Materials are critical nations quality of life, security and economic strength.

- building blocks for advanced technologies - tools for addressing urgent problems, such as pollution, declining natural resources and escalating costs. materials are like people; it is the defects that make them interesting Materials science or materials engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of science and engineering. This science investigates the relationship between the structure of materials and their properties. It includes elements of applied physics and chemistry, as well as chemical, mechanical, civil and electrical engineering. With significant media attention to nanoscience and nanotechnology especially nowadays. The material of choice of a given era is often its defining point: 1. Stone age 2. Bronze Age 3. Steel age Materials size scale atomic scale ~ 0.1 X 10-9 m or 0.1 nm -6 ~ 50 X 10 m or 50 m microscopic scale ~ 10-2 m or 1 cm macroscopic scale Fundamentals of Materials 1. Molecule is the smallest particle of a compound that retains all the characteristics of the compound. 2. Atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains all the characteristics of that element. 3. Compound a chemical combination of two or more elements that can be separated by chemical means, but not by physical means. 4. Element substance that cannot be reduced to a simpler substance by chemical means.

Atomic Structure Proton positively charge particle the charge on the proton is equal to 1.6 X 10 19 Coulomb mass of 1.67 X 10 -27 Kg The total number of protons gives the Atomic Number of the element Electron negatively charge particle the charge on the electron is equal to 1.6 X 10 19 Coulomb mass of 9.1 X 10 -31 Kg Neutron neutral particle Mass of 1.675 X 10 -27 Kg Valence electrons the number of electrons in the outermost shell (valence shell) that determine the valence of an atom. Intrinsic material pure (Si or Ge) Extrinsic material impure Doping adding of impurities to semiconductor devices Two types of extrinsic 1. n-type 2. p-type N-type To increase the number of conduction band electrons in intrinsic material, impurity atoms are added (Pentavalent) These atoms with five valence electrons (Ar, P, Bi and Sb) pentavalent donor atom Holes in n-type are called minority carriers P-type To increase the number of holes in intrinsic material, impurity atoms are added (trivalent) These atoms with three valence electrons (B, In, Al and Ga) Trivalent - acceptor Electrons in p-type are called minority carriers

Atomic Model

Avogadros Number = 6.023 X 1023 atoms/mole Problem What is the mass in grams of one atom of copper? Ans: 1.05 X 10-22 gram Problem How many copper atoms are in 1 gram of copper? Ans: 9.47 X 1021 atoms

Chemical Bonding A chemical bond is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between atoms and molecules, and that which confers stability to diatomic and polyatomic chemical compounds. Molecules, crystals, and diatomic gasesindeed most of the physical environment around usare held together by chemical bonds, which dictate the structure of matter.

Six rules for the shared electron bond: 1. The electron-pair bond forms through the interaction of an unpaired electron on each of two atoms. 2. The spins of the electrons have to be opposed. 3. Once paired, the two electrons cannot take part in additional bonds. 4. The electron-exchange terms for the bond involve only one wave function from each atom. 5. The available electrons in the lowest energy level form the strongest bonds. 6. Of two orbitals in an atom, the one that can overlap the most with an orbital from another atom will form the strongest bond, and this bond will tend to lie in the direction of the concentrated orbital. Chemical Bond A. Primary Bonds (Stronger) 1. Covalent Bonding Polar covalent bonding is intermediate in character between a covalent and an ionic bond. 2. Ionic Bonding 3. Metallic Bonding B. Secondary Bonds (Weak) - Intermolecular Bonding 1. Permanent dipole to permanent dipole 2. Hydrogen Bond 3. Instantaneous to induced dipole (van der Waals) 4. Cation-pi reaction

A. Primary Bonding Covalent Bonding one or more electrons are drawn into the space between the two atomic nuclei. Here the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positive charges of both nuclei, instead of just their own. Bonds within most organic compounds. Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding, in which the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms is small or non-existent. Covalent bonding involves sharing of electrons in which the positively charged nuclei of two or more atoms simultaneously attract the negatively charged electrons that are being shared. This overcomes the repulsion between the two positively charged nuclei of the two atoms and so this overwhelming attraction holds the two nuclei in a relatively fixed configuration of equilibrium, even though they will still vibrate at equilibrium position.

Ionic Bonding (electrovalent bond) - is a type of electrostatic interaction between atoms which have an electronegativity. The chemical bond based on electrostatic forces between two oppositely-charged ions. In ionic bond formation, a metal donates an electron, due to a low electronegativity, to form a positive ion or cation. Ex. NaCl

Metallic Bonding - bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. Solids composed primarily of electropositive elements containing three or fewer valence electrons held by together by this bond.

B. Secondary Bonding There are four basic types of bonds that can be formed between two or more molecules, ions or atoms. Intermolecular forces cause molecules to be attracted or repulsed by each other. Often, these define some of the physical characteristics (such as the melting point) of a substance.

Permanent dipole to permanent dipole - A large electronegativity difference between two strongly bonded atoms within a molecule causes a dipole to form (a dipole is a pair of permanent partial charges). Dipoles will attract or repel each other. Hydrogen bond - In the hydrogen bond, the hydrogen proton comes closer to being shared between target and donor atoms, in a three-center two-electron bond like that in diborane. Hydrogen bonds explain the relatively high boiling points of liquids like water, ammonia, and hydrogen fluoride. Instantaneous dipole to induced dipole (van der Waals) - Instantaneous dipole to induced dipole, or van der Waals forces, are the weakest, but also the most prolific/versatileoccurring between all chemical substances. Imagine a helium atom: At any one point in time, the electron cloud around the (otherwise neutral) atom can be thought to be slightly imbalanced, with momentarily more negative charge on one side. This is referred to as an instantaneous dipole. This dipole, with its slight charge imbalance, may attract or repel the electrons within a neighboring helium atom, setting up another dipole. The two atoms will be attracted for an instant, before the charge rebalances and the atoms move on. Cation-pi interaction - occur between the localized negative charge of A orbital electrons, located above and below the plane of an aromatic ring, and a positive charge.

Crystal Lattice Structure

A crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a crystal. A crystal structure is composed of a motif, a set of atoms arranged in a particular way, and a lattice. Motifs are located upon the points of a lattice, which is an array of points repeating periodically in three dimensions. A lattice is a regular array of lattice points in three dimensions, and a crystallographic unit cell is a parallelepiped formed by connecting eight lattice points.

The points can be thought of as forming identical tiny boxes, called unit cells, that fill the space of the lattice. The lengths of the edges of a unit cell and the angles between them are called the lattice parameters. The units cells stacked in three-dimensional space describes the bulk arrangement of atoms of the crystal. The symmetry properties of the crystal are embodied in its space group. A crystal's structure and symmetry play a role in determining many of its properties. A cubic unit cell is characterized by six square faces and three equal noncoplanar edges: a = b = c. The volume of a cubic unit cell is a.b.c or V = a3 A hexagonal unit cell is characterized by four rectangular faces (with edges a & c and b & c) and two parallelograms with equal sides (a = b) and interior angles of 60o and 120o. The volume of a hexagonal unit cell is a.b.c.sin(120o) or

Bravais Lattice Bravais lattice, when the crystal systems are combined with the various possible lattice centering. They describe the geometric arrangement of the lattice points, and thereby the translational symmetry of the crystal. In three dimensions, there are 14 unique Bravais lattices which are distinct from one another in the translational symmetry they contain. The Bravais lattices are sometimes referred to as space lattices.

Coordination Number (CN). Numbers of the nearest neighbor atom. Density

Basic Crystal Structures 1. Simple Cubic (SC) unit cell there is one lattice point at each of the eight corners of a cube. Unit cells in which there are lattice points only at the eight corners are called primitive

There is one atom wholly inside the cube (Z = 1) CN = 6 2. Body Centered Cubic (BCC) - There is one host atom at each corner of the cubic unit cell and one atom in the cell center. Each atom touches eight other host atoms along the body diagonal of the cube (a = 2.3094r, Z = 2).

Problem Calculate the density if the characteristics: Fe atomic mass: 55.85 g/mol Fe atomic radius: 1.24 X 10-8 cm Ans: 7.87 g/cm3

BCC

iron,

having

the

following

3. Face Centered Cubic (FCC) - There is one host atom at each corner, one host atom in each face, and the host atoms touch along the face diagonal (a = 2.8284r, Z = 4). This lattice is "closest packed", because spheres of equal size occupy the maximum amount of space; since this closest packing is based on a cubic array, it is called "cubic closest packing": CCP = FCC.

4. Hexagonal Closest Packing (HCP) - To form a three-dimensional closest packed structure, the hexagonal closest packed planes must be stacked such that atoms in successive planes nestle in the triangular "grooves" of the preceding plane. Note that there are six of these "grooves" surrounding each atom in the hexagonal plane, but only three of them can be covered by atoms in the adjacent plane.

Packing Efficiency/Atomic Packing Factor (APF) The packing efficiency of a lattice is defined as the ratio Vs:Vc APF = Vs:Vc Vs = volume of a sphere = Vs = 4/3 r3 Vc = volume of the cell

Problem Calculate the packing efficiency of the Simple Cubic (SC). Ans: ~ 52% BCC = 68% FCC = 74% HCP = ~ 60% Crystal Imperfection

Miller Indices Coordinates of points based on Cartesian Coordinates

D 0

.H
B Y

A E X
Positions 0 A B C D E F G H Coordinates 0, 0, 0 (origin) 1, 0, 0 0, 1, 0 0, 0, 1 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1 1/2, 1, 1/2

Factors of Crystalline Structures 1. Linear Density L = the number of equivalent lattice points per unit length along a direction

atoms/meter 2. Planar Density P = the number of atoms per unit area on a plane of interest

atoms/m2 Problem Calculate the linear density along [1 1 1] in a BCC material. Ans: 1/(2r) Problem Determine the planar density of (1 1 0) in a FCC crystal.

Five classes of Materials 1. Metals 2. Ceramics 3. Polymers 4. Composites 5. Semiconductors

Metals Metal (Greek: fudgeon) fudgean element that readily loses electrons to form positive ions (cations) and has metallic bonds between metal atoms. Metals form ionic bonds with non-metals. The traditional definition focuses on the bulk properties of metals. They tend to be lustrous, ductile, malleable, and good conductors of electricity, while nonmetals are generally brittle, lack luster, and are insulators. Ceramic Ceramic materials are inorganic, nonmetallic materials which consist of metallic and nonmetallic elements bonded together primarily by ionic and/or covalent bonds. Polymers A polymer is a substance composed of molecules with large molecular mass composed of repeating structural units, or monomers, connected by covalent chemical bonds. The word is derived from the Greek, AKLM, polu, "many"; and OPKQ, meros, "part"). Well known examples of polymers include plastics, DNA and proteins. Composites Composite materials (or composites for short) are engineered materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties and which remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level within the finished structure. Semiconductor A semiconductor is a solid that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator, and can be controlled over a wide range, either permanently or dynamically. Semiconductors are tremendously important in technology. Semiconductor devices, electronic components made of semiconductor materials, are essential in modern electrical devices. Examples range from computers to cellular phones to digital audio players. Silicon is used to create most semiconductors commercially, but dozens of other materials are used as well.