THERMAL ANALYSIS

1.0 INTRODUCTION: The design philosophy of Power Plant components is continuously undergoing significant improvements since last three decades. In thermal as well as nuclear power plants there are number of components, which work under conditions of high temperature and stresses. Some of these components are static like steam chests, casings, valves, pressure vessels, etc. and some are rotating like rotors, blades, impellers, etc. Large flow quantities; high inlet One has to pay enough pressure and temperature conditions of steam have made the design of many components of the power plant, a challenging job. and operational flexibility (1,2). i) ii) iii) iv) v) Uniform flow distribution in passages. Minimum pressure losses. Thermal symmetry of intricate components. Freedom for thermal expansion. High material strength under creep and fatigue. Requirements (i) and (ii) are essentially of aerodynamic nature whose study is not under the scope of the present course. Requirements (iii) to (v) are dictated from the thermal behaviour of components during operational transients. Operating strategies are demanding for more extensive engineering analysis of power plant components. This is necessary not only in view of new plant design but also to study desirable modifications of operating methods in existing plants. A number of papers (3, 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8) on the cyclic duty operation involving various start up, shut down, load changes, various modes of operation namely fixed pressure, variable pressure, by-pass, etc. are published. In these articles, influences of various technical parameters on the stresses of different components are described. The economic aspects in achieving rapid start up and technical limitation like life attention to fulfill the following requirements to achieve high efficiency, reliability

expenditure, etc. have been also discussed. High thermal stresses or thermal stress cycling can cause a) transient or permanent distortion of components like casings, rotors, etc. leading to disturbance of clearances between static and rotating parts thus impairing thermal performance of turbine or rubbing between rotor and gland rings causing severe vibrations, b) low cycle thermal fatigue cracking which is generally found to originate from stress concentration areas of rotors, casings, steam chest, nozzle box, valve bodies, boiler tubes, etc. These requirements are to a great extent within the control of a designer. We can creatively contribute by incorporating improvements on several constructional features during the conceptual and detail design stages of critical components. it is claimed that material data on low cycle fatigue obtained through tests devised to simulate service conditions (i.e. asymmetric tensile and compressive stresses with dwell periods to allow for stress change which take place under creep during steady running in service) up to 10 cycles enabled prediction of component life with confidence without recourse to extrapolations. As a result of extensive evaluation of analytical results by FEM on most critical components, theremocouples could be mounted on judiciously selected locations in order to get indication of thermal stress level (by appropriate calibration of temperature differential in terms of thermal stress level) for purposes of operational control. Their computational thermal analysis using FEM is based on the heat transfer coefficients obtained through measurements. But these measurements are on specific components under the service condition of some typical turbines and hence inadequate to offer general guidelines.

2.0

THERMAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS The thermal stress level in any critical component of a power plant and in

particular in a steam turbine is influenced by the following parameters:a) b) c) d) e) f) Initial mismatch between steam and metal. Total variation of steam temperature. Rate of variation of steam temperature. Spatial distribution of heat transfer coefficient. Geometry of structure. Thermal properties of component material. Thermal analysis data i.e. temperature distribution in the component is obtained initially using appropriate thermal boundary conditions. Inadequacy in data regarding thermal boundary conditions of power plant components particularly during transients is the major bottleneck in the thermal analysis. Very little information is available on this matter from site measurements on turbines and boilers, though some manufacturers claim to have undertaken such investigations by extensively instrumenting the critical components. However, temperature distribution so obtained will be subsequently used in thermal stress analysis. 3.0 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD AS DESIGN AND ANALYSIS TOOL Numerical methods are recognized as very effective means for solving problems relating to field theory after introduction of high speed digital computers. One such method, now being widely used is Finite Element Method. Finite Element Method (FEM) was first introduced in the field of structural mechanics in the mid 1950s by Argyris(9). At that time the interelement continuity concept was limited to the extent of matching displacements at the nodal points as in the case of members of frame structures. But, the use of

variational principles in FEM later has not only provided interelement compatibility but also advanced its applications even to fields other than structural mechanics like heat transfer, fluid flow, seepage, electromagnetic field, etc. The application of variational principles in FEM have been exhaustively described by Tottonham and Brebbia (10) 1970. Convergence criteria as applied to compatible displacement elements in FEM are well illustrated by Cowper (11). geometries. Introduction of isoparametric and related elements in FEM has proved to be an important development. These elements possess higher degrees of freedom and more polynomial terms in the definition of shape functions. Hence, they offer more accuracy with less number of elements used in the topological description of structures. This saves the effort for data preparation and also minimises computer time and core requirements. Today FEM has been recognized as a powerful tool of numerical analysis. It has an edge over many other numerical methods because of its tremendous potential for application to any solid structure of complex geometry. Its triangular or higher order elements can be fitted to any required degree of accuracy for defining any irregular geometry. Any type of external loads can be considered. Similarly boundary conditions can be imposed without restriction in any combination. In homogeneity and anisotropy of materials can be dealt with without any difficulty. Also, structural response under non-linear behaviour of materials can be also studied. 3.1 Some remarks on FEM i) In FEM the major computer time is taken in the solution process of equations. The solution methods which are commonly used are based on Gaussian elimination process. Since the matrices are banded, symmetric and positive, considerable economy can be Finite element method is not advantageous if it did not employ curved elements in bodies having complex

achieved by resorting to direct method based on banded solution or a more versatile front solution due to Irons (12). ii) Some of the deciding factors for the application of finite element method are the limitations imposed from the capabilities of computers, the economic considerations in terms of CPU time and the efforts required in the idealisation of structures. One should judiciously examine the problems at hand and apply the finite element technique to the required extent of detailed treatment by adoptiong 1D, 2D or 3D configurations. The importance of these considerations in the choice and simplification are well explained by Sandsmark and Saugerud (13). They outline various inferences derived through analytical investigations of varied nature. in preference to 3D models. iii) A certain amount of economy in idealisation, computer time and ease of interpretation of results can be achieved by adopting suitably matching elements for thermal and stress analysis problems. The obvious advantages are (a) same element mesh can be utilized with necessary modifications by computer itself, (b) visualisation of stress distribution vis--vis temperature distribution corresponding to same points is easirer. iv) The accuracy of results depends, as in the case of any other technique on the completeness in the definition of boundary conditions, i.e. the nearness to the actual boundary conditions achievable by suitable approximations and simulations in order to simplify the problems. In all the thermal field problems, it is Appropriate boundary possible to identify one or more combinations of boundary conditions as outlined by Boley (14). formulated. conditions in different situations of stress analysis problems can be Some of the guiding principles for this task are described by Ivar Holand and Kolbein Bell (15). It is suggested that one should go in for 2D models wherever possible

4.0

DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE FIELD Of all the numerical methods, finite element method has proved to be a

very powerful technique for solving complicated problems of heat conduction and stress analysis. As usual thermoelastic equations are decoupled and the aspects of heat conduction and stress analysis can be dealt separately as independent problems. The details of heat conduction analysis as follows: Using analytical methods can solve heat conduction problems of many simple bodies. A designer dealing with structural components, which are very complex in shape, is frequently confronted with situations of making simplifying assumptions to arrive at tractable mathematical models. But, simplifying criteria, sometimes, may lead to erroneous results. These uncertainties can be resolved by applying numerical methods for complex shape problems with digital computers as calculation tools. The most popular of them are the finite difference method (which gives a numerical approximation for the basic heat conduction differential equation) and the finite element method (whose application to heat conduction problems is first demonstrated by Wilson and Nickell (16). Finite element method has recently gained a tremendous pace over many other numerical techniques in this field due to its promising applicability for problems involving intricate shapes. It has an immense potential for application to problems which are linear or non-linear in nature with time dependent boundary conditions (temperature or heat flux or heat transfer) in any combination. The following pages are devoted to illustrate the application of finite element method to problems of heat conduction. Using the variational principle the governing differential euation of transient heat conduction is replaced by an equivalent volume integral which is then minimized over the whole region (17). The boundary conditions are simultaneously imposed by an addition of a surface integral term during minimisation. The time domain has been split into a number of small time steps (18, 19) following the recurrence scheme of Crank-Nicolson. All formulations for three dimensional problems have been derived and then, those for the two dimensional problems have been deduced.

4.1

3D Formulations The general three dimensional heat conduction equation can be written as

---x

kx ----x

---- ky ----y y

+ ---z

kz

----- + Q ----- = 0 4.1 z t

where kx, ky & kz are the thermal conductivity coefficients in X, Y & Z directions. Q = Rate of internal heat generation = Temperature = c

Any particular problem requires certain boundary conditions to be satisfied. The following are the usually encountered boundary conditions. a) boundary. b) n k ----- = q or kx ----- lx + ky ----- ly + kz ----- lz = q x y z The value of specified on boundary i.e. = b on

where lx, ly and lz are direction Cosines. c) Perfectly insulated surface k ----- = 0 n d) Convective surface Heat input to the surface is proportional to differential of temperature between surrounding medium and wall temperature

------- = (f ) n = Temperature of fluid = Temperature of wall = Heat transfer coefficient

e)

kx ----- lx + ky ------ ly + kz ------ lz + + q = 0 x y z where q is the heat flux / unit surface and is the convection loss / unit

of surface. If kx, ky and kz are all equal and both q and are zero, then the wellknown non-conducting boundary condition will result i.e. / n = 0. To satisfy the above boundary conditions, according to well-known Eulers theorem, the equation 4.1 can be rewritten as X = v 1 ---2 kx 2 ----- + ky x 2 ----- + kz y 2 ----z

Q + ---- t

dx dy dz + (q + 2) ds . .4.3 s

It is easy to impose the boundary condition (a) whereas to satisfy the boundary condition (e) is relatively difficult. The condition (e) can however be satisfied by including a surface integral in the functional X such that on minimisation it automatically yields the boundary condition. Thus the functional to be minimised is 1 ---2 2 ----- + ky x 2 ----- + kz y 2 ----z

= v

kx

Q + ----

dx dy dz

. . . . . .. . 4.2

We know that = [Ni, Nj, . . . . . . . . ]

i j

= [ n ] { }2

where i, j . . . are the nodal parameters and Ni is the shape function of the ith node. Differentiating equation 4.3 with respect to and equating to zero after substituting terms, we get x ----
e

= 0 [h]

{}

{ } e + [C] -------- + { F }e . . . . . . 4.4 t

e

where e hij = v e Cij Fie Ni Nj Ni Nj Ni Nj kx ------ ------ + ky ------ ------ + kz ----- ----x x y y z z dx dy dz

= Ni Nj dx dy dz v = q Ni ds Q Ni dv + ( f) Ni ds

where = wall temperature & f = Temperature of surrounding medium The third term of Fie can be written f Ni ds + [N] Ni ds {}e s s The term [N] Ni ds is added to hije and the term f Ni ds then becomes the load vector whenever surface heat transfer coefficient is given. 4.2. Solution of Transient Heat Conduction Problem by Time Marching Method. For whole continuum the equation 4.4 at any time can be written as [H] {}t + [C] { /t }t + {F}t = 0 . . . . . . . . . . 4.5

If there is no internal heat generation (Q), no heat flux (q), coefficient of thermal conductivity is constant and only convection type of boundary conditions are present, then [H], [C] and {f} can be defined as Ni Nj Ni Nj Ni Nj [H] = K ----- ------ + ------ ------- + ------ ------- dx dy dz + Ni ds v x x y y z z [C] = pCp Ni Nj dx dy dz {F} = f Ni ds The equation 4.5 is solved by using Crank-Nicolson step by step procedure. According to quasi harmonic assumption, /t is assumed linerarly varying in a small interval of time t. Therefore the temperature at any time t is given by {}t = {}to [ { /t }to + { /t }t ] t / 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 where t = to + t This is known as Crank-Nicolson equation. Then get the value of { /t }to from euqtion 4.5 at time t = to and

substitute in equation 4.6. Afterwards, substituting the value of { /t }t from equation 4.6 in equation 4.5 and simplifying, we have ([H] + 2/t [C]) {}t = ( 2/t [C] [H]to) {}to {F}to {F}t . . . . . . . . 4.7 Temperature {}t at any time t can be evaluated by knowing initial temperatures and thermal load vectors {F} to and {F}t . Steady state problem is solved by using equation

[H] {} = {F}

.........................

4.8

Before solving the equations 4.7 and 4.8 boundary conditions are applied. For applying boundary conditions, the faces or nodes on which they have to be specified should be properly identified. 4.3 2D formulations Although 3D formulations are given above, it is easy to deduce the formulations to 2D problems for example, the general heat conduction equations in Cylindrical Coordinates for axisymmetric bodies with no heat generation can be written as K ----- = -----t pCp 1 ----- --- ----- 2 + -----z2

. . . . . . 4.9

where is the unknown temperature. Equation 4.9 is replaced by an equivalent volume integral and is minimised over the whole region using relevant boundary conditions. After minimizing and simplifying the volume integral, we get final equation similar to that given in 3D formulations. The final equation is ([H] + 2 /t [C]) {}t = (2 /t [C] [H]) {}to {F}to {F}t . . . . . 4.10 where Ni Nj Ni Nj = K ----- ------ + ------ ------ d dz + Ni Nj ds z z = 2 pCp Ni Nj d dz = 2 f . . Ni ds.

[H]

[C] {F}

Temperature can be obtained at any time t. In the problems of heat conduction one lucrative area is the time step which can greatly influence the cost of computation and the accuracy of results. Too large a time step can lead to meaningless and oscillatory solutions. The largest time step for which the Crank-Nicolson solution is practically stable is called critical time step. Selection of time step in a computationally convenient manner is not well understood till today. Myers (20) (1971) has described the oscillations induced by numerical solution of conduction problems. He has reported a general method of estimating the critical time step in case of triangular and quadrilateral elements with related theory. The effect on accuracy and stability with reference to linear quadratic and cubic isoparametric elements and different time marching schemes have been discussed by many authors with a conclusion that Crank-Nicolson scheme is superior to other methods. While using the above heat conduction formulae, appropriate shape functions for the elements are to be chosen.