Mbeere Archerl' and lta Technolog]':

A Prebninarl' Descrlptlon anal AnatlrBts

Martin Wdah

Research Fellow,
School of African and Asian Studies,
University of Sussex, England

rorking draft

May 1993
 Mb€€re Archeq' and lta Technology:
A Preundna:rJ' Descrlpuon and Anaty8l8

Martin Walsh

InttoducUon

There is a paucity of good de-scripuon of material culture, e-specially for

the Bantu-speaking peoples of East AJrica. The best recent rtork has
been on pottery ( see Blackburn L973; Kenyan pottery volume),
blacksmithing and beekeeping. The first two reflect the interest of
archaeologists and prehistorians in ceramic traditions and ilon working,
the latter the interest of historical linguists and ethnographers in
hunting and gathering. Unfortunately the work of many
ethnoarchaeologists is informed by dubious (though academically
fashionabte ) theoreUcal constructs \^trlich do not place a premium upon
a@urate and detailed description of tie artefacts being discussed (if at
all they are). As a result the most useful sources for the material
culture of many East African people.s date from more than 50 years ago
and the period before the now dominant tradition of social (cultural )
anthropology took hold, with its strong anti-evoluuonist bias and
conscious renunciauon of its own historical origiins. The best
de-scriptions of the material culture of the people.s of central Kenya, for
example, remain Lindblom's monograph on the Kamba (1920) and
Leakey's three volume work on the southern Kikulru (1977). The latter
was orig"inaly written in 1939, and it is no accident (in terms of the
development social anthropology ) that its publication
of mainstream had
to await Leakey's death and promotion by the Foundauon established in
his name. Meanwhile Soper (f976) had to rely primarily on Lindblom
for his comllarison of finds from the Chyulu Hills with the Kamba.

The foUowing is a preliminary attempt to document one aspect of the

material culture of the Mbeere of central Kenya, namely archery. It is
not based upon a comprehensive survey, but upon informauon recorded
primarjly in the IsNara area in northern Mbeere. This IEper is
intended in part to demonstrate the wealth of information that can be
obtained from a brief survey, and to iUustrate one way in which it
might be presented. This gives considerable emphasis to the Iinguistic
descripuons of the items concerned and the cultural field in which they
are embedded. One of the reasons for this is so that the information
recorded can also be of use to historical linguists. The significance of
this is taken up in detail later on in the paper, fo[owing the basic
descripuon of Mbeere archery and its associated technology.

The Mb€ere and thel! History

This secuon locate.s the Mbeere and their history. Central Kenya
Bantu. Influence of Southern Cushiuc. The Gumba. Only a brief
archaeologdcal survey ( Soper 1979).

Available descripUons of Mbeere blacl<smithing and b€ekeeping.

The context of archery. Warfare, huntjng, protecung crops and

bleeding cattle. tcheck Ehret on Southern Cushiticl . No good
descriptions of Mbeere warfare, though there is something on
neighbouring peoples - S. Kikul'u, Fadiman on the Meru and Embu
Historical Texts. Still used in local disputes. The most famous recent
case was the fight b€tween the Tharaka
and the administration over the
bounalary: this was in 1986 (?) and is known as 'The DCs Wedding"
[check Tharaka name: see Dj!ry__Nqtion cuttings]. Now mostly in local
land disputes, especialy concerning land adjudicauon. One of the
authors lost his elder brother in this way. Hunung of large animala
likewise is limited now. Now mainly confined to Ngiiri and the banks of
the Tana River. However, the hunting of small animals and e-speciaUy
birds by young boys continues. This overlaps with the protection of
crops against animal pests and livestock predators. Near the Tana
River hippos are killed and their fle.sh is eaten and sold. Pythons are
kiUed, paruy for their skins, also to protect p€ople and livestock.
Against the depredaUons of monkeys. Bleeding of cattle for food and
as a treatment of disease.

Informauon collected in and around IsNara. An important market, held

on Tuesdays (it is not operative on Fridays now). The local dialect of
Mbeere. ( Somewhere explain the orthography and indicauon of noun
classes). Botanical idenuficadons are taken from Riley and Brokensha
( their speling modified). Informauon also collected at Kiriuri, where
markets are held every Monday and Thursday.

Mbeere Archery and lts Technology

BowE

Parts of the Bow

r{lga, nga, LI/I9, the bowstring. Bowstrings used to be made from

the ligaments of catUe (a]so caled nga). The advantage of these is
that they are very long-Iasung: the disadvantage that they split if
they get hret. These days bowstrings are commonly made from nylon
threads taken from sacks made of the same material. Bowstrings made
of nylon can be used even when it is raining. The bowstring (of
whatever type ) is usually held fast to the ends of the bow in one of,
two ways: (a) using a thread made from the chewed inner bark of
mogaa ( Acacia tortilis ) and the sucky sap of lkaga (Euphorbia
candelabrum ) or other suitable alternauves; or (b) by tying it vrith
strips of wet skin taken from a small animal which will dry in posiuon.
The bowstring of three bows purchased in Kiriuri market was made
from nylon. This is taken from sacking and has then to be twisted into
a string. The string is held in place by a binding of Xitharara (7/8,
Lannea floccosa). The fibre from this small tree is chewed to make it
soft and then wound round the wood (trus use is not menuoned by
Riley and Brokensha 1988: u, 274-275). This binding is then held in
place by the sap of lkeega (5/6, Euphorbia tirucali: ttris specific use
of the sticky exudate is not menuoned by Riley and Brokensha 1988:
II, 116). The binding of one of the bows (as well as on another wlrich
was not purchased ) was not, however, held with sap, and was
therefore thought fikely to slip down the bow more easily.
Leakey notes that among the Southern Kikuyu bowstrings were made
from the sinews of oxen or, occasionally, eland (1977: 336):

"The sinews from the back ... were Nghly prized for
[-land's]
use as bow strings, and were regarded, in fact, as "lucky gut"
( r{Iga roa monyaka) " (7977 | 451).

Ota, 14/
Three bows purchased in Kiritjri market (and made by two different
craftsmen ) were made of rnovar0 ( see below ) with nylon bowstrings.
They are all about armpit height and cost Kshs. 30 each in may 1993.
Orde Browne, who believed Kamba technology to be superior and the
model for that of the peoples to the west of the Tana River, described
the bows of the latter as follows:

"The bow is a feeble one, made of a plain single staff, which

taper off into a point at each end. It is strung with twisted
sinew, which is bound round each end, the bow being kept
strung. The curve of the strung bow varies considerably, but is
always more or less symmetrical - the stave is not pierced to
receive the string, nor is any other device adopted to keep this in
posiuon' (1925: 151).

Leakey described the Southern Kikuyu Ota as follows:

"The Kikuyu bow, which was used for fighUng by the older men,
r,lras made from the wood of the trees caled m0tongu m{llro wa wer{l
I unidentified sp.; m0tongu is So]anum incanum and Solanum
indicuml , mondersndu I Teclea nob,ilis and Teclea simplicifolia], and
mohar{l lunidentified sp., presumably the same as Mbeere movaro,
Dombeva kirkii and Grewia rotundifolial. The bow staves were
simply round-secLioned stave-s about 3L ft long, tapering at each
end, and with a thickness of about L in at the centre of the stave.
In spite of their apparenUy simple form, most bows were made by
specially skiled bow makers, since it \das necessary that the bow
be properly balanced and evenly tapered, so that the pull eras
equal from both ends. Bow strings were made from the sinews of
oxen or, occasionally, eland" (L977': 336).

4
Tvpes of Bow

Apart from the ordinary bow, Ota, there is only one other kind in
common use:

Ota wa ndlya, 14/ , a small bow for shooting the small arrows
(nauya) which are used in drawing blood from oxen and other cattle.

According to orde Browne:

"Toy bows and arrows ale often used by children, and the boys
herding cattle generally carly them; these are merely small ediuons
of the full-sized article. The litue wooden arrows are used for
shooung small birds, etc., but there seems to be no idea of
training the young people in archery at all.
Very rarely a little bow a few inche-s long will be found in a
wizard's equipment; it seems to be used for the dramatic indicauon
of some person who has been selected by a lot-castjng ceremony,
for some reason. LitUe importance is attached to it, nor has it
any peculiaritie.s, being litUe more than a bent twig; any small
sUck seems to serve for [the] arrow, being at the person
to be indicated" (1925: 155).

Trees used in Bow-makinq

The principal requirement in wood for bow-making is that it should be

straight and flexible.

mogudl, mlgucdi, 3/4, Acacia brevispica, a common shrub along

$rater courses. Riley and Brokensha also refer to tlre use of the
tNcker stems for making bows (1988: II, 82).

m0ragwa, miragwa, 3/4, Grewia bicolor or Grewia trichocarpa. The

use of this in making bows is also mentioned by Riley and Brokensha
(1988: II, 195).
morenda, mirenda, 3/4, Sle!{l3__lishgeefpa (and possibly also
mistakenly identified as Ziziphus abvssinica: Riley and Brokensha 1988:
II, 205). According to Silas Kibwece this does not have thorns, ruling
out the identificaUon with the Ziziphus sp., which is spiny. The bows
made from this small tree a.re of a high guality and more expensive than
all the other types of bows. Trus is because it does not los€ its
elasticity, whether wet or dry.

moruva, miruva, 3/4, Grewia tembensis or Ziziphus abvssinica, both

of which occur as straggly bushes. Also menuoned by Justus Runji.
The use of the long, straight, flexible shoots, when peeled of their
bark, for making bows (as well as arrow shafts) is also noted by Riley
and Brokensha, who use the spelling nmuruban (L988: II, 22L-222).

m0vangua, mivangua, 3/4, Dlillettia usaramensis, quite rare and

usually found as a small bush growing on high and rocky hills. Riley
and Brokensha do not mention its use in making bows and arrows,
though they do refer to its use in making diggring sticks and
spearshafts (1988: II, 14).

movaro, mivaro, 3/4, Dombeya kirkii or Grewia rotundifolia, both

small trees. Also menuoned by Justus Runji. Under the speling
"mubaru", Brokensha and Riley note that the flexibiuty of the young
and thin branches of the-se two trees made them the most important
sources of wood for bow-making (1988: II, 16-U).

movu, mivu, 3/4, Grewia villosa, usually found as a bush rather

than a tree. Bows (and arrows) made from this are very elasuc and
long-lasting. Riley and Brokensha (under "mubuu") also note that the
Ught, straight and flexible branches provide good wood for bows, as
well as arrows (1988: II, 35).

(Any other spp. mentioned in Riley and Brokensha?).

 Arrowa

Parts of the Arrow

kiano, cdano, 7/8, the shaft of an iron-upped arrort.

Leakey described the Southern Kikuyu l<iano as follows:

"An arrow shaft was made either from the wood called mogumucano
I Gachathi (1989: 66) gives mogumo-cdano, Mimusops kumme]l or
mondelendu I Teclea nobilis and Teclea simplicifolia]. A suitable
piece was shaved and pareal down and a notch cut at one end and
a small cup-shaped hollow at the otfier to receive the tang of the
iron arrow head. Having been fastened to the shaft by inserting
the tang into this hollow cup, the arrow head was cemented there
by apptying first the milky juice of m0th0Ort I Gachathi (1989: 121)
gives m0th0rl, Euphorbia candelabruml and ttlen the gummy sap of
the roots of the Orlru plant lthis name is not in Gachathi (1989),
but see belowl . Trlis gum or glue, once hardened, gripped the
head so finnly that no one could pu]l it out" (L977 | 337).

Leakey also de.scribes Orlru as follows:

"This was a gum made from the bulb of a small rock plant
( Sansevieria parva... ). It was quite a strong glue, and was used
for fixing arrow heads" (L977: 377).

cachathi give-s this plant, Bow String Hemp, the name ndlbal, and
notes that its fibres are used for making bow strings wrule the stem
produces a strong glue used for fixing arrow heads (1989: 133).

ldvogo, tvogo, 7/8, the nock o! notch at the butt end of the shaft
which holds the bow-string.
Orde Browne described the nock of the model Kamba arrow thus:

"The other end of the shaft lfrom the arrowhead ] has a nock cut
in it, with a sinew or giraffe-tail binding to prevent splitting"
(1925: 152).

In tfre arrows of the tribes round Embu, however, the neat giraffe-tail
binding is said to be absent (L925: 153).
ngerel€, ngerel<o, 9/I0, the flights or feathering of an arrow.
There are usually three flights per arrow. However, if an arrow is
very heavy, for example with an iron head, and/or there are no
feathers (mbtll) from a vulture (nderi, 9/fO) ot other large bird
available, but just cNcken feathers, then the arrow make! may use four
o! even five flights. This in interesUng as an explanauon of the four
flights used by the Waata ( see Holman 1967) and atso the Hadza [need a
reference herel .
In Mbeere feathers are preferably obtained and used from the foUowing
birds:

(1) The $dng feathers of ndert (9/10) are used. This bird is saiat not
to be found in Mbeere any more, but its feathers are still used.
Arrows purchased in Kirifiri market in May 1993 had flights made of
the.se feathers. They were said to be obtained from Kamba coming from
Athi River and other areas where the nderl can still be found. It was
said that the birds are not kiiled but the feathers picked up from
around their nests.

(2) I probably also the Hadada:

The Glossy Ibis need scientific names
frere and elsewhere in this secdonl, ngarara (9/lO). It is believed that
arrows with these feathers cannot miss thefu target. Therefore mo€t
hunters try to obtain at least one of these feathers, if not enough for
a]l of their arrows.

(3) Justus Runji menEoned the use of ngoru tcheckl (g/LO,

"buzzard" (5,/6), sinews, obtained from
) feathers and also irango
animals, for example goats and cows, and I presumably ] used to bind
the feathers in place. In Kiriuri market irango, cattle ligament, was
used to bind the end of the shaft which holds the arrow head [check
whether or not this term is also used in Ishiaral and ttrus prevent it
from splitting.

In neighbouring Chuka, feathers from the following birds are used:

(f) mwarara (3/4), probably the Hadada and the clossy lbis. Trus is
widely hunted for its feathers which are good for making arrows - past
and present.

(2) nguru (g/LO), a black water bird with webbed feet, again hunted
for its feathers which are used in arrow-making.

(3) mb0ng0 (9/LO), hunted for its feathers whicrh are

used in arrow-making.

(4) ndl0 (9/10), uhawkn, also widefy hunted for this purpose.

(5) gftOnkoril (7 /8) , Pied, Crow, also wialely hunted for its feathers
which are used in arrtlr-making.

(6) nJeO (9/10), a locust-eaung bird, alro hunted for the same
purpose.

(7) ntandamauru (9/IO), a bird of prey, likewise hunted for its

feathers.

A number of these birds are noted for their high and strong flight
[check whether or not it is a]so straightl . They are birds which prey
upon other creatures, though not just raptors, and are not eaten for
this reason [check]. It is specificaly forbidden in Chuka to use the
feathers of one bird, the ntunduguru (9/10), a kind of owl, as arrow
flights. This is a bird of i]l omen and it is believed that if a'person
uses its feathers then the aEow will kiU his mothe! while she is
grinding [why grinding? cive fuller explanauon].

These days the flights ( for example those on arrows bought in Kiritiri
market ) are held to the shaft with sisal thread glued down with the
sucky sap of one or other of the following:

(1) mokuyu (3/4, Ficus spp., including F. capensis, F. qnaohalocarpa

and F. sycomorus). Riley and Brokensha note the use of tbe gummy
$p, ukuyu
[cbeck], as a glue, and though they do not specifically
menuon feathering arrows in their se@nd volume (1988: II, 159-160),
they do in their first (1988: I, 193).

(2) ithori (5/6,

Euphorbia spp., especially E. candelabrum, also
E. cussonioides, E. qrandicornis, E. nvikae and E. robechii). Riley and
Brokensha mention the copious latex-Iike milky sap as an irritant, but
not its use as a glue (1988: II, 297-298).

(3) ikaga (5/6, Euphorbia candelabrum ). Riley and Brokensha give

this a double vowel, ikaaga, and agaln do not mention its use as a glue
( 1.988: II, 100)). According to Silas Kibwece this is the most widely
used for feathering arrows.

(4) Another glue used is the sucky white sap of ndaro (9/LO,
Sarcostemma viminale). which is more easily collected than any of the
other kinds ( perhaps because this plant is now used in fencing: Riley
and Brokensha note that broken stems exude a copious milky latex or
sap, but do not menuon its use as a glue (1988: II, I72-L73)).

(5) Afso used is the " brownish yeltow" sap of m{lkoo (3/4, Commiohora
neqlecta), whose use in this re-spect is not menUoned by Riley and
Brokensha (L988: II, 156).

(6) In Kiriuri the use of the sap of lkeega (5/6, Euphqbia_grrfeall-)

was mentioned ( though this particllar use is not menuoned by Riley
and Brokensha 1988: II, 116).

If a lot of arrows are being made a needle will be used to thread the
sisal. However, if only one or two arrows
are being made, then a
knife of thin piece of wood is used to create gaps between the feathers
through which the thread can be inserted.
Orde Browne described the feathering of the model Kamba arrow as
follows:

10
 " Belovr
[the nock] is a feathering in three ribs, straight, and
about two inches long at most; these are usually guinea-fowl
feathers, though not always. They are kept in place by a fibre
binding, while gum is smeared over the various bindings to keep
them in posiuon' (1925: 153).

The feathering of the Kambars western neighbours (induding,

pre-sumably, the Mbeere ) is said to be a cruder version of the same.

rathuntl, ntunu, LI/LO, the Up or head of an arrow, whether iron

or w@den.

r{lvuro, mburo, IL/7O, a barb, whether carved on a w@den arro$,

or filed on an iron tip.

( shank )
A number of the types of arrow described by Orde Browne have
separate wooden shanks. In fact this arrangement seems to have been
the rule. Even the most common excepuon, the V-shaped iron head
fashioned ( reputedly) on the Kamba model, could also be made in this
way:

"The iron point is someUmes made lvith a small tang which selves
to secure it to a wooden shank which replaces the iron shank of
the one-piece point; this, however, is not strong, and is
considered inferior to the other form" (1925: 154).

( decorauon )
Fire is used for decoraung as well as hardening arrows. The soft
green bark of m0raghra (3,u4, Grewia bicolor or G. trichocarpa ) or, less
commonly, m0gere (3/4, Hibiscus aponeurus or H. micranthus), are
wound in a spiral around an arrow shaft. When the shaft is smoked
over a fire the gleen bark acts as a stencil: when removed it leaves a
Iight-coloured spiral lEtternon the darkened wood.
According to Orde Browne, "A red vegetable dye is often used for
ornament, in bands or dots, and the effect of a well-made arrow is
very neat..." (1925: 153). Harriet Skinner has noted such a dye
being applied in the market at Ishiara. According to Simon Nyaga it is
prepared from the sap of m0kofdl G/4, Ficus capensis, Ficus

tL
qnaohalocarpa and/or Ficus sv@morus (and possibfy others) ). The
bark of the tree is simply cut with a krrife or a stone, and the white
sap is collected [in what?]. It turns red-brown when it dries, and is
then used as a dye for colouring baskets as well as bows and arrows
[how is it applied? Is it watered down?]. In their first volume
Brokensha and Riley briefly menuon its use in decoraUng arrows (1988:
I, 193). In their s€cond volume (J.988: II, 159) they also refer to the
use of nokoytl in providing dye, though they do not say what this dye
is used for or hrhich part of the tree it comes from. They note that
"One particularly disuncuve reaction is the chang'ing colo! of the
exudate. Several Mbeere informants described the latex (sap) that
ooz€s from the tree as being milky at first, but rapidly changing to a
reddish-brown on exposure to the airn (1988: II, 160).
while the mokoyg prowides a red dye, most of the craftsmen purchase
modern chemical paints (including paint ) in the market
red for
decorating bows and a.rrows. These decorations are applied solely to
make the bows and arrows more attractive. They do not mean
anything, except perhaps personally to the craftsmen who apply them.
Distjnctive craftsmen's marks ale not otherwise put on bows and
arrows, though the decorauon applied by a particular craftsman may be
individual to him.
Arrows bought in Kiritiri market were decorated with red paint on a
white ground. This white colour comes from the ground orcNd(s)
called kirilro (7/8, Eulophia orthoplectra). The rhizome is dug from
the ground, peeled with a knife, washed with water and the sap or dye
is then squeezed out of it by pressing it on a stone ( according to Riley
and Brokensha the vernacular name probably includes a number of
similar species. They say that it has no use-s (1988: II, 2L2)). The
decorauon is a]l between the flights and immediately below them.

Trzpes of Arlow and Arrowhead

igoto, magoto, 5/6, is a single-pointed \dooden arrow with barbs

(mburo) carved into the Up. This kind of arrow is particularly
effective in kiLIing monkeys, and in areas where monkeys are a serious

T2
crop pest men may have t$renty or tNrty of these arrows at the leady
at any one time. If hit with other kinds ( unpoisoned ) arrow,
of
monkeys simply pull them out and throw them down. However, the
barbs make this kind difficult to pluck out because of the pain which
they cause. This makes it relauvely easy for the farmer to approach
and kill the wounded monkey. In April 1993 these cost Kshs. 8 each in
Ishiara market.
In Kiritiri market one man mentioned rOgOtO (11110) as the name for a
barb [or barbed arrow of this kind?].
Orde Browne described related types of arrow as follows:

"The other type of arrow is the wooden-pointed one. This is

considered inferior to the iron-pointed variety, and is used for
hunting, amusement, or when the iron point is not available. The
shaft and nock, with the feathering, remain much the same, but
the shank and point are replaced by a wooden point from four to
eight inche.s in length. This is sharpened at one end, and the
other is pointed to go into the socket in the end of the reed shaft.
This wooden point is generally cut into balbs like the hook of a
crochet needle; these are made by cutung the wooden point
triangular in cross-sestion and then notching the edge-s thus
formed. But the point is often left plain, without barbs. There
is an inferior form in which shaft, shank and point are all made in
one piece, with a rough feathering and nock at the end" (1925 |
1s3-r.s4).

The contemporary ig{lt{l correspond to the type which Orde Browne

describes as inferior.

irangt, marangi, 5/6, is an arrow whose shaft is made from a length

of bamboo, morangl (3/4, Alundinaria alpina). Although bamboo doe.s
not grow in northern Mbeere it can be obtained from upper Embu, and
people in Ishiara do make this kind of arrow from time to time. It is
liked because it is light and can therefore travel a long distance ( there
are few strong winds in Mbeere). Only the shaft of this kind of arrow
is made from bamboo. A separate nock and shank of wood are mad.e
lwhat is a separate shank called?1 . The best wood for making the
shank is m0nluge irla lwhat aloes this name mean? Why is it the best? ]
(3/4), Clerondendrum spp., though movu (3/4), Grewia villosa, or
other species can also be used. Any kind of iron head can be fixed to

13
the shank, and the arrows are still called marangl. The.se arrows may
be poisoned and, depending on the kind of head affixed, they can be
used for hunting medium sized game like gazelle or even elephants.
According to Riley and Brokensha (1988: II, 198-199) n0rangt grows in
the hretter and higher areas of ( what was) Mbeere Division, including
shaded valleys on the northern slope.s of Kiang'ombe. A bamboo shaft
was bought in Kiritiri market and the bamboo was said to grow locally
on farms to the east of Kianjiru hiu. This arrow did not reguire a
separate wooden shank, but hras simply fitted htith an arror,', head
( motari) which a.lso fit other non-bamboo shafts.

ivavia, mavavla, 5/6, is an arrow made from the stalk (also ivavia )
of a variety of two-season solghum, m0via wa m0ruge (3,/4, Sorqhum
bicolor var. ), named after the brown colour and therefore cooked
appearance of its grain ( this variety can, in fact, be eaten raw). The
nock is made from a separate piece of wood. The Up of the arrow is
also carved from a pie@ of wood [check]. This piece has two equally
sharp points at either end: one of them being inserted into the stalk
(shaJt). The arrow and its head have a very short life (often less
than one day's use) and are likely to split if it lands on a stone. As
well as being used for shooting birds, this kind of arrow is also used
for tesUng the strength of bows. This is because it is so ught and
can be shot very far, whether up in the air or paralel to the ground.
This kind of arrow is not referred to by Orde Browne (L925), though
he does describe wooden-headed arrows in which the head is a seParate
piece inserted into a reed shaft.

klrOnda, Ir{lnda, 7/8, the largest kind of iron arrowhead. The.se

are leaf-shaped and often have small barbs (mburo) along the edge.
They are rarely poisoned, and when they are it is only with a very
small amount. Their primary use is for shooting small and medium-size
animals, including antelope, dikdik and rabbits. The weight of the
arrowhead makes it difficult for a small animal to cany it far and easy
for a hunting dog to seize the wounded prey. Otherwise it is not
unusual for the animal to lose a lot of blood and collapse within a short
period of Ume after being struc]<.

L4
According to one writer in the Melu District Socio-Cultural Profile
(anon 1986) :

"Alrow heads are purchased from blacksmiths. At l4itunguu

market Gerrad Nyaga is known for his well crafted kirunda (leaf-
shaped arrow ) and muthali ( barbed arrow head)" (1986: 151.).

The following pass.rge in Orde Browne's account refers to a related, but

not idenucal, kind of arro$/head:

"But there is another type

[other than the Kamba-inspired V-
shaped headl which comes chiefly from Theraka [sic.] and Mumoni,
in wtrich the V-shaped point is replaced by a leaf blade, which is
occasionally as much as two inches long; this is fitted by a tang
into a wooden shank w}Iich again fits by a tang into the socl<et in
the end of reed shaft. This shaft is feathered in the same way,
but on a larger scale, the whole arrow being bigger and heavier.
This type is by no means so neat as the Kamba pattern, but it is
a dangerous missile, with considerable penetrauve power: I have
s€en several cases where these arrows were driven five or six
inches into a rnan's body" (1925: t53).

kithonji, IthonJi, 7/8, is a wooden arrow wNch is designed esp€cially

fo! shooting bi-rds. The shaft is split at the end into a number of
separate points of equal length. The outer points are splayed out from
a central point around which has been wound a thread made from the
chewed inner bark of mogaa (3/4, Acacia tortilis ) and held in place
with the sdcky sap of m0kuyu (3/4, Ficus spp.), ith0rt (5/6,
Euphorbia spp.) or kaga (5/6, Euphorbia candelabrum). Each of the
points may also have barbs (mburo) carved into it. These arrows are
most effective when aimed at a bird which is relatively expoGed in the
open: if shot into trees or dense undergrowth the points are as likely
to catch on branches and foliage as they are to hit their target
properly. when one or more of the poiqts break the others are
whittled down to the same length. when the points a.re worn dohtn
completely the shaft can be used for making an iron-Upped arrow.
In early 1993 these cost less than Kshs. 10 each in Istriara market. In
Aprif 1993 they cost Kshs. 1.0 each.

If
Orde Browne described a vadant of this type, remarking in a footnote
that he had seen a very similar arrow among the Makua of southern
Tanganyika (now Tanzania) :

"A curious form of shaft exists, in which the socket to receive the
shank is splayed out into points, which are kept open by
interweaved binding of fibre, so that the shank itself fits into the
centre of a circle of points, just like the handle of an umbrella
among the ribs when closed' (19253 L54).

m0rlva, nirlva, 3/4, a small iron arr:owhead used on poisoned

arrows, for shooung elephants and other large game. The Ups of these
are the same size and shape as the ndiya alrowheads wruch are used in
blood-letung. In this case, however, the size and shape are designed
to allohr the arrowhead to penetlate right through the animal's skin so
that the poison behind the head can take maximum effect. The shank
and tang of this kind of arrowhead are much longer than that of othe!
type-s, so that the poison can be applied onto the shank between the
shaft ( kiano) and tbe Up of the arrow. Large amounts of poison are
typically applied.

m0tari, mitari, 3/4, a medium-siz€d iron arowhead, barbed in a V-

shape. These may have addiuonal small barbs (mburo), though they
are less common than on the larger klr{lnda arrowheads. This type is
used particularly for hunung antelope and impala.
Nine arrowheads of ttris kind were purchased in May 1993 for Kshs. 20
each in Kiriuri market. This price included the shafts with feathering,
all made by the same man, a blacksmith. A bamboo shaft with the same
head was also the same price.
Compare this (and the smaller morlva type ) with Orde Browne's
descripuon of the model Kamba arrow:

"This arrow consists of a thin wooden shaft about t$renty-four

inche.s in length and a litfle more than a quarter of an inch in
diameter; the point is V-shaped, and is made in one piece, with a
shank of iron some four inches long, ending in a tang; this is
inserted in a socket in the end of the shaft, which is bound with
gut or fibre to receive iU in this it fits firmly, but not so fast
that it will not come out when the point is fixed in some object"
(7925: L52).

16
(Are the shafts with their feathering retrieved and reused?). Orde
Browne @ntinues:

rrThis is the arrow which serves as a pattern for most of the tribes
round Embu. Their copies are, holuever, mosuy far inferior in
workmanship, and the neat giraffe-tail binding, the thin,
accurately made shaft and the finely cut point are a]l absent. The
iron point is as a rule bought from a Mkamba; a rough shaft is
fitted to it and a much cruder feathering is put on, the general
design of the arrow being the same, hohrever" (1925: 153),

ndlla, ndll,a, 9/LO, in Kiritiri this was given as the name of a

feathered arrow shaJt without the iron head. In the market they were
being sold either with the head or without. The same name is also
applied to wooden-Upped arrows used by young boys lequivalent to the
Ishiara nduru?l .

ndiya, ndlya, 9/IO, a very small iron arrowhead used for drawing
blood from oxen and other catUe. The head is shaped ]ike a scaled-
down version of the mOtari arroh/head. The same name is also given to
the arrow as a hrhole ldo they have flights?], which is shot from a
speciaf small bow, the Ota wa ndlya.
Orde Browne described a different type of bleeding arrow:

"A stopped arrow, with a piece of wood secured to the shank to

prevent extreme penetration, is occasionaly used to bleed cattle; it
is very similar to that used by the Masai" (1925: 154).

Leakey described the Southern Kikuyu ndia as follows:

"A bleeding arrow was made not only by smiths but also by wire
puuers. The metal heads of the bleeding arows were litUe flat
bits of iron with a rounded tip" (7977 z 3L4).

nduru, nduru, 9/LO, is an arrow [made and?] used by both

unirrifated boys and newly circumcised boys to shoot their age mates
who are not yet circumcised. There are three types of nduru
differenuated by the kind of head affixed
to the wooden shaft: (a)
made with a blunt (square) w@den head, also called nduru - the type

I7
commonly used by uninitiated boys; (b) made with a stone head,
again caled [not seen by SK];
nduru and (c) made with a head
comprising the sta-r-shaped thorn of a plant (or tree ) caffed ldtilgla
rrJogu (7/8, unidenufied sp.), literaly "the elephant's footprint", after
the shape of the thorn. The thorn is attached to the end of the shaft
with beeswax wNch has been softened by heat, and will subsequenuy
harden. The wooden head is made with a long and thin tang which can
be inserted into the shaft. It is not knohrn how the stone head is
affixed to the shaft. These arows normally last no longer than 1-3
weeks each.
This type is not referred to by Orde Browne (1925).

ranganl, ranganl, g/LO, the general name for an iron arrowhead,

regardless of its type.

ranganl ya mou, rangani cta mgti, 9/lO, a wooden arrowhead. The

head is made from old and dry wood, and is not fire hardened. This
type of arrowhead is rarely made and used nour, if at all.
According to Silas Kibwece mog0nga (3/4, Acacia drepanolobium ) was
once used for this purpose: "In the olden days !,rhen ... iron was not

invented the middle or the innelmost part of a very old tree ... was
sharpened to make an arrow-head. This is because the innermost part
of a mature tree is quite hard such that even when an arrow lands on a
stone it does not easily get blunt. " The inner wood is al,ark brown in
colour, and was also used to make knives for skinning animals. Riley
and Brokensha refer to the heaviness and hardness of the wood but do
no mention either or these two uses (1988: II. 88-89).
Orde Browners descripUon (see under lg0t0above ) implies that the
practice of fixing a wooden arrowhead to a separate shank was once the
norm.

The types of arrow head made by the Southern Kikuyu and described
by Leakey are as follords:

'Mogui wa Kahl0 "knife" ]

[=
A 2 in leaf-shaped arrow head v/ith a mid-rib and a tang was the
commonest form of arrow used.

18
 Mogui wa Mbugi [= rrl-'alln]
A small, iron arlow Up with a metal fore.shaft was made on the
Kamba pattern.

M0gul wa M0rarangai [or m0rarangari? ]

An arrow head made like m0gui vra kahlo, but with a series of
barbs at the base, was made on the Maasai pattern " (1977, 3L3).

Leakey also de-scribed the following type.s of w@den arrow:

" Thuuthl
This was a wooden-headed arrow, the point being made from such
wood as nOhOgO I Brachvlaena huillensis ] or mgtamallzo I Brown
Olive, Olea europaea var. africanal . The shaft was made of the
stems of sorghum, or thara reeds [this now describe.s Napier
Grass, Pennisetum purpureum, a recenuy introduced exotic:
Gachathi (1989: f43) afso gives tlrara-wa-r{i, Echinochloa
pvramidalis I .

Thuuthl
Another type of wooden arrow had a cane shaft and was used for
shooung colobus monkeys, which were never shot with iron arrows
or with poisoned arro$rs.

[6gui ya Arut
Initiauon candidates, during their period of seclusion, r^rere given
special arrows in hrhich the shaft and stem were all of a single
piece of wood cut from a stem of motamatld [Brown OUve, Olea
europaea var. africana]. These arrows were used for ceremonial
purposes on]y. . .

Ndtrtnga (3lso c rted Ndllrl )

This was a special arrow made of morangarl [Scutia mvrtina ] wood
for the use of initiation candidates during the period of their
novitiate. The stem of the alrow was made of mgrangart wood.and
the head was made of a leather disc through which the point of the
arrow was thrust. On to this leather // dis and round the
projecting point was moulded beesr,rax until there was a ball shaped
head of wax completely covering the leather disc. It was used for
shooting birds, and might even be used for shooung at girls
occasionaUy!" (L9772 337-338).

Further reference is made to the arrows for shooting colobus monkeys

as follows:

" colobus could not be trapped like ordinary monkeys, for they
seldom came dov/n to the ground, and they could not be shot with
poisoned arrows, because iJ they were, the s,<ins were valueless,
as all the long hair would fall out, and it was this long hair that

19
 was wanted for the ornaments [worn by men and boys at dance-s].
Colobus were, therefore, hunted with a special form of arrow
known as thuuthl, which was used exclusively for this purpose.
These arrows had wooden and not metal heads, the reason for this
being that any arrow that missed its mark lras irretrievably lost in
the dense forest, and therefore to use metal-headed arrows would
have been too cosuy. For the sarne r@son, the shafts of the
arrovrs were not made of the ordinary arrow shaft wood
(m0gumocano), but from reeds called tlrara, or someUmes from
stems of tnagoko lnot idenufied ] thatching grass" (1977: 454).

Tools used in Arrow-makinq

kinbo, dinbo , 7/8 , a kind of awl used in drilling a hole into the
end of an arrowshaft (kiano ) so that it can take the tang of an iron (or
othe! ) arrowhead. The awl is typicaly made these days from a piece of
barbed wire or umbrella wire inserted into a w@den handle. The point
of the awl is filed down so that it is very tlfn at the Up, widening out
slighuy into a sharp double-edged blade. Most men make and possess
one or more of these tools. In order to drill a hole in the end of a
shaft, the wooden handle of the awl is held between the feet and the
shaft itseu is driued by hand onto the upward poinung point of the
awl. If the resulung hole is too wide and does not provide a Ught
enough fit for the tang of an arrowhead, then it is glued in with the
help of mogaa ( Acacia tortilis
) or other thread and the sucky sap of
Ikaga ( Euphorbia candelabrum) or its alternauves.

Tree.s used in Arror.r-makinq

m8karakara, mikarakara, 3/4,

EEelqle__resrSgga , usually a small
shrub or tree. Also mentioned by Justus Runji. The thin branches of
this tree are also mentioned by Riley and Brokensha as being good
material making arrows (1988: II, 107).

m0nJuge lria, [plural also given as miunjuge ida - check],

rnlnJuge lrla
3/4, Clerodendrum spp., a small shrub or tree. According to Ritey
and Brokensha (who spe[ the name "munjuga-iria" "The younger
),

20
stems are Ught ... and straight and they are used very often as small
shafts for young boys' practice arrows. Arrows might be used against
bird pe-sts, but are not heavy or thick enough to be used against
larger quarry" (1988: II, 179).
The shafts of nine arrows purchased in Kiritiri were all made of this
wood.

moragwa, miragwa, 3/4, Grewia bicolor or Grewia trichocarpa.

while Riley and Brokensha mention the use of this in making bows, they
do not refer to it as a source of arrows (1988: II, 1.95).

moruva, miruva, 3/4, Grewia tembensis or Ziziphus abvssinica, both

of which occur as straggly bushe.s. Also mentioned by Justus Runji.
The use of the long, straight, flexible shoots, when pe€led of their
bark, for arrow (as well as bows) is also noted by Riley
shafts and
Brokensha, who use the spelling "muruba" (1988: II, 221-222).

movangua, mivangua, 3/4, Milletua usaramensis, quite rare and

usually found as a small bush growing on high and rocky hills. Riley
and Brokensha do not menuon its use in making bows and arrows,
though they do refer to its use in making digging sucks and
spearshafts (1988: II, 1.4).

movu, mlvu [check], 3/4, Grewia villosa, usually found as a bush

rather than a tree. Arrows (and bows) made from this are quite elasuc
and long-lasung: the arror,\ts do not break easil y hthen they
as a result
are in the body of an animal. Riley and Brokensha (under "mubuu")
also note that the light, straight and flexible branches provide good
wood for arrows, as well as bows (1988: II, 35).

Arrow Poisons

There are diJferent recipes for arrow poisons. wNch vary in strength
and the complexity of their production process. The producuon of the

2I
stronger poisons with more complex recipes tends to be the work of
specialists, while other simpler reqipes are known to most men.

(1) According to Silas Kibwece the following recipe is widely known

and can be prepared by any archer. The leaf of a plant ca[ed ikono
(5/6, Sansewieria sp.) is heated and then squeezed so that its sap
@mes out. The sap is then mixed with soot to make a weak poison
wtrich can then be applied to the arrow. The anudote to this poison is
to rub sheep's oil into the wound [check t}!at it is rubbed in]. Riley
and Brokensha do not give this recipe but do refer to the fact that the
juice of this plant is someumes smeared on poisoned alrows to "renehr"
the poison if it is considered too dry (1988: II, 147).

(2) Another reqipe given by Silas Kibwece uses a kind of 'cactus',

ith0rl (5/6,
Euphorbia spp., especiatly E. candelabrum, also E.
cussonioide.s. E. grandicornis, E. nvikae and E. robechii ). Its milky
sap is mixed together with soot ( mOrare, 3/-) collected from a kitchen
roof to make an €rlrow poison which is very black in colour and caled
ivat (5/- [?]) in Mbeele ( note that soot alone is also prepared into a
medicine to induce abortion). The mixture forms a thick solid and is
smealed on the aEow where it is allowed to dry into a hard black
substance. The sap is very poisonous: if it comes into contact with
the body of a man, goat or cow, it c€ruses a wound to develop
immediately. Riley and Brokensha do not menuon this use of the plant
under this name, though they do refer to the fast that the milky sap is
Nghly irritant to human skin and mucous membranes (1988: I, 189; II,
297-298). They do, however, refer to the use of Euphorbia
candelabrum as an ingredient in arrow poison, but under another name
( see below).

(3) Jonathan Mutua describes the following anudotes to arrow poison.

The leaves and small branches holding the leave-s of m0caritha (3/4,
Entada leptostachva), a scrambling creeper or shrub, are collected.
They are then crushed ( with any available implement ) and squeezed to
remove the sap from the leaves. This is then dripped onto the wound
made by a poisoned arrow (this use of the plant is not mentioned by

22
Riley and Brokensha (1988: II, 39-40), though it is mentioned in their
first volume (1988: I, 189)). Another
treatment is to make the person
shot by a posioned arrow eat raw sweet potatoes, ngwad (9/10, Ipomoea
batatas). The most effecuve treatment for arrow poison, however, is
to combine both of these cures.

(4) Riley and Brokensha (1988: I, 188) give the fotlowing recipe:

"Two men, both hunters, gave details of how they prepared their
poison. The fuller accrunt follows, the main ingredients being:

a) mubal, Acokanthera schimperi; or A. lonqiflora, leaves;

b) Murugambumbu, (not identified), roott

c) ga-Idrllmblu, Adenia volkensii;

d) mhr-kanla, Euphorbia candelabrum;

e) kt-thunlu, Aloe sp., 'leaf ';

f) Mutandambogo, Capparis tomentosa, root.

The first two trees were said to be rare but the other trees
are common in most parts of Mb€ere ! (b) is the main poison; (a)
cannot kill alone; (c) and (d) are added partly for their slimy
quality, as this helps to harden the poison; although (c) can kiU
arrimals; and (d) is bitter; (e) produces pain if put in an open
wound; and (f) is always regarded as a poisonous plant.

SmaU pieces of all ingredients are boiled in a debe ( twenty

Uter metal container ) with water, and the steam is not allowed to
escape. The bark and branches are discarded, and a fresh lot
added and boiled - this can be repeated two or three Umes
depending on the quality of the poison required. The mixture is
boiled until it reaches a thick consistency, when it is put through
a sieve to remove aII the piece-s of plants. The Uquid is again
heated untjl it becomes viscrus, then it is dropped on ashes to
cool and harden. At this stage, it is struck with a piece of wood,
to ensure an even consistency. Then it is ready to be shaped into
small oval ba]ls ready for sale. If the mixture has to be handled,
the hands should be protected with a thick layer of ash.

To test the mixture, a drop is put on the tail of a lizard,

aJter cutung the tail; unless the lizard dies instanuy, the poison
is not strong enough and more murugarnbungar [sic] or more mubal
should be added.

Other source-s menuon extra ingredients, including a small red

frog, gakengete, hvperolins marmoratus glandicolor [sic3 check];

23
 rwengt, a small herb which is very irritaung if it touches the
skin; gitent, a worm that js fatal to livestock; skulls of snakes. "

The following informaUon is provided on anudotes:

"If a person is accidentatly shot by a poisoned arrow,

the foltowing
plants are said to prowide good anudotes:

mu-carltha, Entada leptostachvs, or pumpkin root - juice

squeezed on to the wound. The fibre of mu-rutla, Grewia
tembensis, can be chehred, and put on to the wound.
(Woman's urine is also said to be effective. ) A specific for
mutanda mbogo [sic] is tatha ya ng'ondu (or mburl), the
undigested parts from the stomach of a sheep or goat" (1988:
r, 189).

Also menuoned as an arrow poison is "g{-kathl, Sansevieria spp."

(1988: I, 189). This may be the same as the Sansevieria sp. menUoned
under the name ikono by Silas Kibwece.

(5) The informauon in the second volume contradicts some of the

above. "Mubal" is idenufied as Garcinia volkensii, now only found in
isolated forest remnants such as the inace-ssible slope.s of Kianjiru Hill:
"The latex and young bark were formerly used in preparauon of
alcrow
poison rdhen game hunUng was a more prevalent pursuit, according to
our older male informants. This use appears to have ceased" (L988:
II, L2). According to Riley and Brokensha (1988: II, 235) Acokanthera
opposiufolia (A. lonqiflora
) and Acokanthera schimperi (A. friesiorum )
are called by the same name in Mbeere: mor{lrtl ( 3,/4 ) . In Kikuyu,
however, they are given different names: m0r0r{ (3/4) or ldOrOrO
(7 /8) is applied to Acokanthera opposiufolia, wtrile Acokanthera
schimperi is called morico (3/4) ( Gachathi 1989: 199). Here Riley and
Brokensha add the followinq information:

"The plant is the basis of the well documented arrow poisons

attributed localy to the Wa-Kamba people. Enquiries about
wrapped arrows offered for sale in the artisans' @rner at Ishiara
Market elicited the re.sponse that they were I'doctored", but the
explanauon differed in that we were told the milky latex from
leaves and pounded young green growth had been used in the
preparauon of the poison rnastic in hrhich the arrows had been
placed, then protected by a padding of young green leaves. One
old man whom we encountered out hunung in the bush at Riandu

24
 had arrows so protected in a quiver over his shoulder" (1988: II,
23s).

Murugarnbumbu or murustanbungu, an unidentified sp., is not mentioned

in the second volume. Adenia volkensii is caled gakfrt (not
galrlr[mbfu, a]so when mentioned elsewhere in volume J. (1988: I, 189)),
and its use in poison preparation is not menuoned (1988: II, 130).
Euphorbia candelabrum is called mwanla (not mwkanla), and no us€s are
given for it (1988: II, 5). The use of klthunJu, Aloe spp. in
preparing poisons is also not g"iven: instead its use in healing wounds
is described (1988: II, 295). Mutandamt ogo is idenUfied as both
CaDparis sepiaria and CapDaris tomentosa: again, its medical uses are
mentioned but not its use in arrow poison (1988: ll, 246-247).

(6) Orde Browne's descripuon presurnably refers to the Acokanthera

poison:

" Poison figures in the weapons of the

[Mt.] Kenya tribes to some
extent, though it is generally obtained from the Akamba; it is used
to poison arows, but it is never put on any other weapon. It is
a thick black sUcky paste when fresh and is prepared by boiling
down the leaves and roots of a tree; it is the r^/ell known poison of
the Akamba, and acts through the depressant effect upon the
heart. The efficacy of it has probably been considerably
exaggerated, the natives stating that it will kill a large buck
before he can travel a hundred paces. It is put on the arrows all
dor^rn the shank and point, which is then wrapped in thin strips of
skin to keep the poison fresh; when dry and hard it Ioses its
efficacy considerably. Before shooung the arrow, the strip is torn
off, leaving the poison fresh and sticky" (1925: 156-157).

(7) This can be compared with L€akey's information for the Southern
Kikuyu:

"Menuon has been made ... of the poison that was used on the
arrows and elephant harpoons by the Kikuyu hunters. This poison
was procured almost exclusively from the mortco plant
[Acokanthera schimperi], although the juice of a small rock plant
caled gathoorl ka mahlga-lni lunidenufied, possibfy related to
Mbeere ith{lri, Euphorbia spp., and also an ingredient in arrow
poisonl was added to the brew when the poison was being made, to
make it of a suckier consistency.
The morlco shrub gre$, commonly in Kikuyu country around
Dagoretti and elsewhere. The roots, bark, and smaller branches
hrere chopped up small and then put into a special earthenware pot

25
used exclusively for // poi*n. There they were boiled in water,
more water being added from Ume to Ume, for about 12 hours.
The water was then allowed to boil away, and it left a sucky black
gum at the bottom of tbe pot. This gummy substance was
carefully scraped together wNle it was cooling and it was made up
into oblong lumps, which, when cold, went hard.
When one brew was thus finished a second lot was put on the
fire, and the poison brewers would spend two or three whole days
doing nothing but preparing this poison, which they later would
seu to other aathl and to the agricultural Kikulru.
The brewing of the poison could not, by custom, be carried
out in a village or anywhere near habitauon sites. The poison
brewers had to go into the bush and build a rough shelter to sleep
in, or else go and dwell temporarily in a cave.
while brewing poison for arrows, the brewer might on no
account have any sexual contact with thejr wives or any other
woman, and no wornan might come near the place where the poison
was being prepared, or it would certainly be rendered ineffective.
If a poison brewer required food, his wife might bring it each day
to tfle vicinity of the cave o! hut in the bush where he was
working, but she had to put it down a litue distance away, and
Ieave it for him to couect when she had gone. If a woman was in
the middle of a menstrual p€riod, she could not even prepare food
for her husband while he wasi engaged in brewing poison, let alone
carry it to him, and she had to ask some other r^/ornan to cook him
food and take it to him.
when a man returned home with his supply of poison there was
no special ceremony required before he resumed normal life.
The lumps of poison were kept wrapped in soft pieces of
leather ( n(tatl|l) , and when required, a lump was put out in the
sun until it was softened by the heat, and then a poruon of the
gummy substance scraped off and appUed to the arrows and
elephant harpoons as required.
A small ball of arrow poison atlout the size of a golf ball was
valued at one ewe, and those who made good and effective poison
did a brisk trade. If a man gave a fellow hunter poison, instead
of seuing it to him, he thereby became entiued to one ndarl -
piece of hide large enough for a shield - from each buffalo that his
friend kiUed.
Poison of the kind made from moricg juice was not only used
on arrows for shooung game, but also on the arrows which the
older men used for fighung the Maasai when the Maasai raided
Kikuyu country. Occasionaly a man would accidentally wound
another Kikuyu with a poisoned arrow, and in view of this the
Kikuyu had experimented with antidotes. They claimed that if a
man who had been wounded with a poisoned arrow could get hold
of some ngonlrl seeds I cardiospermum halicacabum ] and some
motongu berries [Solanum incanum, Sodom Apple, and Solanum
indicuml , and // chew them quiclcfy and swallow their juice, he
had a good chance of recovery, because, rrThose juice.s would
cause serious trouble to one another". ('Mai mau nimekoharana.')
In other r^rords, the anudote to a blood poison was to take another
poison of the internal kind, for the juice of ngonld seeds and of
motongu berries were also Nghly poisonous. The effect of this

26
 treatment was that after an hour or two the pauent vomited
violently.
An alternative treatment for arrow poison was the stomach
juice-s of a sheep or a goat. One of these animals would be kiUed
as quickly as possible, its stomach contents removed, and the
juice.s squeezed out of it. which the pauent had to swallow.
The flesh round a poisoned arrow wound in an animal was cut
out and thrown a\^ray. It was never eaten.
The mOrIcO shrub was said to be so poisonous that if bees
took too much honey from its flowers, the honey was poisoned and
would make people who consumed i.t sick, and if they were at all
weak in constituuon it would kill them" (L977: 476-478).

Else$/here Leakey refers to poison by the name flrtlr0 (1977: 377).

[How is poison stored and carried? How is the archer protected from
contact with it? How long does it last?l

Quivers

Use of Ouivers

Generally only iron-tipped arrows are carried in a quiver. Wooden

Upped arrows, as well as the different kinds of nduru, are not kept in
quivers. Most wooden arrows are, in any case, much longer than the
quivers that are used, the wooden arrows that have worn do\^rn
except
(and been sharpened down) qrith age. The splayed klthonJt type of
arrow \rould not fit in a quiver however short they were. Instead
w@den arrows are usually carried two or three at a time in the left
hand. They are not normally carried in larger numbers than this
[arrows which miss their target are retrieved if possibfe?].

Quivers are calried by

a strap ove! the left shoulder. when the
archer is in acuon the quiver hangs under the arm facing forward and
with its cover off ( suspended by a part of the strap in some cases) so
that arrows can be taken from the quiver easily with the right hand.

27
When the arctrer is just travelling with the quiver it is worn over the
left shoulder in the normal way lhow is the bow carried?].

Parts of the Ouiver

mokwa wa thtaka, mlkwa ya thlaka, 3/4, the carrying strap of a

quiver.

nemo ya thlaka, nemo da thlaka, 9/IO, the cover of a quiver (as

disUnct from nemo ya ldthembe (9/1.O), the cover of a honey barrel.

ngunlko, nguniko, 9/1.O, the generic term for a @ver. This is

sometimes applied to the cover of a quiver, though the proper term for
this is nemo ya thlaka.

(the main body of the quiver has no special name).

Tvpe-s of Ouivers

thlaka, tblaka, 9/LO, the generic name for a qrdver.

thiaka ya m0cingi, thiaka cia m0cingl, 9/IO, a quiver made out of a

plasuc water pipe. This is a relatively recent [when?] innovation.
The quivers are made from plasuc water pipes hrith leather carrying
straps and are very durable. The plastic is moulded by being heated
and then cold water is poured on to it to make it contract quickly and
filsfy into place. As in the leather quivers the hooks for holding the
strap are made by cutting two slits and then inserting a piece of wood
through them to hold them in place.
In early 1993 this type of quiver cost Kshs. 30-60 in Ishiara. There is
only one nan, a carpenter, who makes them there. He does so at home
and doe-s not sell them in Ishiara market. This is b€cause the plasuc
pipe.s are obtained on the black market ( which would imply that they
are stolen or otherwise filched from somewhere else). Silas has two

28
such quivers at home, one larger than the other, and both of which his
late elder brother had bought from this man. The one which r.ras made
for me was made by Nyaga Motenge, the brother of Jacob Njoka. It
cost Kshs. 120 in Aprif 1993. Nyaga had already made it on order for
someone who had paid a deposit of Kshs. 60, but Si]as persuaded him
to part with it and make the other customer anothe! one.

thlalra ya mO6, thla]<a cia m0ti, 9/L0, a wooden quiver. This type
of quiver is not very common now, though they are still made. This is
done using the small riparian tree caUed morlra (3/4, identifed as
Cordyline (? steudneri) ), which is now quite rare
sp. or Dracaena sp.
because it is also used in house building. The soft and fibrous inside
of ( which part of?) the tree is hollowed out with a special tool (name?)
to form the main body of the quiver. The cover, bottom and strap are
made of cow-Nde and attached to tNs. It is much easier and takes
less Ume to make than an al-leather quiver. Simon Nyaga's father,
and in fact any man of his age-group, c.rn make these well, wtrile it is
said that even small boys can (or could once) produce them. It also
uses less cow-hide, and in that respect is less expensive. The
disadvantage.s of this type of quiver are that it is not as durable as an
all-leather one and is also rather heavier. A major constraint upon
their production, hordever, is the rarity of mirlra trees, already
mentioned above. Silas has one such quiver at home, inherited from
his late father (who made his own?). In April 1993 these cost Kshs.
80-120 in Ishiara. Another disadvantage with morlra is that the wood
may be quite moist and takes a long time to dry. It has to be properly
dry otherwise it will lose its shape if it is scooped out when it is still
wet [how long does it take to dry?].

Another type of wooden quiver

I does it have a special name?] is made
from a sisal bulbil tcheckl , the flowering stem, called m0valvo (3/4,
s€e Riley and Brokensha 1988: II, 13). The sisal plant itself, Aqave
sisalana, is caued mokonge, 3/4 tcheckl . This is an exouc grown for
its fibres and also as a fence or boundary marker, while the tall bulbils
or poles can also be used in house construction. The core dries out of
its own ac@rd and a suitably sized piece can easily be cut to make the

29
cylindrical body of a quiver. The outer surface is then smoothed down
using a piece of broken bottle. A knife can also be used but the
broken botue lwhat was used in the past?
is best Is tllis also done
vrhen making the morlra quiver?1 .
The example I have has a leather strap and bindings. The latter were
wound alound the cylinder and shrunk-dried into place with sisal string
bound around them. This string hras later removed: the impressions
made by it on tbe leather can still be seen.
The sisal quiver made for me in April 1993 was made by NjOe Kibwece,
Silas' father's blother. He charged Kshs. 150 to make it together with
a leather quiver ( the hide was already prowided). Sisal was preferred
over rnorlra because of the Ume this would have taken to dry. The
bulbil was obtained free by Silas: however it proved very difficult to
obtain because sisal is not common in Ishiara and the bulbils are
de.stroyed by children can be put to any
before they other use (so
there is not much of a market for the poles in Ishiara).

thlaka ya ngrombe, thla]<a cia ng'ombe, g/LO, literaly a "cattle

quiver", made from cow-hide. This is an alternauve name for the
following.

thlal<a ya nJOo, thla]<a cda nj0o, 9/I0, Iiterally a "hide quiver", made
from ox-hide. This is the standard type of quiver, made from pieces
of ox-rude and joined with strips of the same, se\^rn with a wooden
needle hrhich makes large hole.s [name of this needle? It can be made of
any kind of wood, and is 3-5" Iongl . The hide of a buu or ox irg
preferred: this is because of its relauve tlfckness. A thin hide might
be too weak after tie process of preparation. The quivers can be made
from a tride from a freshly slaughtered animal or from a tdde wfdch has
already been dried and is then wetted. Raw hides are more difficult to
obtain, and even when they are available a craftsman might not have
the other neoessary inputs
[which are?] to work w"ith before the hide
drie-s. It is said, however, that the fresh hide is stronger, partly
because it retains the hair ( though some people prefer the colour of a
leather quiver without patches of differently coloured hair). The
alternaUve is to use a hide which has akeady been dried, This first

30
requires processing. The proce.ss of wetting it
lis there a better term
for this?l is called korlnda r{lwo (r{lwo meaning skin or Nde). A
shallow depression is first dug or scooped out in the homestead. The
hide is folded up (not roued ) and placed inside this, either tied up or
with a stone on top of it. Water is then poured into the hole and the
hide is buried with earth. This earth is kept damp throughout the
process. People therefore prefer to do this work during the rains,
otherwise water has to fetched for the purpose (a contemporary
alternative is to site the hole near a water standpipe, if there is one in
the homestead ) . The hide is left Uke this for 1-2 weeks: if it is left
for longer than 2 weeks then the hide will begin to decay and become
too thin. At the end of this process the hide has to be worked upon
immediately: it will later shrink as required [check on the description
and nature of tlds processl .
There are two ways of moulding the tLide into the cylindrical shape
required. One is to stretch it around a solid w@den cylinder or mou.ld
before it has dried. However, this mould should be removed before the
leather has fully dried, otherwise it will be impossible to separate the
two. The alternative is to roll the piece of hide into the required
cylindricat shape, with [what?] at the base, and then fill it
something
with sand [check that this is sand]. Sand should be forced in so that
it is bulging at the side-s: tlris r,,rill ensure that when the leathe! dries
and shrinks it will retain a good cylindrical shape, forcing the sand up
in the process. This is said to be the best method. There is no idea
that both a wooden mould and sand might be used as in the Southern
Kikuyu case, though this may be a superio! method.
The cover is made out of a separate piece of hide lwhat about the
base?1, Iikewise the carrying strap. The cover is not more than c.L!"
deep. These quivers are made in different size.s and for all kinds of
arrows.
In early 1993 a quiver of this kind cost about Kshs. 150 in IsNara
market. In April 1993 they cost Kshs. 120-150 according to size. very
few people make them. One sp€cialist died recenuy (in the last 4
years: he lived nea! Simon Nyaga, who should know more about Nm),
though there is sull someone else hrho makes hide quiver for the
Ishiara market. Silas used to have one of these quivers at home (made

31
by his late father ) but it became worn out (and was thlown away?).
One of the main reasons why these quivers are made by only a few
specialists is the cos't of procuring hides. The hide of a mature cow
can cost Kshs. 150 and may be sufficient to make 8-1.0 quivers
depending on their size and that of the hide (the same hide might make
2-3 honey barrels, or even 4 if they are small (are the same specialists
involved?). It is therefore not worth procuring a hide just to make one
or two quivers for p€rsonal. use: economies of scale are necessary.
This kind of quiver can spoil in the rain. Otherwise it may Iast 100
years or so if properly treated. One threat to the hide are weevil-like
insects called ntagathaga (9/lO), which eat cow-hide land othe!
skins?1 . One hray to protect the quiver from these insects is to dust it
powder or the chemical used by people dealing in Nde-s
and skins. This treatment, hohrever, has to repeated every two
months. The be-st treatment is to apply castor oil to the quiver (this is
prepared from the seeds of m0variki, 3/4, Ricinus communis). This
also makes the quiver soft so that it doe-s not crack, and the treatment
lasts for a whole year before it has to be repeated. Other leather
goods, such as the carrying straps ( mlkwa) of hrater containers, also
used to be treaated in the same way. The castor oil is not normally
sold in the rnarket, but can be ordered and bought from the old women
who make it. The supply of castor oil is generally seasonal and not
available until after the the castor berries are harve.sted in August.
There is, however, an Indian at Ishiara srho stores and seU€ the seeds,
so it is possible to produce the oil at other times of the year. The
seeds are heated to produce the oil.
The quiver made for me in April 1993 was made by NjOe Kibwece, Silas'
father's brother. He charged Kshs. L50 for his labour to make this
and a sisal guiver. Silas bought a hide for Kshs. 230. This provided
enough leather for three leather quivers (two were spoiled: one dried
and stuck to the w@den mould - NjOe not being an experienced
craftsman - while the other one was soiled by a dog as it lay propp€d
up under a tree), and the strap and binding for sisal quiver. There
rdas enough left over to make a small honey case: however, it is very
difficult to obtain a piece of mokau (3/4), uelie_Jglkensii , to make this
with.

32
A quiver of this type was bought in KiriUri market
in May t993 for
Kshs. 35. The old man who had made it was not present, but it was
brought by his wife. It was reported to have been nade u/ith a wooden
moulal, not sand. It was said that it coutd arry 20 anows (terr were
purchased at the same Ume and fit inside it quite comfortably).
According to Orde Browne:

" Quivers are carried to contain arror^rs, and are generally

made of
hide; they are about three feet long by three o! four inches in
diameter. The body is cylindrical, with a cap of teather fitting
over the end, the hrhole being sutched at the seams. A strap
passes upwards from the two side.s of the quiver, on wlrich the cap
runs, and by which the guiver is carried slung over the shoulder.
In it is often carried a fire-stic}<, with block and dry grass for
making fire. It is often ornamented with beads, and [tue charms
are sometlnes hung onto it to secule the owner general good
fortune in his travele; these seem to differ from the similar things
worn on the person. Another form of guiver exists in which the
hide is replaced by bamboo, the two ends being made of hide, and
the general da<ign being the samef (L925: I57\.

This may well describe the prevalent form of quiver in the rugher
z.ones: certainly
the bamboo type belongs to this a!ea. Carrlring fire-
sticks in the quiver is clearly an ancient and widespread practice:
hence the Ice-Man discovery ( reference ) (check whether Mbeere did or
do this).

Comlrare Leakey's description for the Southern Kikuyu:

'Thlaka
Ouivers were made by special craftsmen from oxhide. A piece of
oxhide was soaked and sewn over a round sectioned block of wood
of suitable size, about 2! ft fong and 4 in. in diameter. When it
had been thus sewn and shaped, the vrood was withdrawn before
the skin dried, the hollow leather tube was filled up with Ughuy
packed earth and put to dry. When dry, the earth was removed
and a bottom was fixed to the tube of leather by drying on it a
cap of wet rawhide, which contracted as it dried and became
immovable. The upper end of ttle quiver had a removable cap
made of leather as follows. First a piece of thick broken gourd
was cut to the exact size of the top of the tube, and a leather
collar rdas made and tacked on to the gourd disc with nnailsn made
from splinters of bamboo. The quiver was provided with a
carrying strap, and was then completen (1977: 358).

33
l,eakey refers to the bamboo quiver among the Southern Kikuyu as
follor^rs:

'Thlaka wa Morangl
Someumes a quiver was made from a hoUow length of bamboo
instead of from leather, and had only a leather base and leather
cap" (1977:338).

Tools used in Ouiver-makinq

(a special tool is used for hoUowing out the soft and fibrous inside of
( which part of?) the mirlra trees used in making wooden guivers,
thial<a cla mO6. This tool is sirnilar to that used in b€€hive-making,
but is smaller in size [what is it called?].

(a wooden needle ( with an eye) is used to se$r the strips of cow-hide

which 3bin the seams on the leather quiver, called thiaka ya nJOo or
thlaka ya ngrombe. The needle can be made of any kind of wood, and
is 3-5" long and capable of making large holes for the strips of leather
to pass through [what is it caued?].

Plants used in Ouiver-makinq

mgrlra, nirlra, 3/4, a small tree idenufied by Riley and Brokensha

as Cordvline sp. or Dracaena sp. (? steudneri) (1988: If, 217). The
soft and fibrous inside of ( which part of? ) the tree is hollowed out with
a special tool (name?) to form the main body of the type of quiver
c lled thlal<a ya moti. In northern Mbeele the tree is only found along
the banks of the Thuqi and Ena rivers, and is now quite rare because
it is also used in bouse building. The owners of land with these trees
on then will generaly not let other people sut them, at least not for
free. Riley and Brokensha do not record any contemporar!, uses for
ttre-se tree.s, although they were tofd by elderly informants that the
leaves were once used to rnake women's and a very strong cord
used in trapping wild animals (1988: II, 2I7-2I8).

34
 Archer,J Technlques

The Grip (?)

The bow is gripped in the left hand with the thumb lying on top of the
folded fingers and the arrow shaft resting on top of the thumb. This
grip is said to be free from chafing by the bowstring. The arrow is
held and drawn bacl< in the right hand between the first and second
fingers. lf the arrow has a separate and extended nock piece behind
the flights (as in ivaviya, the sorghum-stalk arrow ) then it is held at
that point. If, however, there is insufficient space between the ftights
and the nock, then the shaft is held above the flights. When the
arrow is released the flights $/i[ then squeeze through the archer's
fingers at speed before springring straight back into shape.
Orde Browne description differs in some respects from tlris:

"The method of drawing and releasing is as follohrs. Tbe arrow is

put into position, qrith the nock on the string; the left hand then
grasps the c€ntre of the staff, the right hand holding tfre arrow
on the string udth the nock between the first and second fingers,
and the thumb resting on the end of the nock; the bohr is ttren
drawn, held in an almost upright posiuon, and to about tv/o-thirds
of the length of the arrow; the thumb is withdrawn from the end
of the arrow, and the string is released with the two fingers. In
Mwimbe there is a tendency to straighten the first finger of the
left hand to assist in aligning the arrow, tlough this is not always
done. No sort of guard for finger or $/rist is worn n (1925: 1.5L-
L52).

Aiminq and Shootinq

Aim is taken by sighung along the arrow \,vith one eye (the other eye
being cfosed). Where the arfow is aimed depends on whether the prey
is stauonarlt or moving, and if moving how fast it is mowing.
Corrections are made ac€oxdingly. (Is this usually done standing or

J5
kneeling? Is there anytNng about stalking? How are hunung dogs
used? what are the best times for hunung?).
According to Orde Browne:

"The distance covered by the arrow is about a hundred and twenty

yards, or occasionally more: accuracy is very poor as a rule; the
avelage marksman v/ill miss a hat at thirty yards more often than
he will hit it" (L925: I52).

Hlgtortcal Inpllcauons

Discussion of the UnguisUc evidence. Origins of Mbeere and CKB

hunting technology, from Southern Cushiuc or Eastern Cushitic?. Orde
Browne (1925) considers Chuka, Embu and Mbeere in general as inferior
to the Kamba model:

" Nearly all of ttre arrows made by the people of Soutl-East [Mt.]
Kenya are poor imitations of the Kamba arrow, and the latter is
considered much superior, and commands quite a good price when
soldff (L925: 152).

However, it might be argued that the difference in technology

represents an adaptauon to a different environment and ecology.
Consider the following description of hunting in (the formet ) Meru
District by Ogutu:

"The oldest and the most effective weapon for hunung $tas t}r€ bow
and aror^r. In relauvely flat regiions such as Dvtanti and Tharaka,
the hunters made light arrows \.dth equaly light hanaues of bows.
These were meant for aiming at fast running anilnafs suctr as the
mthia [chec]<l (harc) and nt]riva (antelope). In contrast, the
Chuka, Uving in hilly forest areas are reported to have made thick
edged and generally large and round looking arrows. These were
meant for dose quarter shooting. Hunung of larger animals such
as buffalos or elephants, for example, required that the hunter
hides behind a bush or tree to be able to accurately shoot the
passing beast. To be more effective the arrowheads used on
larger animals had poison. This was necessar]t to kill the animals
during tie course of the day. The Meru atho€ri [hunters] obtained
the arrowheads from the local blacl<smith. The arrows were of two
types, one with an iron head and the other with a wooden head.
while the forrner was used for giant animats, the latter was
smeared with deadly poison. Such an arrcht was prohibited from

36
 usage during ordinarlt wars and was only used basically as a
huntjng weapon" (1986: 55).

For larger and buffalos ) Ogutu says that "The use

animafs (elephants
of a poisoned arrow by a hunter hidden behind a thicl<et was @mmon"
(1986: 56). However, the use of pit traps along animal trails was the
safe,st method. Another type of trap is de-scribed as follows:

nThe second and perhaps more sophisucated type of traPping the

larger animals was called nouumi. This involved the use of a long
arrow put on a big log, preferably a branch of the kiuria baobab.
The log was tied to a tree with a string that went around to where
the trap was. If the string and the trap was stepped on by an
animal, the log gave way by going down and striking the animal
forcing it to faU often on its backbone. Normally the arrow put on
the log would pierce and break the animal's backbone, disenabling
it to nrove" (1986: 56).

Influence of the Segeju upon the Mijikenda and others.

Condualona

Possibilty of documenting material culture and associated linguisuc data

as a means of drawing historical conclusions. Working back from the
present as is done in linguistics, with the added advantage of
archaeological material, at least for iron and other durable materials.

Note the evidence of innovation: sisal is a relauvely recent crop,

plasuc pipe.s are even more r€cent. A lot of contemporary rnaterials are
used. There is sull a market for improvements: new materials have
made a lot of tlrings easier.

The production and sale of these items appears to be in decline.

Ishiaramarket is now held once a weel< ( Tuesdays) but the market for
bows and arrows is said to have tleen ver,1t poor for some time: outside
buyers have not been coming. It is difficult to tell whether this is
related to the current recession and inflauon or not (and it would be
interesting to know what proportion of the goods find their way into

37
the hands of tourists: probably only a small percentage judg"ing by the
inferior items sold in Nairobi and Mombasa).

Ac,<nowledgementg
Silas Kibwece ( for most of the information), Simon Nyaga, Jonathan
Mutua, Alfred Nyaga, Justus Runji, Mugo wa Nyaga, Severino tcheck l
M\^raniki and the craftsmen in Kiritjri market, Harriet Skinner (for
addiuonal infornauon), Carolyne wanja Njue (for suggesting a visit to
the Insutute of African Studies' ethnographic couection), Silas Gitonga
( for information on Chuka arrow feathers).

References

anon [check] 1986 ron Material Culture and Design Development in

Meru District', in G. S. Were (ed) Meru District Socio-cultural
Profile. Nairobi:. Ministry of Planning and Nauonal Development
and Institute of African Studie-s, University of Nairobi. 150-156.

Blackbuln, Roderic H. 1973 'Okiek Ceramics: Evidence for Central

Kenya Prehistory', Azania, 8, 55-70.

Brokensha, David n.d. 'Crafts in Mbeere', ms in the Institute of

African Studies Library, University of Nairobi.

Brokensha, David, H. S. K. Mwaniki and Bernard W. Riley L972

'Bee-keeping in Embu District, Kenya', Bee World, 53 (3), 114-
t23.

Brokensha, David and Bernard Riley L97I 'Bee-keeping among the

Mbeere (and some notes on Tharaka)', Mita, 2 (1).

Brown, Jean L97l 'Iron working in Southern Mbeerc', Mila, 2 (1).

Brown, Jean L977 'Anti-Sorcer'I Ritual of an Mbeere Blacksmithr ,

Kenva Past and Present, 8, 36-38.

38
Brown, Jean f980 TradiUonal Blacksmiths and Metalworkinq in
Kenva: An Ethnoarchaeoloqical Approach (2 vofs.), unpublished
Ph.D dissertauon, Glasgow University.

Cummings, Henry 1978 'Two Iron Age Site-s in the Grand FaIs
Area, Meru District', Azania, 13, 193-194.

Ehret, Christopher 1980 The Historical Reconstruction of Southern

Cushitic Phonoloqv and Vocabularv. Berlin: Reimer.

Fadiman, Jeffrey A. l9AZ An Oral History of Tribal Warfare: Tfle

Meru of Mt. Kenva. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Pre-ss.

Gachathi, F. N. 1989 Kiku!.u Botanical Dictionarv of Plant Names

and Uses. Nairobi: privately published.

Geider, Thomas lon Pokomo beekeeping]

Holman, D. 1967 The Elephant People. London: John Murray.

Leakey, L. S. B. [arrow technology paper in EANHS library]

t-eakey, L. S. B. 1977 @ (3 vols.).

London, Nevr York, San Francisco: Academic Press.

Lindblom, Gerhard I92O

Ethnoloqical lcheck I Monoqraph. Uppsata: Appelbergs
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M$/aniki, H. S. Kabeca L97O 'Bee-keeping: The Dead Industry

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Mwaniki, H. S. Kabeca 1974 ErnDu__H!S&AEjcal-_TCx!S_. Kampala,

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J:'
NdeU, Kivuto 1972 Elements of Akamba Life. Nairobi: East African
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Ogutu, M. A. 1986 'Hunting and cathering in Meru', in c. S. luer€

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Orde Browne, G. St. J. 1925 The Vanishinq Tri.bes of Kenva.

London: Seeley, Selvice & Co.

Parker, Ian 1983 Ivorv Crisis. London: Chatto anal Windus.

Riley, Bernard W. and David Brokensha 1988 The_UDee!e_t!_XC4E_

( Volume I: Chancrinq Rural Ecoloov; Volume II: Botanical
Idenuues and Uses). Lanham: University press of America.

Sope!, Robert 1976 'Archaeological Sites in the Chlrulu HiUs,

Kenya', Azania, 11, 83-116.

Soper, Robert L979 'Iron Age Archaeology and Traditional History

in Embu, Mb€ere and Chuka Areas of Central Kenya', Azania, L4,
3r.-59.

Steinhart, Edward [work on hunting in general, in JAH ]

Walker, D. A. L957 rciriama Arrow Poison: A Study in African

Pharmacology and Ingenuity,, The Central African Journal of
Medicine, 3 (6) , 226-228.

Walsh, Martin 1992 rElephant Shrews and Arrow poison', Egst Af4ca
Natural Historv Societv Bulleun, 22 (2), l8-2L.

40