Contents

Differentiation Stationary point....... Second derivative... Practical problems.. Increasing/decreasing functions.. Intergration Definite... Area under 1 curve.. Area between 2 curves Trapezium rule Algebra and functions Long division.. Factor theorem Graphs. Remainder theorem. Trigonometry Sin rule Cosine rule.. Area of triangle... Graphs. Special angles. Solving equations... Quadratics... Identities. Radians... Circles General Rule... Co-ordinate geometry. Tangents and normals. Series and Sequences Geometric Series. Sequences to Infinity.. Binomial Expansions.. Approximations.. Logariths Converting from Index to Log Log Laws Change of base

pag e
2 2 3 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13

Page 1 of 13

Differentiation
Stationary points These points are where the gradient is 0. These are known as the turning points or points of inflection They can be found by finding the gradient of points along the curve (change of sign) or by using the second derivative. A point of inflection is where the tangent of a curve crosses the curve. Both of the gradients around this point will be: negative or positive. EG A)find the turning points of the function y = x + x-1 where x0 Find dy dx dy = 1 x-2 dx Then solve 1 x-1 = 0 and you get x = 1 or -1 These are the turning points B) determine the nature of these points, so use values of x around these points and put them into a table X 0.5 1 2 x -2 -1 -0.5 dy -3 0 3 dy 3 0 -3 dx 4 dx 4 slope Slope Therefore x=1 is the local maximum as the gradient before is positive and the gradient after is negative Therefore x=-1 is the local minimum as the gradient before is negative and the gradient after is positive Second derivative The second derivative is a way of finding out if a stationary point is the maximum, minimum or a point of inflection The second derivative is just the differentiation of the differentiation EG Y= x3 + 3x2 + x +7 dy = 3x2 + 6x +1 dx d2y = 6x +6 dx2 d2y dx2 And the numerical answer tells you if it is the maximum minimum or point of inflection If d2y >0 then it is a local minimum dx2 You put the value of x that gives the stationary point into: d2y <0 then it is a local maximum dx2 If it equals 0 then you cannot tell if it is a maximum or minimum and need to find the gradients either side as explained above If

Page 2 of 13

Practical problems This is where you apply differentiation and the second derivative to maximise or minimise something. EG1 A rectangle has perimeter of 100 m find the maximum possible area. 1-Call one of the sides x, and call the perpendicular side (50-x) as half the perimeter is 50 2-With this you can find the area by doing x times (50-x) A=x(50-x) A= 50x x2 3-Differentiate this da =50-2x dx 4-Then let this be equal to 0 and solve as any algebraic equation 50-2x = 0 therefore x=25 You have a value of x to find if it is the maximum differentiate it again and put the value of x in again d2a =-2 2 dx As -2<0 this is the maximum value. When x=25 A= 25(50-25) = 625m2 EG2 An open cardboard box is made with a square base of side x and the volume is fixed at 500 A) Find an expression in terms of x for the height of the box Volume(V) = height (H) times x2 500=hx2 h=500/x2 B) Show that the total area (A) is given by the equation A= x2 + 2000x-1 The area if found with the net of this shape and is x2+4hx 1-Substitute the value of h in: A= x2+ 4x(500 ) x2 2-Solve this and get this which proves it A= x2+ (2000 ) x C) find: A= x2+ dA dx and solve dA dx =0

2000x-1

differentiate dA= 2x- 2000x-2 dx

Page 3 of 13

solve equal to 0 0 = 2x 2000x-2 ---> 2000x-2 = 2x ---> x=10 therefore the answer is 10 D) find the value of x that gives the minimised amount dA= 2x- 2000x-2 dx Therefore d2A= 2+ 4000x-3 2 dx Then x = 10 the second derivative is 6>0 therefore this the minimised value of x E) Find the minimum value of A. This is just number crunching your answer to part b and the value of x A= 102+ (2000 =300 ) 10 Therefore the minimum value of A is 300 Increasing/decreasing functions This is just a matter of stating what values of x make the gradient either or positive. It should be an answer in the form of an inequality. There will be two possible questions. One with a graph with values on it or ones where you are given an equation for a graph. EG1 State the range of values of x where F(X) is increasing. This is all the points after the turning point therefore the answer is X>3

EG2 A curve is given where y=f(x) and f(X) = 2x2 8x + 11 A) find f(x) f(x) = 4x 8 B) find the range of values of x where f(x) is increasing 1- find the turning point 2- determine if it is a maximum or minimum 3- create a suitable inequality 1) 4x - 8 =0 --> x=2 2) f(x) = 4 threfore it is a minimum 3) x>2 is increasing the answer is x>2

Page 4 of 13

Integration
Definite A definite integral is integration within set parameters. It will be given in the form: b b f(x) = f(b) f(a) a f(x) dx =
a

The numbers A and B are limits of the integral EG Find the value of 2 (2x) dx 1 You intergrate this and get f(x )
1
2

This can then be written as (22) (12) = 4 1 = 3 which is your answer Area under a curve Single curve The area between a curve and the x axis is given by the definite integral. You are just applying the technique from above to real graphs. Note these areas are never negative and any negative results shold be treated as positive Dual curves In these kinds of questions you will be asked to find the area between two graphs. These can be curved or straight. In some you may have to do simultaneous equations to find the limits. There are two main styles of solving these kinds of questions. 1-Find the area above the higher curve and subtract the area under the lower curve or 2- Combine the two equations together and intergrate that. If you are going to do this then make sure you take the vertically lower equation from the higher one. Trapezium rule This revolves around breaking up graphs into equal ordinates along the x axis. Then using the general form: Area = h [y0 + 2(y1+y2+y(n-1)) +yn) 2 h= heigh = distance between verticles y0= the first value of x y1= the next value of x etc yn= the last value of x

Page 5 of 13

Algebra and functions

Algebraic long division This is a method of finding if an equation is a factor of a larger equation. eg Is (x3 + 5x2 + 4x 4) divisible by (x+2)

At A you have to find what you have to times (X+2) by to get (x3). This is (x2). You solve (x+2)(X2) and put the values under the corresponding powers of X in the equation. You substitute these numbers to get the next line which will be solved by B. The entire idea of this method is to make each power substitute to equal 0. (x2) goes above 5x2. At B you have to find what you times (x+2) by to get (3x2). This is (3x). You repeat the process for A. You carry on this process until all the powers are cancelled. In the example above the answer is x2 + 3x 2 Factor theorem This is long division quantified as if an equation is a factor there will be a remainder of 0 Generally if: F(a)=0 then (x-a) is a factor of f(x) F(b/a)=0 then (ax-b) is a factor of f(x) There are two methods of solving these: Algebraic long division as displayed above Or Inspection This is where you look at the numbers and figure out which numbers fit into the equation. This is done by looking at coefficients. EG of inspection 2x3 + x2 + 5x 8 = (x-1)(ax2 + bx + c) Look at x3. There is only one combination that make this value and that is x times ax2 hence ax3=2x3 ergo a =2 Look at x0 There is only one combination that makes this and that is -1 times C hence -8 = -c ergo c=8 Look at X1. There are 2 possible combinations for this and it can be written as 5x = cx bx you know c is 8 so --> 5x = 8x bx ergo b =3 Graphs Solutions of equations can be determined by looking at where they intersect the x axis. Just remember that a point such as (-3, 0) will be (x+3) for purposes of factoring

Page 6 of 13

Remainder theorem This is the idea that when something is not a complete factor it leaves a remainder. With this remainder you can find unknowns. EG Find the remainder when f(x) = x3 + 5x2 + x + 1 is dividided by (x+2) remainder = f(-2) = (-2)3 + [5 x (-2)2] + (-2) +1 = -8 + 20 -2 +1 = 11 Find the value of A when F(x) = x3 + ax2 x + 10 is divided by (x+1) and the remainder is 12 remainder(12) = f(-1) 12 = (-1)3 + [a x (-1)2] (-1) +10 12 = -1 + a + 1 + 10 12 = a + 10 2 = a

Trigonometry
Sine rule This is a way of finding sides and angles in non right angle triangles. To use this you need at least 3 pieces of data- with at least one pair of opposite qualities ie one pair of angles and sides. You can then put these values in the following formula to get an answer. A = b = c sin A sin B sin C This can be flipped the other way up to find the angles: sin A = sin B = sin C a b c Cosine rule This is another way of finding unkowns. This can only be used when you have an angle and the sides adjacent to it. These values can be put into the below formulae to find side lengths or angles To find a side c2 = a2 + b2 (2ab( cos )) To find an angle C= cos-1( a2 + b2 c2 ) 2ab This is simply a form of number crunching style question. Area of triangle This is a formula to enable you to find the areas of triangles that dont have right angles in them Area = 0.5(ab(sin ))

Page 7 of 13

Graphs Each Trig function has its own graph that carries on repeating itself for eternity The Sin graph looks like: The Cos graph looks like:

As you can see cos and sin are identical except that cos starts at 1 and goes down. Ie it is 900 behind the sin graph The Tan graph looks like: Note the red lines represent asymtopes

Solving equations You will be given questions such as: sin x = y where 0<x<360 This represents all the values of x which give the value y between 0 and 360 To find this do Sin-1 (y) The answer on the calculator is the closest answer to 0. However there are other answers. To find the other answers just find [0+ sin1 (y)] and 180 [sin-1(y)]. The reasoning is shown to the right. Just use the values that equal 0 and add/subtract as appropriate. Cos x = y where 0<x<360 This represents all values of x which give the value y between 0 and 360 To find this do Cos-1 (y) The answer on the calculator is the closest answer to 0. However there are other answers. To find the other answers just find [0+ cos1 (y)] and 360 [Cos-1(y)]. The reasoning is shown to the right. Just use the points where y=1 or -1 and add/subtract the value of Cos-1(y)

Page 8 of 13

Tan x = y where 0<x<360 This represents all values of x which give the value y between 0 and 360 To find this do Tan-1 (y) The answer on the calculator is the closest answer to 0. However there are other answers. To find the other answers just add and or minus 180 depending on the parameters. See reasoning to the right. Special angles These are important values of sin, cos and tan and there respective angles 30 45 60 Sin 1 1 3 2 2 2 Tan 1 1 3 3 Cos 1 1 3 2 2 2 These should be learnt- at least make an attempt :P Trig algebra Sin (x-b) = y means that you change the parameters that you are operating in but you solve the equation normally but at the end add the b to all the values Sin (ax) = y means that you times the parameters by a and solve normally from there but divide the answers by a A sin (x) = y means that you just divide (y by a) and solve normally from there. EG 1)Sin (x- 20) = 1 where 0x360 becomes -20 (x-20) 340 (x-20) = sin-1(1) = 90, 450 you can ignore 450 as it is outside the parameters (x-20) = 90 x= 110 2)Sin (2x) = 0.5 where 0x360 becomes 0 (2x) 720 2x = 30,150, 390, 510 x= 15, 75, 195, 255 3) 2 sin (x) = 1 where 0x360 sin (x) = 0.5 (x) = 30, 150

Page 9 of 13

Trig quadratics Trig equations can be given in the forms of quadratics and as such can be solved like algebraic polynomials. One point on notation Cos2 is (Cos )2 EG Find the values of within the parameters 0 360 3Cos2 Cos = 0 take out a factor of Cos Cos (3 Cos -1) = 0 Therefore Cos = 0 ot 1/3 when Cos = 0 = 90, 270 when Cos = 1/3 = 70.5, 289.5 ergo = 70.5, 90, 270, 289.5 Trig identities These identities can be used to make equations with more than one unkown trig value in them eg: 3 cos2 + 2 sin = 7 Consider them to be possible susbstitues like simultaneous equations. The two identities are: Sin2 + Cos2 1 and Tan = Sin Cos EG 2 Sin2 + 3 Cos 3 = 0 where 0 360 use the value Sin2 1- Cos2 and substitute it in 2(1 Cos2) + 3 Cos 3 = 0 -2 Cos2 + 3 Cos 3 + 2 = 0 2 Cos2 3 Cos +1 = 0 (2 Cos2 -1)( Cos -1) = 0 therefore Cos = 1 or 0.5 when Cos = 0 = 0, 360 when Cos = 0.5 = 60, 300 Therefore = 0, 60, 300, 360 Radians An alternative unit to degrees is Radians. The basic jist here is you need to be able to interchange between degrees and Radians. Where Radians = 180 degrees All you need to do is figure out your value of radians/degrees as a percentage of /degrees and then times the other unit by that percentage EG Convert 60 degrees into radian 60 degrees = 1/3 of 180 therefore in radians it would be /3 radians

Page 10 of 13

Circles
Basic Formula All circles follow the same basic formula which is (x-a)2 + (y-b)2 = R2 This is where a = the x value of the centre point of the circle b = the y value of the centre point of the circle R = the radius You may be given questions where you have (a) to figure out the centre point or radius from given co-ordinates, (b) determine if a point is on a circle or (c) does a line intersect with the circle and if so is it a tangent or a chord. With all these questions the first step is to draw the graph as this will help with inspection and determining wether your answer is plausible. (a) Given that the points (3,4) and (4,3) are on a circle of radius 5 units determine the midpoint Or A circle with centre point of (0,0) goes through the point (12,5) determine the radius (b) A circle with formula (x-8)2+(y-6)2 = 100 determine if the point (16,12) is on the circumference Use the values of (16,12) and put them into the formula (16-8)2 + (12-6)2 =100 82+62=100 100=100 Therefore the point (16,12) is on the circumference (ci) Determine where the Circle C (x-3)2 + (y-4)2 = 25 intersects the line y = 4x and the nature of the intersection Use normal Co-ordinate geometry and solve these two equations as simulatenous So sub y=4x into the circle equation (x-3)2 + (4x-4)2 = 25 (x-3) + (4x-4) = 5 5x = 12 or 5x = 4 x = 2.4 or x = 0.8 y = (4x 2.4) = 9.6 or y = (4x0.8) = 3.2 So they meet at (2.4,9.6) and (0.8,3.2) To determine the nature check to see if the linear equation goes through the centre point (3,4) 3=16 which is not true. Therefore the linear is a chord (cii) Determine where the Circle C x2 + y2 = 25 intersects the line y = 5 and the nature of the intersection Sub the lienar equation into the circle equation x2 + 52 = 25 x=0 Therefore the circle and Linear equation interesect at (0,5) As they only meet once the line is a tangent (ciii) Determine where the Circle C (x-3)2 + (y-4)2 = 25 intersects the line y = 10 and the nature of the intersection Sub the value of the linear equation into the circle equation and solve as far as possible (x-3)2 + (10-4)2 = 25 (x-3)2 = -11 This is impossible/irrational (see FP1) and therefore the two equations do not meet.

Page 11 of 13

Tangents and Normals Tangents are lines that touch the circle at one point. At this point they share a mutual gradient Normals are lines that pass through the centre of a circle and a point on the circumference. The normals gradient is the negative reciprocol of the tangents

Sequences and Series

Geometric Series Geometric series are series that have a common ratio between terms such as 1,2,4,8,16,32 This series has 2 important parts a which is the starting value r which is the common ratio Therefore there are 2 important results from this The nth term and The sum of terms The nth term is found by finding a(rn-1) The sum of terms is found by Sn= a(rn-1) r-1 The questions on this topic will vary from finding: a, r, the nth term or the sum of n terms Sum to infinity When there is a geometric sequence and -1<R<1 the terms will get so small that they will no longer affect the sum of terms. This is known as the sum to infinty of a convergent sequence, where a sequence gets closer and closer to 0. The sum to infinity is given by S= a 1-r Using this formula you can find the sum to infinity for different convergent sequences Binomial Expansion A binomial equation is where a two-part expression such as (a+b) or (1+x) is raised to a certain power IN order to solve Binomial expansions use the formula given on the formula sheets things to note: when it is (a-b) the terms will alternate between positive and negative When it is (2a+b) the coefficient will change by 2 to the indecies of each term Approximations You can use the Binomial expansions to approximate the value of two part equations or other numbers similar to them EG (1.0468)7 can be calculated to 6 dp using binomial expansion just break it up into (1+0.1468)7

Logarithms
Logarithms Logarithms are used to solve indecies that may be problomatic Generally and indecies can be converted into log forms in this form an=b ==> logab=n EGs log381 = x This can/should be re-written as 3x=81 and solved from there 81 can be rewritten as 34 3x=34 therefore x=4 NOTE on some calculaters the Log button is actually Log10 otherwise known as base 10

Page 12 of 13

Laws of Logs There are some set laws of how logs interact with each other. These are simply 1) logab - logac = loga(b/c) eg Log34 - log32 =log3(4/2) = log32 2) logab + logac = loga(bxc) Eg Log47 + log4 12 = log4(84) 3) n Logab = loga(bn) eg 5 log27 = log2(75) 4) logaa = 1 eg Log22 = 1 5) (logab) (logac) =/= loga(b/c) This should just be calculated like normal algebra Eg Log4 log5 = 0.861353116 Changing bases Due to the fact several types of calculators can only work with two different bases Log10 and Lne You need to be able to change the base. In order to change the base you need to use the following formula Logax = logbx logba This allows you to convert logs of a different base and enables you to simplify fancy equations:

Page 13 of 13