1

Application of Nakashimas 2 Stages 4

th
order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method and
Nakashimas 3 Stages 5
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method incorporate
with Hermite Interpolation to Delay Problems

by

1
Nazeeruddin Yaacob,
2
Nur Ain Ayunni Sabri ,
3
Norshuhada Binti Samsudin,
and
4
Lim Tian Hwee
Department of Methematics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 UTM Johor, Johor Darul Takzim.
e-mail:
1
ny@mel.fs.utm.my,
2
ain_ayunni@yahoo.com ,
3
norshuhada87@yahoo.com,
4
stken2002@yahoo.com.sg


Abstract Ordinary differential equations (ODEs) and delay differential equations (DDEs) arise in
many different phenomena including in physics, biology and chemistry. The aim of this research is to
investigate numerically the problem on solving Delay Differential Equations (DDEs) using Nakashimas
2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method and Nakashimas 3 Stages 5
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta
Method. This research also discussed the problem on solving Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs)
using the same method. In this research, we also developed the algorithm of Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th

Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method and Nakashimas 3 Stages 5
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta incorporate
with Hermite Interpolation. A comparison of absolute error between Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order
Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method with Classical Runge-Kutta Method and 3 stages 5
th
order Pseudo-Runge-
Kutta method with 6 stages 5
th
order Kutta-Nystrm method are presented. This report also discuss the
application of DDEs in Nicholsons Blowflies Model and Food-Limited Model. In this research, we use
Mathematica 7 software and Microsoft Office Excel 2007 to perform the calculation.

Keywords : Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs), Delay Differential Equations (DDEs), Pseudo-
Runge-Kutta Method, Hermite Interpolation.




id248691281 pdfMachine by Broadgun Software - a great PDF writer! - a great PDF creator! - http://www.pdfmachine.com http://www.broadgun.com
2

1. Introduction

Ordinary differential equations (ODEs) and delay differential equations (DDEs) are used to describe
many phenomena in physics, biology and chemistry [1]. ODEs is a relation that contains functions of only
one independent variable and one or more their derivatives with respect to that variable. ODEs are
distinguished from Partial Differential Equations (PDEs).

An Initial Value Problem (IVP) be specified as

(1.1)

where the function called the state variable represents some physical quantity that evolves over the
time [2]. ODEs are usually solved using the step-size methods that. The method that commonly been used
to solve ODEs are RK Method, Euler Method and any other step-size methods. RK Method is the most
popular method that been used to solve ODEs.

Delay Differential Equations (DDEs) differ from ODEs in that the derivatives at any time depend on
the solution (and in the case of neutral equations on the derivatives) at prior times. In more general
models, the derivative

may depend on and itself at some past value .

The first order delay differential equation (DDE) with one delay term can be written as

(1.2)

where is a constant delay. Note that, this cannot be cast as an IVP with the hope of actually defining a
unique solution, because at an initial point

,the derivative depends on the value of

. What we
will need to do is to specify the value of on an initial interval

.

For the recent years, there are many papers have been written regarding on solving DDEs ( see [3],
[4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13]). In this research, we solve ODEs and DDEs using
Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method. For DDEs, we used the method
incorporates with Hermite Interpolation.


3

2. Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Formulae

Pseudo-Runge-Kutta methods that we are considering are [14]:
a) Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta

b) Nakashimas 3 Stages 5
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta
)) 2 . 35220749 39765362
12 . 13179377 32 . 37444363 32 . 60198640 (
22754277
1
,
15
13
(
) 784 . 0 224 . 0 608 . 0 392 . 0 , 4 . 0 (
) (
) , (
)
107016
5 . 35437
107016
56875
107016
14749
107016
5 . 45
(
2 1
0 1 3
1 0 1 2
1
1 1 0
3 2 1 0 1
hk hk
hk y y h x f k
hk hk y y h x f k
y x f k
y x f k
k k k k h y y
n n n
n n n
n n
n n
n n
+
+ =
+ + + + =
=
=
+ + +

+ =

+



3 Hermite Interpolation

Interpolation is used to obtain an approximation solution for a specific value of , it is possible to
shorten the final step, if necessary, to complete the step exactly at the right place. It is usually more
convenient to rely on step size control mechanism that is independent of output requirements and to
produce require output results by interpolation as the opportunity arises. The use of interpolation make it
also possible to produce output at multiple and arbitrary points [15].

Hermite Interpolation is an extension of basic polynomial interpolation that not only matches discrete
information at a set of points, but also matches the slope (or rate of change) at those points.


4

Hermite Interpolation is a method of interpolating data points as a polynomial function, in the field of
numerical analysis. The generated Hermite Polynomial is closely related to the Newton Polynomial in
that both are derived from the calculation of Divided Differences. Hermite Interpolation matches data
points in both value and first derivative. This means that derivatives values

must be given in addition to data points

.


4 Algorithm of Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method incorporates with Hermite Interpolation

In this research, we will introduce other method to solve DDEs. The method that we use is
Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method (Algorithm 1) and Nakashimas 3 Stages 5
th

Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method (Algorithm 2) incorporate with Hermite Interpolation to approximate
the delay arguments.

Algorithm 1

1. Formulae for RK4 Method becomes,

(4.1)

2. From the first step, we will get the delay argument that is not fix point. Therefore, here we need do
some approximation using Hermite Interpolation. The mesh point

that we going to
choose are must:
a) Depends on the delay argument that we want to approximate and the value of . For each point
that we choose, that point is multiple becomes two points.
b) Contain all the argument in the interval of mesh points.

5

3. Next, substitute the value of mesh point that we choose to find new argument of.

4. Then, using divided difference to find the approximation. The finite difference formula that we need
to find are:

5. Continue with,

Next,

Until,

6

6. Finally, substitute into Hermite Interpolation formula,

7

7. Substitute all the value of

and

into equation

to get

.

8. Repeat all the above procedure to calculate

, using Nakashimas 2 Stages 4

th
Order Pseudo-
Runge-Kutta Method incorporate with Hermite Interpolation.

Algorithm 2

1. The formulae for 6 stages 5
th
order Kutta-Nystrm formulae is,
)) 125 81 125 23 )(
192
((
6 5 3 1 1
k k k k
h
y y
n n
+ + + =
+
(4.2)
)) ( , , (
1
=
n n n
t y y t f k
)) )
3
1
(( ,
3
1
,
3
1
(
1 2
+ + + = h t y hk y h t f k
n n n

)) )
5
2
(( ), 6 4 (
25
1
,
5
2
(
2 1 3
+ + + + = h t y k k h y h t f k
n n n

)) ) (( ), 15 12 (
4
1
, (
3 2 1 4
+ + + + = h t y k k k h y h t f k
n n n

)) )
3
2
(( ), 8 50 90 6 (
81
1
,
3
2
(
4 3 2 1 5
+ + + + + = h t y k k k k h y h t f k
n n n

)) )
5
4
(( ), 8 10 36 6 (
75
1
,
5
4
(
4 3 2 1 6
+ + + + + + = h t y k k k k h y h t f k
n n n


Assume that the data points,
n
t t t t ,..., , ,
2 1 0
be points that are not mesh points. We should select some
points,
n
z z z z
2 2 1 0
,..., , , as a mesh points which are closest to the data points. Let

8

) ( ] [
... ...
... ...
... ...
) ( ] [
) ( ] [
2 2
1 1
0 0
n n
z y z f
z y z f
z y z f
=
=
=


Then, the following set of data should be calculated using divided difference:

i i
i i
i i
i i
z z
z f z f
z z f
n i z z

=
= =
+
+
+
+
1
1
1
1
] [ ] [
] , [
,..., 2 , 1 , 0 for


However, for some divided differences,

undefined) (
0
0

] [ ] [
] , [
1
1
1
=

=
+
+
+
i i
i i
i i
z z
z f z f
z z f


So, the divided difference should be replaced by

) (
] [ ] , [
1
i
i i i
z y
z f z z f
' =
' =
+



2. Next, we have to calculate the following differences;
i i
i i i i
i i i
z z
z z f z z f
z z z f

=
+
+ + +
+ +
2
1 2 1
2 1
] , [ ] , [
] , , [
9

... ...
... ...
... ...
] , [ ] , [
] , , [
3 2
2 1 3 2
3 2 1
+ +
+ + + +
+ + +

=
i i
i i i i
i i i
z z
z z f z z f
z z z f

n i
z z
z z f z z f
z z z z f
i n i
i i n i n i
n i i i i
,..., 2 , 1 , 0 for
] , [ ] , [
] ,..., , , [
1 1
2 1
=

=
+
+ + +
+ + +



3. Now, the value of
6 5 4 3 2 1
and , , , , k k k k k k in 5
th
order 6 stages Kutta-Nystrm method can be found
using Hermite Interpolation formula.
) )...( )( )( ]( ,..., , , [
... ) )( ]( , , [ ) ]( , [ ] [
) 1 ( 2 1 2 1
1 2 1 1
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
+
+ + + =
n i i i i n i i i i
i i i i i i i i i r
z x z x z x z x z z z z f
z x z x z z z f z x z z f z f k


where 6 and ,3,4,5 2 , 1 = r

4. Repeat all the above procedure in order to compute the value of
n
y using Nakashimas 3 stages 5
th

order PRK method where ,... 3 , 2 = n

5. Solving ODEs using Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method

We solved two examples related to ordinary differential equations (ODEs) using Microsoft Office
Excel 2007 using Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method and Nakashimas 3
Stages 5
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method . In order to compute the value of
1
y , a method from the
family of Runge-Kutta known as Classical Runge-Kutta method and 5
th
order Kutta-Nystrm method will
be used.





10

Problem 1: (Masaharu Nakashima [14])

ln(2) y(1)
2 x 1 ,
1
=
s s
+
+ = '
x
x
x
y
y

Exact solution: ) 1 ln( ) ( + = x x x y
Result are given for ] 2 , 1 [ e x


Problem 2: (Masaharu Nakashima [14])


1
1
y
z
z
y
= '
= '


Initial conditions: 1 ) 0 ( and 1 ) 0 ( = = z y
Exact solutions: ) exp( ) ( and ) exp( ) ( x x z x x y = =

Result are given for ] 2 , 0 [ e x


5.1 Numerical Results

The numerical results for all examples are presented in Table 5.1 and Table 5.2. The notations used
are as follows:

Method:
M1: 4
th
Order Runge-Kutta Method
M2: Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method
M3: 5
th
order Kutta-Nystrm Method
M4: Nakashimas 3 Stages 5
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method






11

Table 5.1: Numerical results for Problem 1
x Methods y Exact solution |error|

2
M1 2.197224 2.197225 1.55E-07
M2 2.197224 2.197225 2.00E-07
M3 2.197225 2.197225 2.39E-09
M4 2.197225 2.197225 1.95E-09


Table 5.2: Absolute error for Problem 2
x Methods Solution Exact solution |error|
y z y z y z

2
M1 7.389050 0.135335 7.389056 0.135335 6.53E-06 1.18E-07
M2 7.389065 0.135335 7.389056 0.135335 8.61E-06 1.71E-07
M3 2.887852 0.296187 7.389056 0.135335 4.501204 0.160852
M4 7.389056 0.135335 7.389056 0.135335 1.90E-08 1.30E-09


6. Numerical Example for Delay Differential Equations

We solved one problem on delay differential equations using Wolfram Mathematica 7 Software.

Problem 1: (Fudziah Ismail [8])

Exact solution :

Results are given for ] 1 , 0 [ e t





12

Problem 2: (Fudziah Ismail [8])

) exp( 1 ) (
0 ), sin( ) (
0 ), cos( ) sin( ) ( ) (
t t
t t t y
t t t t y t y
=
s =
> + + = '

Exact solution: ) sin( ) ( t t y =

Results are given for ] 6 , 0 [ e t



6.1 Numerical Results

The results between two methods are shown in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2. The notations used are as
follows:

Method:
M1: Fourth Order Runge-Kutta Method
M2: Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method
M3: 6 Stages 5
th
order Kutta-Nystrm Method
M4: Nakashimas 3 Stages 5
th
Order PRK Method

Table 6.1: Numerical results for Problem 1
Methods Problem 1 Exact solution |error|
2 M1 0.693140990880990300 0.69314718055994530942 6.18967895500910
-6

M2 0.693140521218275059 0.69314718055994530942 6.65934167025010
-6


Table 6.2: Numerical results for Problem 2
Methods Problem 2 Exact solution |error|
6 M3 -0.27791862027177853 -0.27941549819892587281 1.4968779271473 10
-3

M4 -0.22917908419745020 -0.27941549819892587281 4.9696414001476 10
-2





13

7. Application of Delay Differential Equation
7.1 Food-limited model

Food-limited model is a model for population growth which is proposed by Smith in 1963. This
model is an alternative to the logistic equation for food-limited population

(7.1)
Here and are the mass of the population, the rate of increase with unlimited food and value of at
saturation respectively. The constant

is the rate replacement of mass in the population at saturation (this

includes both the replacement of metabolic loss and of dead organism) [18].

The delayed food-limited model is in Equation (5.1), with

and
for and . The initial function

.

7.2 Nicholsons Blowflies Model

Nicholsons Blowflies model was introduced by Nicholson in 1954 to model laboratory fly
population [16]. Over a period of nearly two years, Nicholson recorded the population of flies and
observed a regular basic periodic oscillation of about 35-40 days. Nicholson concluded that the basic
cause of the oscillations was the time lag between stimulus and reaction of the density related responses
[17]. The equation that related to this model is:
) ( ]
) (
exp[ ) (
0
t x
x
t x
t Px
dt
dx

= (7.2)
where P is the maximum per capita daily egg production,
is per capita daily adult death rate,
is the generation time or the time taken from birth to maturity, and

0
x is the size at which the blowflies population reproduces at its maximum rate.

We will solve equation (7.2) using the same method as before.
Let , 475 . 0 , 4 , 8
0
= = = x P and 15 = . The step size is 0.5 and the initial function is
0 for )], 15 . 0 [exp( 4 ) ( < = t t t x .
14

7.3 Results and Discussion

Table 7.1: Results for Applications 7.1 using RK4 Method and Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-
Runge-Kutta Method incorporate with Hermite Interpolation.
RK4 Method Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order
Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0


From the table, we can see that both methods give the same answer for this problem. In Table 7.1, we
see that the solution from both methods is almost same although have small error between both method,
this shows that Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runnge-Kutta Mehod also can be applied to real
15

life problem of DDEs. By comparing both methods, we can see the validity of the new method in solving
the real life problem of DDEs . We conclude that Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta
Method can be used to solve DDEs.


Table 7.2: Comparison of the solution between two methods


n


t

M1 M2

) (t x

) (t x
0 0 4 4
1 0.5 3.101792747681278883 3.101792747681278883
2 1 2.282036326130701260 2.2823768301239413200
3 1.5 1.559683978182947080 1.5446449324565397100
4 2 0.925409963222628890 0.8949777112168240700
5 2.5 0.805638882664319840 0.4815374936319693800
6 3 0.376116649290393560 0.043676119338130900
7 3.5 0.07598471306974319 -0.261479257459350710
8 4 -0.07172126667834287 -0.410182732717293470
9 4.5 0.060873132020430680 -0.374330017150631440
10 5 0.394788494785663410 -0.12482633160538590
11 5.5 0.874203593493374200 0.37147881000832600
12 6 1.585603698651942400 1.14533937572817660
13 6.5 2.706616818073141630 2.18736020757235950
14 7 4.08314777378157230 3.52185110744682660
15 7.5 5.82747099239149670 5.16927068896764310
16 8 7.91800560918772900 7.32311203203220810
17 8.5 10.3839205825573586 9.86363385478120990
18 9 13.2747610603134180 12.7941505921310629
19 9.5 16.4936228655555370 16.1105956687587820
20 10 20.075893269499864 19.769818620497050

16

Nicholsons Blowflies model shows the application of delay differential equations in
population dynamics. This model has been solved using Nakashimas 3 stages 5
th
order Pseudo-
Runge-Kutta method incorporate with Hermite Interpolation and also 6 stages 5
th
order Kutta-
Nystrm method. The results in the table and graph shows total population of blowflies when
10 0 s s t . Consider to both results above, we can see that the results between two methods are
almost the same. Hence, we can conclude that Nakashimas 3 stages 5
th
order PRK method can
be used in solving this DDEs problem.

According to Nicholsons, the population of blowflies will shows cyclic fluctuations
caused by limited food and delayed reproduction [21]. Since eggs will be produced by adults if
sufficient protein is available, competition for the limited food supply will affects natality. Base
on Nicholsons experiment, the graphs will show a periodic oscillations if the time is extended.
The period of the cycles is influence by the delay and adult death rate.

8. Conclusions

In this report, we discussed two methods on solving some example of Ordinary Differential Equations
(ODEs) and Delay Differential Equations (DDEs) using Nakashimas 2 stages 4
th
order Pseudo-Runge-
Kutta method and Nakashimas 3 stages 5
th
order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta method. We have also derived
PRK method incorporates with Hermite Interpolation.

In section 4, two ODEs problem had been solved using both PRK method. A comparison of absolute
error between Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method with Classical Runge-Kutta
Method and 3 stages 5
th
order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta method with 6 stages 5
th
order Kutta-Nystrm
method had been analyzed more detail. As a conclusion, solving ODEs using PRK method perform better
results compare to Runge-Kutta method. The error is smaller and it shows that PRK methods gives
accurate values in solving ODEs.

In section 5, we solve two delay differential equations problems using PRK method incorporate with
Hermite Interpolation and compare the results with Runge-Kutta method. From the numerical results, we
have observed that PRK method perform a good results in solving DDEs of single delay because the
17

answer is as accurate as Runge-Kutta method. In section 6, a population model base on Food-Limited
Model and Nicholsons Blowflies Model had been solved using the same method.

Therefore, we conclude that 2 and 3 stages Pseudo-Runge-Kutta method has the potential to solve
other initial value problems that related to ordinary differential equations and delay differential equations.
Besides that, the function evaluation when using PRK method is less compare to Runge-Kutta method
since PRK method only have two and three stages step process.

For some cases, PRK method cannot perform better results because the error is larger compare to
Runge-Kutta method. Although numerical methods from the family of Runge-Kutta method are the most
popular in solving ordinary differential equations and delay differential equations, other alternative
method such as 2 and 3 stages PRK method can perform better to approximate this solution based on its
accuracy.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge the Research Management Centre, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM),
for funding this work under Project Vote: 78337.















18

References

[1] J.N.Sharma. Numerical Methods for Engineers and Scientist. Deemed Univerity: Alpha Science
International Ltd. Pangbourne England. 2004

[2] Bellen, A., and Zennaro, M. Numerical Methods for Delay Differential Equations. United States:
Oxford Science Publications. 2003.

[3] Al-Mutib, A.N. One-Step Implicit Methods for Solving Delay Differential Equations.
International Journal of Computer Mathematics. 1984. Vol.16, pp.157-168.

[4] Ishak. F., Suleiman, M.B., and Omar. Z. Two-Point Predictor-Corrector Block Methods for
Solving Delay Differential Equations. Matematika. 2008. Vol.24(2), pp.131-140.

[5] Lwin, A.S. Solving Delay Differential Equations Using Explicit Runge-Kutta Methods. Master
Thesis. Universiti Putra Malaysia. 2004

[6] Wong, W.S., Zhang, Y., and Li, S. Stability of Continuous Runge-Kutta Methods for Non-Linear
Neutral Delay Differential Equations. Applied Mathematical Modeling. 2009. Vol.33, pp.3319-
3329.

[7] Ismail, F., and Suleiman, M.B. Solving Delay Differential Equations Using Intervalwise
Partitioning by Runge-Kutta Method. Applied Mathematics and Computation. 2001. Vol,121,
pp.37-53.

[8] Ismail, F. et al .Numerical Treatment of Delay Differential Equations by Runge-Kutta Method
using Hermite Interpolation. Matematika. 2002. Vol.18(2), pp.79-90.

[9] Huang, C. et al. D-Convergence of General Linear Methods for Stiff Delay Differential
Equations. Computers and Mathematics with Applications. 2001. Vol.41, pp.627-639.

19

[10] Verheyden, K., Luzyanina, T., and Roose, D. Efficient Computation of Characteristic Roots of
Delay Differential Equations Using Linear Multistep Method. Journal of Computational and
Applied Mathematics. 2008. Vol.214, pp.209-226.

[11] Zhang, C., and Sun, G. Nonlinear Stability of Runge-Kutta Methods Applied to Infinite Delay
Differential Equations. Mathematical and Computer Modeling. 2004. Vol.39, pp.495-503.

[12] Hout, K.J. On The Stability of Adaptations Of Runge-Kutta Methods to System of Delay
Differential Equations. Applied Numerical Mathematics. 1996. Vol.22, pp.237-250.

[13] Bartoszewski, Z., and Jackiewicz, Z. Stability Analysis of Two-Step Runge-Kutta Method for
Delay Differential Equations. Computers and Mathematics With Application. 2002. Vol.44,
pp.83-93.

[14] Masaharu Nakashima. On Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Methods with 2 and 3 Stages. RIMS Publications,
1982. 18(3) : 895-909.
[15] Butcher, J.C. Numerical Methods for Ordinary Differential Equation. 2
nd
ed. John Willey and
Sons Ltd. 2008

[16] Brian J. McCartin. Exponential Fitting of the Delay Recruitment/ Renewal Equation. Journal of
Computational and Applied Mathematics. 2001. 136: 343-356.

[17] L.Berezansky, E.Braverman and L.Idels. Nicholsons Blowflies Differential Equations Revisited:
Main Results and Open Problems. Applied Mathematical Modelling.Canada: Elsevier Inc.307-
317; 2009.

[18] Arino, O. et al. Delay Differential Equations and Applications. Berlin:Springer. pp.477-517.
2006.





20

Appendix




Figure 1: Comparison the solution between Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo-Runge-Kutta Method,
RK4 Method and exact solution for Problem 1(DDEs)















1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7

Exact solution
RK4 Method and
PRK Method


y(t
n
)
21




Figure 2: Comparison of the solution between Nakashimas 3 stages 5
th
order PRK method and 6 stages
5
th
order Kutta-Nystrm with exact solution for Problem 2 (DDEs)



1 2 3 4 5 6
1.0
0.5
0.5
1.0
PRK Method
Kutta-Nystrm Method
& Exact Solutions
) (t x
t
22


Figure 3: Comparison the solution between RK4 Method with Nakashimas 2 Stages 4
th
Order Pseudo
Runge-Kutta Method for Food-Limited Model

















5 10 15 20
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
RK4 Method
PRK Method

t
) (t x
23



Figure 6: Comparison of the solution between Nakashimas 3 stages 5
th
order PRK method and 6 stages
5
th
order Kutta-Nystrm for Nicholsons Blowflies Model




2 4 6 8 10
5
10
15
20
) (t x
t
PRK Method
Kutta-Nystrm Method