Chemistry Folio Title: Manufactured Substances in Industry

Contents Page 1. Sulphuric Acid 2. Ammonia and Its Salts 3. Alloys 1-2 3-4 4-6

4. Synthetic Polymers 5. Glass and Ceramics 6. Composite Materials

6-7 7-8 9-10

Sulphuric Acid, H2SO4 Uses of suplhuric acid: Manufacture of detergents Production of fertiliser Manufacture of artificial fibres Manufacture of paint

Leather tanning As electrolyte in car batteries To remove sulphur compounds in crude oil To produce other chemicals

Manufacture of sulphuric acid: Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 does not occur naturally and has to be manufactured. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is manufactured in industry through Contact Process. Materials: sulphur, air and water.

Stage 1: In the furnace, molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide, SO2. The gas produced is purified and cooled. S(l) + O2(g) SO2(g) Stage 2: In the converter, sulphuric dioxide, SO2 and excess oxygen gas, O2 are passed over a few plates of vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5 catalyst at 450oC to produce sulphur trioxide, SO3. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) Stage 3: In the absorber, the sulphuric trioxide SO3 is first reacted with concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 to

form a product called oleum, H2S2O7. SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l) The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 in large quantities. H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l) The two reactions in the third stage are equilavent to adding sulphur trioxide, SO3 directly to water. SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(l) However, this is not done in industries because sulphur trioxide, SO3 reacts too violently with water. This produces a lot of heat and a large cloud of sulphuric acid, H2SO4 mist. The mist is corrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense. Sulphur dioxide and environmental pollution: Sulphur dioxide SO2, one of the by-products of the Contact Process, can cause environmental pollution. Inhaling sulphur dioxide, SO2 causes coughing, chest pain, shortness of breath, bronchitis and lung diseases. Sulphur dioxide, SO2 can also cause acid rain. Natural rainwater has a pH of about 5.4. Acid rain occurs when the pH of rainwater is between 2.4 and 5.0. This is due to the reaction of sulphur dioxide, SO2 with rainwater. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)

Amonnia and Its Salts Uses of ammonia: Manufacture of fertilisers Manufacture of synthtic fibres Manufacture of explosives Manufacture of wood pulp

Manufacture of paints Manufacture of varnishes Manufacture of lacquers Manufacture of rocket propellants

The properties of ammonia: alkaline colourless gas has a pungent smell less dense than air burns in oxygen gas, O2 but not in air very soluble in water gives a white fume when reacted with hydrogen chloride gas, HCl

Manufacture of ammonia: Ammonia, NH3 is manufactured in industries through Haber Process. This process combines nitrogen gas, N2 from the air with hydrogen gas H2 derived mainly from natural gas to form ammonia, NH3.

The ratio of one volume of nitrogen gas, N2 to three volumes of hydrogen gas, H2 is passed through the reactor. The mixture is compressed to a high pressure of 200 atmosphere at a temperature of about 450oC. It is then passed through layers of iron catalyst to speed up the rate of reaction. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) Ammonia, NH3 formed is then liquefied and separated to get a better yield. The production of

ammonia, NH3 gives out heat. The reaction to produce ammonia, NH3 is reversible. The unreacted nitrogen gas, N2 and hydorgen gas, H2 are recycled and passed back into the reactor together with the new source of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas. About 98% of nitrogen gas, N2 and hydrogen gas, H2 are converted into ammonia, NH3. Preparation of ammonium fertilisers: Ammonium fertilisers can be prepared from the reaction between ammonia and an acid. Alloys Arrangement of atoms in metals: Most metals are solid. Pure metals are made up of the same type of atoms and are of the same size. The arrangement of the atoms in metals give metals their ductile and malleable properties. The orderly arrangement of atoms in metals enables the layers of atoms to slide on one another when force is applied. Thus metals are ductile or can be stretched.

There are some imperfections in the orderly arrangement of the atoms in metals that allow some empty spaces in between the atoms. When a metal is knocked, atoms slide. This is why metals are malleable or can be shaped.

Alloy: a mixture of two or elements with a certain fixed composition in which the major component is a metal. The aim of making alloys is to make them stronger, harder, resistant to corrosion, have a better furnish and lustre.

Alloy

Composition

Properties

Uses

Bronze

90% copper 10% tin

Hard and strong Does not corrode easily

In the building of statues or monuments In the making of medals, swords and artistic materials

Brass Steel 70% copper 30% zinc 99% iron 1% carbon

Has shiny surface Harder than copper

In the making of musical instruments and kitchenware

Hard and strong

In the constructions of buildings and bridges In the building of the body of cars and railway tracks

Stainless steel

74% iron 8% carbon 18% chromium 93% aluminium 3% copper 3% magnesium 1% manganese 96% tin 3% copper 1% antimony

Shiny Strong Does not rust Light Strong

In the making of cutlery In the making of surgical instruments In the building of the body of aeroplanes and bullet trains

Duralumin

Pewter

Lustre Shiny Strong

In the making of souvenirs

The arrangement of atoms in alloys:

The presence of atoms of other metals that are of different sizes disturb the orderly arrangement of atoms in the metal. This reduces the layer of atoms from sliding. Thus, an alloy is stronger and harder than its pure metal. Synthetic Polymers Polymers are large molecules made up of many identical repeating sub-units called monomers which are joined together by covalent bonds. Monomers are joined into chains by a process of repeared linking known as polymerisation.

Examples of naturally occurring polymers: starch, cellulose, wool, protein, silk and natural rubber. Synthetic polymers are man-made polymers. The monomers used are usually obtained from petroleum after going through the refining cracking processes. Examples of synthetic polymers: polythene, polyvinyl chloride or PVC, polypropene, perspex, nylon and terylene. Monomers in synthetic polymers: Synthetic polymer Polythene Monomer Ethene Uses Plastic bags, shopping bags, plastic containers and insulation for electrical wiring Piping, bottle crates, carpets, car batteries and ropes Artificial leather, water pipes and records Safety glass, reflectors, traffic signs and lens

Polypropene

Propene

Polyvinyl chloride, PVC Chloroethene Perspex Terylene Nylon Methylmethacrylate

Hexane-1, 6-diol Clothing, sails and ropes Benzene-1, 4-dicarboxylic acid Hexane-1, 6-diamine Hexane-1, 6-dioic acid Ropes, clothing and carpets

Synthetic polymers are very stable and do not corrode or decay. However, this also means that they are difficult to dispose, and they are not biodegradable. Hence, they may cause pollution, blockage

of drainage systems and flash floods. When they are burnt, they give out harmful and poisonous gases which have a pungent smell. Although synthetic polymers pose environmental problems, we can still continue using them but in a wiser manner. We should reduce, reuse and recycle synthetic polymers as much as possible. Glass and Ceramics Glass: The major component of glass is silica, SiO2. Fused glass: is the simplest glass is mainly silica, SiO2 is a highly heat-resistant glass can be heated to an extremely high temperature and then can be plunged into icy, cold water without cracking expensive, but widely used because of its great purity, optical transparency, high temperature and chemical durability as well as resistance to thermal shock appropriate to be used as laboratory glassware, lenses, telescope mirrors and optical fibres.

Soda-lime glass: is made by heating sand with limestone, CaCO3 or sodium carbonate, NaCO3. can be melted at a relatively low temperature. is easy to be shaped has a good chemical durability has a high thermal expansion coefficient expands a lot when it is heated and contracts a lot when it is cooled does not withstand heat is used to make flat glass, electrical bulbs, mirrors and all kinds of glass containers

Borosilicate glass: is formed when boron oxide, B2O3 is added to soda-lime glass. has a lower thermal expansion coefficient is three times as heat-resistant as soda-lime glass is more resistant to chemical attacks compared to soda-lime glass because it contains less

alkali is used in cookware, laboratory glassware, automobile headlights, pipelines and applications which require superior resistance to thermal shock and greater chemical durability Lead crystal glass: is normally called crystal or lead glass is made by substituting lead oxide, PbO for calcium oxide, CaO and often for part of the silica, SiO2 used in soda-lime glass is soft and easy to melt is more expensive than soda-lime glass is used for the finest tableware, lead crystal glassware and art objects is suitable for fine crystal because it is optically transparent and contains more lead

Ceramics: Examples of ceramics: clay pots, bricks, tiles, mugs are made from clay, eg: kaolin, a hydrated aluminiumsilicate, Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O can withstand high temperature and do not melt easily, unlike glass. Are very hard, brittle, chemically inert, do not corrode and have a very high melting point are good insulators of electricity and heat are suitable for making abrasive, construction materials, tableware, insulators in electrical equipments and refractories

Composite Material is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more different substances such as metal, alloys, glass, ceramics and polymers Concrete: is a mixture of stomes, chips and sand bound together by cement. is strong but brittle and weak in tension becomes a very tough material (known as reinforced concrete) with more tensil strength

when it is reinforced with steel wires , steel bars or any polymer fibres and steel have about the same coefficient expansion. Therefore, they make very good composites and are essential for the construction of large structures like high-rise buildings, bridges and oil platforms Superconductors: are capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance when they are cooled to extremely low temperature are mostly alloys of metal compounds or ceramics of metal oxides. Some of them are made from composite materials are used in the bullet trains in Japan and medical magnetic-imaging devices like magnetic resonance imaging, MRI are also used in magnetic energy-storage systems, generators, transformers and computer parts make devices that have low power dissipation, high-speed operation and high sensitivity

Fibre optic: cable consists of a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surrounded by a glass cladding is a composite material that is able to transmit data, voice and images in a digital format is used to replace copper wire in long distance telephone lines, in mobile phones, video cameras and to link computers within local area networks, LAN is used in instruments for examining internal parts of the body or inspecting the interiors of manufactured structural products is widely used because of its low material costs, high transmission capacity, chemical stability and is less susceptible to interference Fibre glass: has high tensil strength, can be easily coloured and low in density can be made into thin layers, yet very strong can be easily moulded or shaped has been used to make household products like water storage tanks, badminton rackets, small boats, skis and helmets Photochromic glass:

can be produced by embedding photochromic substances like silver chloride, AgCl crystals in glass or transparent polymers is suitable for making optical lenses, car windshields, smart energy efficient windows in buildings, information display panels , lens in cameras, optical switches and high intensity meters