kleden Het srrak om~linderzvan touwwerk met een dunne lijn. Het
zie: ser.vir~g kleden kan worden voor.afgegaan door trerzzen* en smarten*

Klirtken Wijze van zekeren van een metalen nagel of bout waarbij het
vgl.: c1er1c.h eirlde met een klinkhamer wordt uitgeslagen tot een kop, a1 dun
riiet over een klinkring*.

Klinkrirzg Metalen ring die om her uiteinde van een bout of nagel gelegd
zie: rove ~lordtvoordat daar een kop aari geklonken wordt; soms iets
conisclz gevormd om de trekkracht van de klinknagelverbinding
te vergroten.

Kl~~ifltout Op de boegsprietX aangebracht vei.lengstuk.

zie: jib-boonz

Klziisgat Gat in de boeg waardoor een ankerkabel of ankerkettirzg buiten

zie: hawse pipe boord geleid wordt.

WOORDENLIJST
 Kluiverboom Los rondhout*, dat lungs de voorsteven* gevoerd ~ ~ o len
dt
vgl.: jib-boom, bow-sprit waarmee het aaizgrijpingspunt van de voor.zeilen verder naar
voren wordt gebracht.

Knie I . Houten of ijzeren verbanddeel met een sckerpe hoek. 2 . Stuk

zie: I . knee 2. crook stamhout met vertakking dat geschikt is om eel1 knie o f een
wrang* van te maken. Het stan~gedeelten~ordtlijf genoetnd, het
takgedeelte tak.

Kous [touwkous] Houten of metalen oog dat ingespitst n~ordtin torru~n~erk

zie: thimble teneinde een sterk en slijtvast aangrijl)iti,psprrntte creeren.

Kraallijst Decoratief randje langs de zijkant v a ~ een

i plank of balk.
zie: moulding

Krommer Van nature krom gegroeid /?outclat geht.~riktis voor een krom
zie: compass timber constructiedeel; veel sterker dun een identiek ,qevormd deel dat
uit recht gegroeid hout gerzomen is.

Kruisklamp BIok hout dat ter aanvulling van de spanten worclt gebruikt. Is
zie: chock het netjes met borsten gelast dun kan men ook van slerrtelstuk
spreken.

Las Houtverbinding tussen twee delen die nagenoeg in hetzelfcle

zie: scarf joint vlak liggen.

Legger Recht inhout, dwarsscheeps over de kiel* geplaatst. Is een

vgl.: floor dergelijk inhout* niet recht omdat het vlak* daarvoor ter
plaatse te veel tilling* keeft, dati sprekeri wij van n~rang*.

Lijfhout Buitenste dekplank, meestal iets d i k k e ~uitgevoerd.

zie: margin plank

Loggat Uitsparing in de inhoutenY op het vlak* voor het door~lnte~i

van
zie: limber hole water.

Lopend want Het totaal van touwen en blokken dat gehrrrikt ~ ~ o rom
dt
zie: running rigging rondhouten* en zeilen te hijsen en te strijken.

Loze kiel Opgezet deel aan de onderzijcle van de kiel* dat hij slijtage
zie: shoe eenvoudig vervangen kan worden.

Luchten Ruimten tussen de spanten.

vgl.: [room and] space,
spurket

Luik Opening in her dek waardoor men toegang heeft tot de

zie: hatch daaronder gelegen ruimte.

Luikhoofd Opstaande rand om een luikgat.

zie: coaming

Mastspoor Steunpunt voor het ondereind van een mast, veelal znJaal.blok
vgl.: step met eetz rechthoekig gat ojivel rechthoekig gat in het zaathout*.

Oplanger Staand inhout* dat dient tot verlenging van andere inhouten in
vgl.: futtock een sarnengesteld spant.

WOORDENLIJST
Overnaads Bouwwijze waarbij elke volgende huidgang de onderliggende
vgl.: clinker overlapt.

Opgang Ladder of trap tussen een dek en de daaronder gelegen ruimte;

zie: companio~iway ruimer ook een luik dat voor personen bedoeld is en niet voor
lading.

Pal Pen of klamp om een spil* of rad te blokkeren wanneer het

zie: pawl onder spanning staat. De pal wordt daartoe acizter- CCn van de
paltanden op het spil gezet.

Pen Zie treknagel.

zie: treenail

Pen- en gatverbinding Ho~~tverbinding waarbij een nok aan het ene deel is ingelaten
zie: mortise and tenon joint in een uitsparing in het andere deel.

Putting Stuk scheepsbeslag dat dient on1 het spanmechanisme van een
zie: chain plate hoofdtouw* met het scheepsboord te verbinden.

Rantsoenhout Het achterste spant* van een schip dat met een platte
zie: fashion piece achterkant [spiegel] is gebouwd. Het sluit aan op de
achtersteven* en de hekbalk [zie worp].

Rondlzout Algenzene benaming voor de ronde stukken hout die in de

zie: spar tidigage worden verwerkt zoals bijvoorbeeld masten, stengen,
ra's, gieken, gaffels en bomen.

Ruim Het onderste gedeelte van de inwendige ruimte van een schip.
zie: hold Het ruim begint onder het [onderste] dek. Het onderruim of
onderste gedeelte daarvan wordt in het Engels aangeduid met
bilge.

Ruimbalk Dwarsscheepse ve~.bindingsbalktussen de boorden* die door

zie: hold bean1 het ruinz loopt en waarop geen dek rust.

Schaapskop ECnschij~sblokdat wordt gebruikt als onderblok van een take1

zie: ram's head block
waalmee een voorzeil wordt gehesen en dat tevens dienst doet
onz de bovenste punt van het zeil [de kop] voldoende sprei te
geven. Het is daartoe voorzien van twee haken die het blok*
wanneer men het o~ndraaithet aanzien van de kop van een ram
geven.

Schaarstok Zwaar uitgevoede dekgang, in de dekbalken* ingelaten, m.n.

vgl.: side-binding strake lungs luikizoofden*.

Scheergang Bovenste gang* van de h ~ ~ i dveelal

* iets dikker uitgevoer-d.
zie: sheer strake

Scheg I . De driehoek die bestaat uit kiel*, achtersteven* en

zie: I . skeg slemphout*. 2. De driehoek die voor de voorsteven* het galjoen
en de boegspriet ondersteunt.

Schoener Langsscheeps getuigd schip met twee masten waarvan de

zie: schoener achterste de grote mast is.

Schoor Paal of balk die tijdens de bouw als stut onder een of ander
zie: shore constructie-element wordt geplaatst.
 Schrank [bok, bokkepoot] Eenvoudig hijswerktuig bestaande uit twee of drie palen met
zie: sheers daartussen een takel.

Sent Strooklat* die aan de buitenzijde op de inhouten* wordt

zie: ribband aangebracht en die tevens dienst doet om deze tijdens de bouw
op hun plaats te houden.

Slemphout Langsscheeps verbanddeel in het voor- of acliterschip dat kiel*

zie: deadwood en steven* naar binnerz toe aanvult tot een massief geheel.

Smarten Het omwinden van touwwerk met stvoken zeildoek. Na het

zie: parcelling smarten wordt het touw gekleed*.

Snauw Brik* waarbij achter de grote mast op eel7 hr~lpmasteen

zie: snow langsgetuigd snauwzeil wordt gevoerd.

Spant I . Dwarsscheeps verbanddeel, it e'en of nteer inlio~lterr

zie: I . frame 2. section opgebouwd; 2. Dwarsscheepse doorsnede.

Spant van oprichting Spant [ I ] dat in het begin van de bouw wordt opgericht, te
zie: framed timbers onderscheiden van een spant van aanvulling.

Spantafstand Afstand tussen vergelijkbare vlakken in opeenvolgende spanten.

zie: room and space

Spil Horizontale windas voor het hieuwen van a17ker.sof het

zie: windlass bedienen van I-ondhouten* als ra's. Her spil wordt bedielid met
handspaken* die in vierkante uitsparingen wo~.deiigestoken.
Een ankerspil in de boeg wordt veelal braadspil genoe~nd.

Spilklamp Vervangbare rib op de trommel van een spil of kaapstander:

zie: whelp

Spijker Vierkant gesmede nagel.

zie: spike

Spijkerpen Houten pennetje waarmee een spijkergat is afqedicht, in het

zie: plug bijzonder spijkergaten die zijn ontstaan door tijdelijke
bevestigingen tijdens de bouw.

Spuikoker Koker die van een dek door het hoord voert om water te lozen.
zie: scupper pipe

Staand want Gedeelte van de tuigage* dat dient om de masten re

zie: standing rigging ondersteunen. In het bijzonder nlordt de zijrlelir~~se
ondersteuning waarvan de hoofdtouwen* I~etbelang~.ijkste
onderdeel zijn ook we1 als want aangeduid.

Stag Draad of touw dat een nlast naar voren of achteren steunt.
zie: stay

Steng Rondhout dar dient om een mast re verlengen.

zie: top mast

Steven Opgaande voortzetting van de kiel* ofwel opgaande balk,

vgl.: stem waarop de boorden* te zamen komen.

Strooklat Buigzame lat die tijdens de bouw wordt gebruikt om strokende

vgl.: ribband lijnen en een vloeiende rompvorm te bereiken.

WOORDENLIJST
Stuik Aansluiting tussen [wee recht of sckuin afgezaagde delerz van
zie: butt [joint] een gang* of dergelijke waarbij de delen elkaar niet
overlappen; soms versterkt met een opgezet stuk.

Stut I . Zie dekstut*. 2 . Bovenste oplanger* in een samengesteld

zie: I . stanclziotz 2. top timber spant*.

Teen 01zder.stegedeelte van een opgaand inhout*

vgl.: heel

Tilling Mate waarin het vlak* zijwaarts omhoogkomt.

zie: deadrise

Driehoekige lat die in de lengterichting tussen de leggers* en

de zat~dstrook*aangebracht is om deze Iaatste wanneer deze
varzuit de sponning* in de kiel* enige tilling* heeft meer steun
te geven. Wanneer tlrssen kiel en tingel enige ruimte is
gehouden zijn tevens loggaten* verkregen zonder verzwakking
van de leggers.

Tonnemaat De inhoudsmaat waarmee het laadvermogen van

zie: tonnage koopvaardijschepen wordt aangeduid. Van oudsher zijn er twee
systemen, een inhoudsmaat en eel7 gewichtsmaat. Engeland
hoorde bij de landen waar een it7houdsmaat werd gehanteerd,
terw~ijlin de Nederlanden de gen~ichtsmaatwerd aangehouden.
Bij oor.logsschepen wordt get-ekend met tonnen
waterve~~laatsing, het eigen gewicht dus.
In Engeland kwam de inhoudsmaat oorspronkelijk overeen met
het aantal wijnvaten [tuns] dat kon worden gestuwd. De
formules waarmee de tonnemaat werd berekend hielden in dat
de klellengte, de wijdte en de holte met elkaar werden
vernzenigvuldigd, waarna her produkt werd gedeeld door een
getal dat rvnd de 100 lag. De regel die gold tussen 1773 en
1836 was op dat principe gebaseerd, waarbij voor het meten
van zonlel de wijdte als de lengte bijzondere regels golden en de
deler 94 was. Het was een onnauwkeurige methode, waarbij
geen rekening werd gehouden met de rompvorm. In 1836
werden de voorschriften aanzienlijk gecompliceerder: Vanaf dat
moment moesten veel meer maten genomen worden. In de Luge
Landen volgde men van oudsher het Noordeuropese systeern
waarin de draagkracht in lasten werd gebruikt, een
gewichtsmaat van graan, bij benadering 4.000 ponden. Vanaf
de I7e eeuw werd her aantal lasten eveneens berekend door
lengte, wijdte en 11oltemet elkaar te vermenigvuldigen en te
dele11door een factor die van scheepstype tot scheepstype
verschilde.
De factor werd proefondervindelijk vastgesteld door 66n schip
van een bepaald type af te laden met kanonskogels van bekend
ge~liclzten vervolgens op alle schepen van dat type toegepast.
111 1819 girzg men over tot de tonnemaat, waarvoor een
conzplese meetmethode werd voorgeschr-even [Tideman 1861,
359-3631, In her intel.natlonale verkeer- werden tonnen en
lastetz aan de hand van vuistr-egels geconverteerd. Bij
betladering geldt: e'en last is twee ton.

Travelaar [loopring] Ring die ruim om een boegspr-iet*, kluifhout*, of kluiverboom*

zie: tra\leller ~ ~ ael7
s tmet behulp waarvan het aangrijpingspunt [de hals] van
een voorzeil naar voren, resp. naar achferen kan worden
gebracht.

WOORDENLIJST
 Treknagel [pen] Houten pen door middel waarvan constr.uctiedele~zniet elkaar
zie: treenail worden verbonden.

Trenzen Het leggen van eeii dur~neIijrz tusseri de streizgen van geslagen
zie: worming touwwerk om dit een gladder boitenoppervlak re geven \~oor.dat
ket wordt gesmart* en gekleed*.

Tuigage Het totaal van rondhouten*, zeileti, loperid* en staatidX want.

zie: rigging

Verscherven De delen van de hlrid- of dekbeplanking ~~orclen zo georzlend

zie: shift dat de stcriken* in aatisluiterzde gangen;':niet te zelfr(e1.hoogte
vallen.

Vioolblok Tweescl?ijfsblok waarvan de schijven niet dezelfde rliameter

zie:fiddle block hebben en in hetzelfde vlak op twee evenwijdige assen zijn
gemonteerd. Het blok" heeft Izet aanzien van een viool.

Vlak Dee1 van de huidX dat de bodem van het schip o or nit.
vgl.: bilge

Volschip Vierkant getuigd schip met drie of meet. master^.

vgl.: ship rig

Voorsteven Zie steven

zie: stem

Vullinggang Eerste gang* van de wegering* naast het zaathout*.

zie: limber str-ake

Vullingplank Losliggende afdekplank van de wate~.loop*.

zie: limber board

Want Zie lopend en in het bijzoncler staand want

vgl.: rigging

Waterloop Dicht lungs de kiel" zijn de ruiniteri tussen de inhouten" cloor-

zie: linzber loggaten* vel.bonden tot de waterloop waarin zic.11het lekujater
verzamelt.

Waterloopsklos La~zgsscheepsverbanddeel dat ener-zijds als bovenafsliriting

zie: waterway van het boord en anderzijds als buitenste deel van het delc
fungeert. Her lijfhout* sl~niterop aan. De naam is ontleericl aan
de goot die er mirz of meer in is uitgespaatzl.

Weger Langsscheeps verbanddeel, aan cle binnenzijde over de

vgl. :stringer inhouten* bevestigd.

Wegering Beplanking van de binnenzijde v a ~cle

i i~ilio~~teti:~.
zie: ceiling

Werk [breeuwwerk] Tot strengen ineengedraaid breeuw*-mater.iaa1, veelal

zie: oakum uitgeplozen touw.

Wrang Krom of V-vorniig ilzhout*, dwiarsscheeps over kiel* of steveiiX

vgl.: floor, crutch geplaatst.

WOORDENLIJST
Worp [spiegelwrang] Dwarsscheepse horizontale balk die over de achtersteven
zie: tr.arisom geplaatst is en het spantwerk van de spiegel vormt. De bovenste
worp wordt hekbalk genoemd.

Worpknie [slaper] Knie die de verbinding tussen het boord en de worpen versterkt.
zie: sleeper

Zandstrook Eerste gang* aan weerszijden van de kiel*, vaak zwaarder

zie: garboard [strake] uitgevoerd.

Zaathout Zwaar langsscheeps verbanddeel, boven de kiel* over de

zie: keelsorl inhouten* bevestigd.

Zitter Kr-om inhout* dat de verbinding tussen vlak* en boord verzorgt.

vgl.: futtock, first futtock Het liggende eind reikt niet tot over de kiel*.

Zwieping Plank die tijdens de bouw dwarsscheeps wordt aangebracht

zie: cross-pall tussen de boveneinden van spanten*. Schuin gestelde
steunlatten in hetzelfde vlak heten schranklatten. Pas als de
dekbalken* zijn aangebracht worden de zwiepingen verwijderd.

WOORDENLIJST
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a clear thing that an archaeological
endeavour like the one that was undertaken as
part of the Slufter project is fully dependent
on the cooperation of many. In the preparatory
phase the working party and the last author
were greatly assisted by the ad hoc
consultative body for the archaeological
survey of the Slufter area, in which a great
many disciplines were enthusiastically
represented by:
Prof. Dr. G.J. Borger
[University of Amsterdam] Historical
Geography
Kap1.t.z. b.d. H. Dekker
Offshore and underwater engineering
Ir. F.A. Dongen
[Public Works Department, North Sea
Directorate] Offshore surveying
P. van Empelen
[Prins Hendrik Maritime Museum]
Public Relations, History, Seafaring
and Rotterdam
D.P. Hallewas
[State Service for Archaeological
Investigation] Archaeology,
archaeological heritage management
C . Hoek
[Bureau for Archaeological
Investigations in the Rotterdam area]
Archaeology, Historical Geography
C. Laban
[Geological Survey of the
Netherlands] Marine Geology
K.A.H.W. Leenders
[Province of South-Holland]
Historical-Geography, Urban and
rural planning
Prof. H.H. Regreren Altena
[University of Amsterdam] Medieval
and Post-medieval archaeology
L.B.M. Verhart
[University of Leiden] Prehisory,
Mesolithic research
Dr.M.D. de Weerd
[University of Amsterdam]
Archaeology
As soon as it came to implementation it was
Peter Stassen of W.V.C. who shifted a lot of
work. Later on he amongst other things
carried out the wood species analysis. Of
incredible importance of course was the broad
support encountered during the field work
phase of the research. First to be mentioned is
the on-site assistance given by the direction
represented in particular by Arie de Bode and
Rien van Zetten, and the contractor, mr. Frank
Broekhoven and their very, very extensive
crews, of which the crews of the surveying
vessels and the smallcraft that served as
diving platform merit special mention as no
significant on-site work could have been
carried out without them. The same does
apply for the volunteer archaeological divers
Jef van den Akker, Aad van Es, Boudewijn
Goudswaard, Arent Vos, Jos van Wolde and
the Ecuador team from Terschelling. Many
others assisted in transport and facilities for
temporary storage. Mourik Services B.V. from
Groot-Ammers put a container at our disposal
and whenever necessary we got assistance
from the local Rijkswaterstaat group under
mr. A. Jans.
In the post-excavational research, analysis
and assessment it proved possible to rely on
the particular knowledge and skills of many
others far and near. Some carried out
technical analyses or discernable parts of
research or artefact treatment and their results
have been entered into the text. Others have
been as vital by giving general back up,
essential information or a cross-checking of
ideas. With the risk forgetting some we would
like to credit the following persons in no
particular order. Dr. W.A. Casparie and
Dr. P. Baas who assisted P. Stassen in wood
analysis. Mr. D. Duco who commented on
clay pipes. Mr. Bas Kist of the Rijksmuseum
and Charles Hull, curator of the worshipful
Company of Pewterers in London for their
help with respect to porcelain and pewter. Rob
Oosting of the Ketelhaven Institute for
comments on ship construction. Cathy
Giangrande, Royal Amouries, Tower of
London for the analysis of Copper Alloys.
John Evans, North East London Polytechnic
for the analysis of Caulking and Luting. The
Yorkshire Regional Laboratory of British
Coal, Rotheram, in particular
Dr. A.V.H. Smith and Pamela Spriggs. Pat
Leggat, Jennifer Hillam and Ian Oxley. David
McGregor, MA, FSA, FRHists who
commented on many aspects of the ship from
SL 4. The Director and staff of the National
Maritime Museum in Greenwich and the
Prins Hendrik Maritime Museum, in
particular the librarians who were of great
help. Jerzy Gawronski and the archaeological
team of the Stichting V.O.C. Schip
Amsterdam for the loan of a computer and
printer and Marjan Paardekoper and Chris
Vastenhoud for help in conservation, software
and computing. Furthermore much useful
comment and advice was received from David
Lyon, Brian Lavery, Colin Martin and Robert
Prescott, Carl Olof Cederlund, Peter Barrie
and Axel Lindberg. Gert van de Hof made
some of the drawings, Kester Keighley helped
in many ways and last but not least we would
like to credit the assistance of Jan Pauptit,
photographer of the Leiden University
Institute for Prehistory [IPL] who called forth
his highly professional skills in all phases of
research and report production.
COLOPHON

DESIGN
Tel Design, The Hague
Stephan van Rijt
Paul Vermijs

DESKTOP PUBLISHING
Tel Design, The Hague
Niels Poppe
with
Peter Dees
Martijn Hazelzet

PRINTING AND BINDING

GDR, Rotterdam