PRIMARY AND NON-TECTONIC STRUCTURE

Many undeformed rocks contain structures to their formation. These are known as primary structures. Most are unrelated to tectonic activity and hence many are also known as non-tectonic structures.
Primary structures - structures that are acquired during the genesis of rock. Non-tectonic structures - locally driven or small scale features not immediately due to tectonic interaction. Primary sedimentary structure - a syngenetic sedimentary structure determined by the conditions of deposition, developed before lithification of the rock in which it is found. It includes bedding, bedding-plane markings, and deformation structures produced by slumping or unequal loading. Bedding - primary layering in a sedimentary rock, formed during deposition, manifested by changes in texture, color and composition; may be emphasized by the presence of parting. Cross-bedding - also known as cross-stratification, is sedimentary structures of inclined layers within a bed Compaction squeezing unlithified sedimentary in response to pressure exerted by the weight of overlying layers. Overtuned beds beds that have been rotated past vertical in an Earth-surface frame reference; as a consequence, facing is down. Parting - the tendency of sedimentary layers to split or fracture along planes parallel to bedding; parting may be due to weak bonds between beds of difference composition, or may be due to a preference for bed-parallel orientation of clay and fissility. Stratum/Strata - are distinctive layers or beds, of sediments or sedimentary rocks deposited consecutively, or with interruption by unconformities, atop other rocks. Stratigraphic facing also known as younging direction, the direction to younger strata, or, in other words, the direction to the depositional top of beds.

The Use of Bedding in Structural Analysis

Depositional environment -The setting in which the sediment was originally deposited. Stratigraphic facing or younging direction -The direction in which in a sequence are progressively younger.

Current direction -The direction in which fluid was flowing during depositions

Facing indicators
Facing indicators allow you to determine whether a bed is right-side-up (facing up) or overturned (facing down) with respect to the Earths surface.

Grading
o the gradual reduction of the land to a level surface.

Turbidity flow
o a flow of dense, muddy water moving down a slope due to a turbidity current.

Turbidite
o the sediments or rocks that formed as a result of a turbidity flow

SURFACE MARKINGS
Local environment phenomena, such as rain, desiccation (drying), current traction and the movement of organisms, affect the surface of bed of sediment. If the sediment is unlithified, these phenomena leave an imprint. Animal tracks Clast imbrications Flute casts Mudcracks Raindrop impression Ripple marks Traction lineation Worm burrows

DISRUPTED BEDDING
Sand volcano A sand volcano or sand blow is a cone of sand formed by the ejection of sand onto a surface from a central point. It is a geological phenomenon which erupts mass quantities of sand instead of lava, although this is mainly due to geographical location. Load cast form due to density contrast combined with a plastic substratum

CLASTIC DIKE
A clastic dike is a seam of sedimentary material that fills a crack in and cuts across sedimentary strata or other rock types. Clastic dikes form rapidly by fluidized injection (mobilization of pressurized pore fluids) or passively by water, wind, and gravity (sediment swept into open cracks). Diagenesis may play a role in the formation of some dikes. Clastic dikes are commonly vertical or near-vertical.

SALT STRUCTURES
Most often found in passive margin basins. Halokinesis = deformation of halite by flowing, due to gravity. Usually occurs due to: o density inversion o differential loading o slope at base of salt layer Salt is non-porous and has low compressibility. Halite deposits typically have a density of about 2200 kg/m3, whereas clastic sediments may start off less dense (when they are first deposited) but then get compacted and dewater, typically ending up at about 2500 kg/m 3. This frequently leads to a density inversion, and the salt may rise upwards, often as a diapir. Its ascent stops at the level of neutral buoyancy, typically about 450 to 1500 m below the surface.

SALT STRUCTURES: Halo kinesis

Salt is a sedimentary rock that forms by the precipitation of evaporite minerals (halite, gypsum, anhydrite, calcium sulfates) from saline water. Salt differs from other sedimentary rocks in that it is much weaker and, is able to flow like a viscous fluid under conditions in which other sedimentary rocks behave in a brittle fashion. In some case, deformation of salt is due to tectonic faulting or folding, because salt is so weak, it may deform solely in response to gravity, and thereby cause deformation of surrounding sedimentary rock.

Stages

in

the

Formation

of

Salt

Structures

The Principal Types of Unconformities

Disconformity
-At a disconformity, beds of rock sequence above and below the unconformity are parallel to one another, but there is a measurable age difference between the two sequences. The disconformity surface represents a period of nondeposition and erosion.

Angular Unconformity
-Strata below the unconformity have a different attitude than strata above the unconformity. Beds below the unconformity are truncated at the unconformity, while beds above the unconformity roughly parallel the unconformity surface.

Nonconformity
-Nonconformity is used for unconformities which strata were deposited on a basement of older crystalline rocks. The crystalline rock may be either plutonic or metamorphic.

Buttress Unconformity -Occurs where beds of the younger sequence where deposited in a region of significant predepositional
topography. Note that a buttress unconformity differs from an angular unconformity in that the younger layer is truncated at the unconformity surface.

Other contact indicators Channeling Basal conglomerate - A coarse gravelly sandstone or conglomerate forming the lowest member of a series of related strata which lie unconformably on older rocks; records the encroachment of the seabeach on dry land. Time discordance / age disordance Paleosol - A layer of fossilized soil, usually buried beneath layers of rock or more recent soil horizons.

PENECONTEMPORANEOUS STRUCTURES
Debris flows / Debris fall o are fast moving, liquefied landslides of mixed and unconsolidated water and debris that look like flowing concrete. Slumping o a form of mass wasting movement that occurs when a coherent mass of loosely consolidated materials or rock layers moves a short distance down a slope.

IGNEOUS STRUCTURES
Terminologies Igneous rock - rocks formed by solidification of cooled magma (molten rock), with or without crystallization. Types of Igneous Rock Intrusive - form by the crystallization of magma at a depth within the Earth Extrusive - igneous rocks which form by the crystallization of magma at the surface of the Earth Sheet Intrusion - is where a mass of molten magma takes advantage of a pre-existing linear feature in a host rock, such as a long rupture or fault, and forces its way into these spaces Batholith - (from Greek bathos, depth + lithos, rock) - is a large emplacement of igneous intrusive (also called plutonic) rock that forms from cooled magma deep in the Earth's crust. Pluton - a body of intrusive igneous rock that is crystallized from magma below the surface of the Earth.

slowly cooling

Dike - or dyke - a type of sheet intrusion referring to any geologic body that cuts discordantly across. Sill - a tabular sheet intrusion that has intruded between older layers of sedimentary rock, beds of volcanic lava or tuff, or even along the direction of foliation in metamorphic rock.

 Stock - a discordant igneous intrusion having a surface exposure of less than 40 sq mi (100 km2), differing from batholiths only in being smaller. Hypabyssal - Solidifying chiefly as a minor intrusion, especially as a dike or sill, before reaching the earth's surface. Used of rocks

IGNEOUS STRUCTURES EXTRUSIVE FEATURES

Lava -

molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption. cooled magma

Pahoehoe Lava & Aa Flow Pahoehoe lava is much less common at Sunset Crater. In contrast to A'a' lava, pahoehoe lava is far more fluid (low viscosity) and has a distinctive ropy to smooth surface. Some lava flows begin as hot pahoehoe, then change to a'a' flows as they cool or slow down. Aa Flow are covered by an extremely rough jumble of broken lava blocks. Beneath this forbidding cover is a dense core of basalt. 'A'a flows form from relatively cool, sticky, pasty (high viscosity) lava. The surface and base of an 'A'a flow solidifies to form a crusty sheet that breaks into rough blocks as it flows away from its volcanic vent.

Pillow basalts When basalt enters water passively, it forms pillow basalt. These are bulbous bodies with quenched, glassy rinds. They are often spherical, with diameters of 30-100 cm, although many are lobate. Ignimbrites - is the deposit of a pyroclastic density current, or pyroclastic flow.

Flow foliation

IMPACT STRUCTURES
Craters o A large, bowl-shaped cavity in the ground or on the surface of a planet or the moon caused by an explosion, the impact of a meteorite, etc.

Shatter cones o A fluted conical structure produced in rock by intense mechanical shock, such as that associated with meteoritic impact. stishovite (quartz) o a dense tetragonal mineral SiO2 consisting of silicon dioxide that is a polymorph of quartz and that is formed under great pressure Pseudotachylite o A black rock that resembles tachylite; carries fragmental enclosures and shows evidence of having been at high temperature.

o Fault rock that has a basaltic glass appearance Shock metamorphism o Also known as impact metamorphism o describes the effects of shock-wave related deformation and heating during impact events.

TERMINOLOGIES
Genesis the origin or mode of formation of something Syngenetic - relating to or denoting a mineral deposit or formation produced at the same time as the enclosing or surrounding rock Lithification the process by which loose mineral fragments or particles of sand are solidified into stone Fissility - refers to the property of rocks to split along planes of weakness into thin sheets Unconformities are produced by erosion and non-produced non-deposition Channel - a type of landform consisting of the outline of a path of relatively shallow and narrow body of fluid specifically its bed and banks, most commonly the confine of a river, river delta or strait. Diapir - a type of intrusion in which a more mobile and ductily-deformable material is forced into brittle overlying rocks. Impact structure - is closely related to the terms impact crater or meteorite impact crater, and is used in cases in which erosion or burial have destroyed or masked the original topographic feature with which we normally associate the term crater. Foliation - is any penetrative planar fabric present in rocks. Foliation is common to rocks affected by regional metamorphic compression typical oforogenic belts.

REPORTED BY:

MANDOCDOC, JENNIFER BAGON, JUAN PAULO CASAS, LEIGH ANDREI

ALCANTARA, JOSE MARI GONZALES, SHERWIN PetE-3203