The Digestive System Additional Material the human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and accessory

y organs. The accessory organs are : the teeth , tongue , salivary glands , liver , gallbladder and pancreas. Ailmentary canal 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The gastro intestinal (GI) tract = Ailmentary canal is a continuous coiled muscular tube and it runs through the mouth to anus. The alimentary canal is arranged sequentially as mouth , oral cavity , pharynz, oesophagus , stomach , small intestine e, large intestine , and anus. The gut wall has four layers namely : a) serosa b) muscularis c) sub-mucosa d) mucosa The Serosa is the outermost layer and is made up of a thin simple squamous epithelium ( mesothelium) but the oesophagus lacks a serosa layer. The Muscularis is formerd by smooth muscles and usuallyarranged into an inner circular and outer longitudinal layer. An oblique muscle layer is present in the body of the stomach .the myentric plexus or plexus of auerbach , is also present between te longitudinal and circular smooth muscle layers of the muscularis . The Submucosa is a layer formed by loose connective tissue and it contains nerves ,blood and lymph vessels, duodenum , glands are also present in the sub-mucosa. The submucosal plexua , or plexus of meissner present in it. The mucosa it is the inner most layer m the lumen of alimentary canal is mucosa. It has 1) epithelium facing the lumen of the GI tract and 2) a layer of connective tissue called the lamina propria and 3) a thin layer of smooth muscle called muscularis mucosae. Mouth 1. Mouth is an opening and is surrounded by upper and lower lips (labia) . It leads to buccal cavity or oral cavity , the lateral walls of oral cavity form cheeks . the roof of the oral cavity formed by hard palate (anterior roof) . the oral cavity has teeth and a muscular tongue onits floor. 2. Palate divided into a soft palate and a hard palate , the palate makes it possible to chew and breahe at the same time. The Hard palate is formed by the maxillae and palatine bones and is covered by a mucous membrane ; it forms a bony partition betweenthe oral and nasal cavitirs . 3. An hanging from the free order of the soft palateis a conical muscular prcess called the uvula (= lil grape) Tooth The human teeth are Thecodont = inside a cavity , Diphiodont = grow twice and Heterodont = all are different types. A typical tooth has three parts Crown Neck and Root Teeth of humans are small, calcified, hard, whitish structures found in the mouth. They function in mechanically breaking down items of food by cutting and crushing them in preparation for swallowing

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and digestion. The roots of teeth are embedded in the maxilla (upper jaw) or the mandible (lower jaw) and are covered by gums. Teeth are made of multiple tissues of varying density and hardness.

Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Humans, like other mammals, are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. The first set (also called the "baby", "milk", "primary", and "deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful.

Dental trauma refers to trauma to the face, mouth, and especially the teeth, lips and periodontium. The study of dental trauma is called dental traumatology.

Parts of a human Tooth 1

Parts of A Human Tooth 1. Enamel Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body. It is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp. It is normally visible and must be supported by underlying dentin. 96% of enamel consists of mineral, with water and organic material comprising the rest.The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly

affects the appearance of a tooth. Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5mm, and thinnest at its border, which is seen clinically as the CEJ.

Enamel's primary mineral is hydroxylapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate. The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness.Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle, compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support. Unlike dentin and bone, enamel does not contain collagen. Instead, it has two unique classes of proteins called amelogenins and enamelins. While the role of these proteins is not fully understood, it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as framework support among other functions. 2. Dentin Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum and the pulp chamber. It is secreted by the odontoblasts of the dental pulp. The formation of dentin is known as dentinogenesis. The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70% inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10% water by weight. Because it is softer than enamel, it decays more rapidly and is subject to severe cavities if not properly treated, but dentin still acts as a protective layer and supports the crown of the tooth. Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. Dentin has microscopic channels, called dentinal tubules, which radiate outward through the dentin from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum or enamel border. The diameter of these tubules range from 2.5 m near the pulp, to 1.2 m in the midportion, and 900 nm near the dentino-enamel junction. Although they may have tiny sidebranches, the tubules do not intersect with each other. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tooth. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is genetically determined. 3. Cementum Cementum is a specialized bone like substance covering the root of a tooth. It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly hydroxyapatite), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least of the root.[16] The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, cov ers about of the root apex.[17] 4. Pulp The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth filled with soft connective tissue.This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the root. Along the border between the dentin and the pulp are odontoblasts, which initiate the formation of dentin. Other cells in the pulp include fibroblasts, preodontoblasts, macrophages and T lymphocytes. The pulp is commonly called "the nerve" of the tooth.

The Human Tooth Dentation is 2 I 1 C 2 PM 3 M/ 2 1 2 3= 2123/2123

Humans usually have 20 primary (deciduous, "baby" or "milk") teeth and 32 permanent (adult) teeth. Teeth are classified as incisors, canines, premolars (also called bicuspids),and molars. Incisors are primarily used for biting pieces from foods such as raw carrots or apples and peeled but uncut bananas, while molars are used primarily for grinding foods after they are already in bite size pieces inside the mouth. Tongue The tongue is a muscular hydrostat on the floors of the mouths of most vertebrates which manipulates food for mastication. It is the primary organ of taste (gustation), as much of the upper surface of the tongue is covered in papillae and taste buds. It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva, and is richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels. In humans a secondary function of the tongue is phonetic articulation. The tongue also serves as a natural means of cleaning one's teeth

Types of papillae on tongue 1.The circumvallate papillae (or vallate papillae) are dome-shaped structures on the human tongue that vary in number from eight to twelve.

They are situated on the dorsum of the tongue immediately in front of the foramen cecum and sulcus terminalis, forming a row on either side; the two rows run backward and medially, and meet in the midline. 2. The fungiform papillae are mushroom shaped papillae (projections) on the tongue. They are located on the top (dorsal) surface of the tongue, scattered throughout the filiform papilla but mainly at the tip and lateral margins of the tongue. They have taste buds on their superior (upper) surface which can distinguish the five tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami. They have a core of connective tissue. They are innervated by the seventh cranial nerve, more specifically via the submandibular ganglion, chorda tympani, and geniculate ganglion ascending to the solitary nucleus in the brainstem. 3. The filiform papillae (singular: papilla) are one of the four types of lingual papillae, small prominences on the surface of the tongue. The filiform papillae are thin, long "V"-shaped cones that don't contain taste buds

but are the most numerous, covering most of the dorsum (upper surface). These papillae are mechanical and not involved in gustation. 4. Foliate papillae are short vertical folds found on the lateral margins of the tongue. Taste buds, the endorgans of the gustatory sense, are scattered over the mucous membrane of their surface. Serous glands drain into the folds and clean the taste buds. They are occasionally Misdiagnosed as tumors or inflammatory disease. They are usually bilaterally symmetrical. Sometimes they appear small and inconspicuous, whereas they may sometimes be prominent. Lingual tonsils are found immediately beneath the foliate papillae and, when hyperplastic, cause a prominence of the papillae. Muscles on tongue