Occupational hazards in process industries; Safety in design and operation Hazards and risk A hazard is defined in as a "Condition, event,

or circumstance that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned or undesirable event." Seldom does a single hazard cause an accident or a functional failure. More often, an accident or operational failure occurs as the result of a sequence of causes. A hazard analysis will consider system state, for example operating environment, as well as failures or malfunctions. While in some cases safety or reliability risk can be eliminated, in most cases a certain degree of risk must be accepted. In order to quantify expected costs before the fact, the potential consequences and the probability of occurrence must be considered. Assessment of risk is made by combining the severity of consequence with the likelihood of occurrence in a matrix. Risks that fall into the "unacceptable" category (e.g., high severity and high probability) must be mitigated by some means to reduce the level of safety risk. Table 1. Severity Definition

Catastrophic

Results in multiple fatalities and/or loss of the system

Reduces the capability of the system or the operator ability to cope with adverse conditions to the extent that there would be:

Large reduction in safety margin or functional capability Crew physical distress/excessive workload such that operators cannot be relied upon to perform required tasks accurately or completely Serious or fatal injury to small number of occupants of aircraft (except operators) Fatal injury to ground personnel and/or general public

Hazardous

Reduces the capability of the system or the operators to cope with adverse operating conditions to the extent that there would be: Major

Significant reduction in safety margin or functional capability Significant increase in operator workload

Conditions impairing operator efficiency or creating significant discomfort Physical distress to occupants of aircraft (except operator) including injuries Major occupational illness and/or major environmental damage, and/or major property damage

Does not significantly reduce system safety. Actions required by operators are well within their capabilities. Include:

Minor

Slight reduction in safety margin or functional capabilities Slight increase in workload such as routine flight plan changes Some physical discomfort to occupants or aircraft (except operators) Minor occupational illness and/or minor environmental damage, and/or minor property damage

No Safety Effect

Has no effect on safety

Occupational Hazards A worker may be exposed to these types of hazards, depending upon his/her occupation:

Physical Hazards

1.Heat and Cold In India, the most common physical hazard is heat. The direct effects of heat exposure are burns, heat exhaustion, heat stroke and heat cramps; the indirect effects are decreased efficiency, increased fatigue and enhanced accident rates. Many industries have local hot spots ovens and furnaces, which radiate heat. Radiant heat is the main problem in foundry, glass and steel industries, while heat stagnation is the principal problem in jute and cotton textile. High temperatures are also found in mines. Physical work under such conditions is very stressful and impairs the health and efficiency of the workers. For gainful work involving sustained and repeated effort, a reasonable temperature must be maintained in each work room. Important hazards associated with cold work are chilblains, erythrocyanosis, immersion foot, and frostbite as a result of cutaneous vasoconstriction. General hypothermia is not unusual. 2. Light

The workers may be exposed to the risk of poor illumination or excessive brightness. The acute effects of poor illumination are eye strain, headache, eye pain, lachrymation, congestion around the cornea and eye fatigue. The chronic effects on health include minerss nystagmus. Exposure to excessive brightness or glare is associated with discomfort, annoyance and visual fatigue. Intense direct glare may also result in blurring of vision and lead to accidents. There should be sufficient and suitable lighting, natural or artificial, wherever persons are working. 3. Noise Noise is a health hazard in many industries. The effects of noise are of two types: (i) Auditory effects - which consist of temporary or permanent hearing loss (ii) Non-auditory effects which consist of nervousness, fatigue, interference with communication by speech, decreased efficiency and annoyance. The degree of injury from exposure to noise depends upon a number of factors such as intensity and frequency range, duration of exposure and individual susceptibility. 4. Vibration Vibration, especially in the frequency range 10 to 500 Hz. May be encountered in work with pneumatic tools such as drills and hammers. Vibration usually affects the hands and arms. After some months or years of exposure, the fine blood vessels of the fingers may become increasingly sensitive to spasm (white fingers). Exposure to vibration may also produce injuries of the joints, of the hands, elbows and shoulders. 5. Ultraviolet Radiation Occupational exposure to ultraviolet radiation occurs mainly in arc welding. Such radiation occurs mainly affects the eyes, causing intense conjunctivitis and keratitis (welders flash). Symptoms are redness of the eyes and pain, these usually disappear in a few days with no permanent effect on the vision or on the deeper structures of the eye. 6. Ionizing Radiation Ionizing radiation is finding increasing application in medicine and industry, e.g. x-rays and radio active isotopes. Important radio-isotopes are cobalt60 and phosphorus32. Certain tissues such as bonemarrow are more sensitive than others and from a genetic standpoint, there are special hazards when the gonads are exposed. The radiation hazards comprise genetic changes, malformation, cancer, leukaemia, depilation, ulceration, sterility and in extreme cases death. The

International Commission of Radiological Protection has set the maximum permissible level of occupational exposure at 5 rem per year to the whole body.

Chemical Hazards

There is hardly any industry which does not make use of chemicals. The chemical hazards are on the increase with the introduction of newer and complex chemicals. Chemical agents act in three ways: local action, inhalation and ingestion. The ill-effects produced depend upon the duration of exposure, the quantum of exposure and individual susceptibility. 1. Local Action Some chemicals cause dermatitis, eczema, ulcers and even cancer by primary irritant action; some cause dermatitis by an allergic action. Some chemicals, particularly the aromatic nitro and amino compounds such as TNT and aniline are absorbed through the skin and cause systemic effects. Occupational dermatitis is a big problem in industry. 2. Inhalation (i) Dusts Dusts are finely divided solid particles with size ranging from 0.1 to 150 microns. They are released into the atmosphere during crushing, grinding, abrading, loading and unloading operations. Dusts are produced in a number of industries mines, foundry quarry, pottery, textile, wood or stone working industries. Dust particles larger than 10 microns settle down from the air rapidly, while the smaller ones remain suspended indefinitely. Particles smaller than 5 microns are directly inhaled into the lungs and are retained there. This fraction of the dust is called respirable dust, and is mainly responsible for pneumoconiosis. Dusts have been classified into inorganic and organic dusts; soluble and insoluble dusts. The inorganic dusts are silica, mica, coal, asbestos dust, etc.; the organic dusts are cotton, jute and the like. The soluble dusts dissolve slowly, enter the systemic circulation and are eventually eliminated by body metabolism. The insoluble dusts remain, more or less, permanently in the lungs. They are mainly the cause of pneumoconiosis. The most common dust diseases are silicosis and anthracosis Gases Exposure to gases is a common hazard in industries. Gases are sometimes classified as simple gases (e.g. oxygen, hydrogen), asphyxiating gases (e.g. carbon monoxide, cyanide gas, sulphur dioxide, chlorine) and anesthetic gases (e.g. chloroform, ether, trichlorethylene). Carbon monoxide hazard is frequently reported in coal-gas manufacturing plants and steel industry. Metals and their Compounds A large number of metals and their compounds are used throughout industry. The chief mode of entry of some of them is by inhalation as

(ii)

(iii)

dust or fumes. The industrial physician should be aware of the toxic effects of lead, antimony, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, manganese, mercury, phosphorus, chromium, zinc and others. The ill-effects depend upon the duration of exposure and the dose or concentration of exposure. Unlike the pneumoconiosis, most chemical intoxications respond favourably to cessation, exposure and medical treatment. 3. Ingestion Occupational diseases may also result from ingestion of chemical substances such as lead, mercury, arsenic, zinc, chromium, cadmium, phosphorus, etc. Usually these substances are swallowed in minute amounts through contaminated hands, food or cigarettes. Much of the ingested material is excreted through faeces and only a small proportion may reach the general blood circulation.

Biological hazards

Workers may be exposed to infective and parasitic agents at the place of work. The occupational diseases in this category are brucellosis, leptospirosis, anthrax, hydatidosis, psittacosis, tetanus, encephalitis, fungal infections, schistosomiasis and a host of others. Persons working among animal products (e.g. hair, wool, hides) and agricultural workers are specially exposed to biological hazards.

Mechanical hazards

The mechanical hazards in industry centre round machinery, protruding and moving parts and the like. About 10% of accidents in industry are said to be due to mechanical causes.

Psychosocial hazards

The psychosocial hazards arise from the workers failure to adapt to an alien psychosocial environment. Frustration, lack of job satisfaction, insecurity, poor human relationships, emotional tension are some of the psychosocial factors which may undermine both physical and mental health of the workers. The capacity to adapt to different working environments is influenced by many factors such as education, cultural background, family life, social habits and what the worker expects from employment. The health effects can be classified in two main categories a) Psychological and behavioural changes including hostility, aggressiveness, anxiety, depression, tardiness, alcoholism, drug abuse, sickness absenteeism

b)

Psychosomatic ill health including fatigue, headache; pain in the shoulders, neck and back; propensity to peptic ulcer, hypertension, heart disease and rapid aging.

The physical factors (heat, noise, poor lighting) play a major role in adding to or precipitating mental disorders among workers. The increasing stress on automation, electronic operations and nuclear energy may introduce newer psychosocial health problems in industry. Psychosocial hazards are therefore assuming more importance than physical or chemical hazards. One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries are musculoskeletal disorders. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMDs) result in persistent pain, loss of functional capacity and work disability, but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they are mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms. Every year 1.8 million U.S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly 600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work.Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate worker complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort, or pain that does not go away after overnight rest. These types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions; frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts; awkward work positions; or use of vibrating equipment. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has found substantial evidence that ergonomics programs can cut workers' compensation costs, increase productivity and decrease employee turnover. Therefore, it is important to gather data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most problematic, using sources such as injury and illness logs, medical records, and job analyses. Identifying safety and health hazards Hazards, risks, outcomes The terminology used in OSH varies between countries, but generally speaking:

A hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled. The outcome is the harm that results from an uncontrolled hazard. A risk is a combination of the probability that a particular outcome will occur and the severity of the harm involved.

Hazard, risk, and outcome are used in other fields to describe e.g. environmental damage, or damage to equipment. However, in the context of OSH, harm generally describes the direct or indirect degradation, temporary or permanent, of the physical, mental, or social well-being of workers. For example, repetitively carrying out manual handling of heavy objects is a hazard. The outcome could be amusculoskeletal disorder (MSD) or an acute back or joint injury. The risk can be expressed numerically (e.g. a 0.5 or 50/50 chance of the outcome occurring during a year), in relative terms (e.g. "high/medium/low"), or with a multi-dimensional classification scheme (e.g. situation-specific risks). Hazard assessment Hazard analysis or hazard assessment is a process in which individual hazards of the workplace are identified, assessed and controlled/eliminated as close to source (location of the hazard) as

reasonable and possible. As technology, resources, social expectation or regulatory requirements change, hazard analysis focuses controls more closely toward the source of the hazard. Thus hazard control is a dynamic program of prevention. Hazard-based programs also have the advantage of not assigning or implying there are "acceptable risks" in the workplace. A hazardbased program may not be able to eliminate all risks, but neither does it accept "satisfactory" but still riskyoutcomes. And as those who calculate and manage the risk are usually managers while those exposed to the risks are a different group, workers, a hazard-based approach can bypass conflict inherent in a risk-based approach. Risk assessment

Modern occupational safety and health legislation usually demands that a risk assessment be carried out prior to making an intervention. It should be kept in mind that risk management requires risk to be managed to a level which is as low as is reasonably practical.[citation needed] This assessment should:

Identify the hazards Identify all affected by the hazard and how Evaluate the risk Identify and prioritize appropriate control measures

The calculation of risk is based on the likelihood or probability of the harm being realized and the severity of the consequences. This can be expressed mathematically as a quantitative assessment (by assigning low, medium and high likelihood and severity with integers and multiplying them to obtain a risk factor), or qualitatively as a description of the circumstances by which the harm could ariseThe assessment should be recorded and reviewed periodically and whenever there is a significant change to work practices. The assessment should include practical recommendations to control the risk. Once recommended controls are implemented, the risk should be re-calculated to determine of it has been lowered to an acceptable level. Generally speaking, newly introduced controls should lower risk by one level, i.e., from high to medium or from medium to low. Occupational medicine Occupational medicine is the branch of clinical medicine most active in the field of Occupational Health. Occupational Medicine specialists work to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work can be achieved and maintained. While it may involve a wide number of disciplines, it centers on the preventive medicine and management of illness, injury or disability that is related to the workplace.[1]Occupational Physicians must have a wide knowledge of clinical medicine and be competent in a number of important areas. They often advise international bodies, governmental and state agencies, organizations and trade unions. Occupational Health aims for the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well being of workers in all occupations; the prevention among workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions; the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; placing and maintenance of a worker in an occupational environment adapted to his physiological and psychological

equipment. In sum, the goal of Occupational Medicine is the adaption of work to people and of each person to their job. Industrial safety system
Fig 1.

Safety Layer Protection.

An industrial safety system is a countermeasure crucial in any hazardous plants such as oil and gas plants and nuclear plants. They are used to protect human, plant, and environment in case the process goes beyond the control margins. As the name suggests, these systems are not intended for controlling the process itself but rather protection. Process control is performed by means of process control systems (PCS) and is interlocked by the safety systems so that immediate actions are taken should the process control systems fail.

Occupational safety and health is an area concerned with protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment.

The hierarchy to explain the same is shown. Fig 2.

The goals of Elimination

Elimination of the hazard is the most effective means of hazard control. It involves the physical removal of the hazard, for example, if employees are required to work high above the ground, the hazard can be eliminated by moving the piece they are working on to "ground level" to eliminate the need to work at heights. Substitution
Fig 3.

This pesticide containsDDT, an effective substitution would be to replace it with agreen pesticide.

The second most effective way to control hazards is substitution, which involves removing something that produces a hazard (similar to elimination) and replacing with something that does not produce a hazard. An example of substitution is replacing lead based paint with acrylic paint. In order to be an effective control, the new product must not produce another hazard. Because airborne dust can be hazardous, if a product can be purchased with a larger particle size, the smaller product may effectively be substituted with the larger product. Engineering controls

The third most effective means of controlling hazards is engineering controls. Engineering controls do not eliminate hazards, but rather keep people isolated from hazards.Capital costs of engineering controls tend to be higher than those the less effective controls within the hierarchy, however they may reduce future costs (i.e. building a work platform rather than purchasing, replace, and maintaining fall arrest equipment). "Enclosure & isolation" creates a physical barrier between a person and hazard, such as using remotely controlled equipment. Fume hoods can be used to remove airborne contaminants as a means of engineering control. Administrative control
Fig 4.

This sign warns people that there are explosives in Walker Lake, however it cannot prevent people from swimming in it. Administrative controls are changes to the way people work. Examples of administrative controls include procedure changes, employee training, and installation of signs and warning labels (such as those in the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System).Administrative controls do not remove hazards, rather limit or prevent people's exposure to the hazards, such as completing road construction at night when fewer people will be driving.

Personal protective equipment

Personal Protective Equipment (known as PPE) is the least effective way to control hazards. PPE can include gloves, respirators, hard hats, safety glasses, high-visibility clothing, and safety footwear. PPE is the least effective means of controlling hazards because of the high potential for the PPE to become ineffective due to damage. Additionally, some PPE, such as respirators, increase physiological effort to complete a task and, therefore, require medical examinations to ensure the worker can use the PPE without any detrimental risk to his or her own health. ccupational safety and health programs include to foster a safe and healthy work environment. OSH may also protect co-workers, family members, employers, customers, and many others who might be affected by the workplace environment. Occupational safety and health can be important for moral, legal, and financial reasons. All organisations have a duty of care to ensure that employees and any other person who may be affected by the companies undertaking remain safe at all times. Moral obligations would involve the protection of employee's lives and health. Legal reasons for OSH practices relate to the preventative, punitive and compensatory effects of laws that protect worker's safety and health. OSH can also reduce employee injury and illness related costs, including medical care, sick leave and disability benefit costs. OSH may involve interactions among many subject areas, including occupational medicine, occupational hygiene, public health, safety engineering, industrial engineering, chemistry, health physics, ergonomics andoccupational health psychology. Differences across countries and regions

Because different countries take different approaches to ensuring occupational safety and health, areas of OSH need and focus also vary between countries and regions. Similar to the findings of the ENHSPO survey conducted in Australia, the Institute of Occupational Medicine found that in the UK, there is a need to put a greater emphasis on work-related illness. In contrast, in Australia and the USA a major responsibility of the OHS professional is to keep company directors and managers aware of the issues that they face in regards to Occupational Health and Safety principles and legislation. However, in some other areas of Europe, it is precisely this which has been lacking: Nearly half of senior managers and company directors do not have an up-to-date understanding of their health and safety-related duties and responsibilities. Occupational health psychology

Occupational health psychology (OHP), a related discipline, is a relatively new field that combines elements of occupational health and safety, industrial/organizational psychology, and health psychology.The field is concerned with identifying work-related psychosocial factors that adversely affect the health of people who work. OHP is also concerned with developing

ways to effect change in workplaces for the purpose of improving the health of people who work. For more detail on OHP, see the section on occupational health psychology. Occupational health and safety education

Programs are often adequate tools in building a strong educational platform for new safety managers with a minimal outlay of time and money. Further, most hygienists seek certification by organizations which train in specific areas of concentration, focusing on isolated workplace hazards. The American Society for Safety Engineers (ASSE), American Board of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH), and American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) offer individual certificates on many different subjects from forklift operation to waste disposal and are the chief facilitators of continuing education in the OSH sector. World Day for Safety and Health at Work On April 28 The International Labour Organisation celebrates "World Day for Safety and Health"to raise awareness of safety in the workplace. Occurring annually since 2003, each year it focuses on a specific area and bases a campaign around the theme. Occupational hygiene is generally defined as the art and science dedicated to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, communication and control of environmental stressors in, or arising from, the workplace that may result in injury, illness, impairment, or affect the well being of workers and members of the community. These stressors are divided into the categories biological,chemical, physical, ergonomic and psychosocial.The British Occupational Hygiene Society (BOHS) defines that "occupational hygiene is about the prevention of ill-health from work, through recognizing, evaluating and controlling the risks" The International Occupational Hygiene Association (IOHA) refers to occupational hygiene as the discipline of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating and controlling health hazards in the working environment with the objective of protecting worker health and well-being and safeguarding the community at large The term "industrial hygiene" traditionally stems from industries with construction, mining or manufacturing and "occupational hygiene" refers to all types of industry such as those listed for "industrial hygiene" as well as financial and support services industries and refers to "work", "workplace" and "place of work" in general. Environmental hygiene addresses similar issues to occupational hygiene, but is likely to be about broad industry or broad issues affecting the local community, broader society, region or country. The profession of occupational hygiene uses strict and rigorous scientific methodology and often requires professional experience in determining the potential for hazard, exposures or risk in workplace and environmental studies. This aspect of occupational hygiene is often referred to as the "art" of occupational hygiene and is used in a similar sense to the "art" of medicine. In fact "occupational hygiene" is both an aspect of preventative medicine and in particular occupational medicine, in that its goal is to prevent industrial disease, and risk management, risk assessment and industrial safety, in that it also seeks "safe" systems, procedures or methods to be applied in the workplace or to the environment.

The Social Role of Occupational Hygiene Occupational hygienists have been involved historically with changing the perception of society about the nature and extent of hazards in the workplace. Many occupational hygienists work dayto-day with industrial situations that require control or improvement to the workplace situation however larger social issues affecting whole industries have occurred in the past e.g. since 1900, asbestos exposures that have affected the lives of tens of thousands of people. More recent issues affecting broader society are, for example in 1976, legionnaires' disease or legionellosis. More recently again in the 1990s radon and in the 2000s the effects of mould from indoor air quality situations in the home and at work. In the later part of the 2000s concern has been raised about the health effects of nanoparticles. Many of these issues have required the coordination over a number of years of a number of medical and para professionals in detecting and then characterizing the nature of the issue, both in terms of the hazard and in terms of the risk to the workplace and ultimately to society. This has involved occupational hygienists in research, collection of data and to develop suitable and satisfactory control methodologies. Workplace Assessment Methods Although there are many aspects to occupational hygiene work the most known and sought after is in determining or estimating potential or actual exposures to hazards. Several methods can be applied in assessing the workplace or environment for exposure to a known or suspected hazard. Occupational hygienists do not rely on the accuracy of the equipment or method used but in knowing with certainty and precision the limits of the equipment or method being used and the error or variance given by using that particular equipment or method. Walk-through survey A traditional method applied by occupational hygienists to initially survey a workplace or environment is used to determine both the types and possible exposures from hazards (e.g. noise, chemicals, radiation). The walk-through survey can be targeted or limited to particular hazards such as silica dust, or noise, to focus attention on control of those hazards. A full walk-through survey is frequently used to provide information on establishing a framework for future investigations, prioritizing hazards, determining the requirements for measurement and establishing some immediate control of potential exposures. The Health Hazard Evaluation Program from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health is an example of an industrial hygiene walk-through survey. Electronic Hazard Survey Equipment An occupational hygienist may use one or a number of commercially available electronic measuring devices to measure noise, vibration, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, dust, solvents, gases, et cetera. Each device is often specifically designed to measure a specific or particular type of contaminant. Such devices are often subject to multiple interferences. Electronic devices need to be calibrated before and after use to ensure the accuracy of the measurements taken and often require a system of certifying the precision of the instrument. Dust Sampling

Nuisance dust is considered to be the total dust in air including inhalable and respirable fractions. Various dust sampling methods exist that are internationally recognised. Inhalable dust is determined using the modern equivalent of the Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) MRE 113A monitor (see section on workplace exposure, measurement & modelling). Inhalable dust is considered to be dust of less than 100 micrometers aerodynamic equivalent diameter (AED) that enters through the nose and or mouth. See Lungs Respirable dust is sampled using a cyclone dust sampler design to sample for a specific fraction of dust AED at a set flow rate. The respirable dust fraction is dust that enters the 'deep lung' and is considered to be less than 10 micrometers AED. Nuisance, inhalable and respirable dust fractions are all sampled using a constant volumetric pump for a specific sampling period. By knowing the mass of the sample collected and the volume of air sampled a concentration for the fraction sampled can be given in milligrams (mg) per metre cubed (m3). From such samples the amount of inhalable or reespirable dust can be determined and compared to the relevant occupational exposure limits. By use of inhalable, respirable or other suitable sampler (7 hole, 5 hole) these dust sampling methods can also used to determine metal exposure in the air. This requires collection of the sample on a methyl-cellulose ester (MCE) filter and acid digestion of the collection media in the laboratory followed by measuring metal concentration though an atomic absorption (or emission) spectrophotometery. Both the UK Health and Safety Laboratory and NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods have specific methodologies for a broad range of metals in air found in industrial processing (smelting, foundries). A further method exists for the determination of asbestos, fibre glass, synthetic mineral fibre and ceramic mineral fibre dust in air. This is the membrane filter method (MFM) and requires the collection of the dust on a grided filter for estimation of exposure by the counting of 'conforming' fibres in 100 fields through a microscope. Results are quantified on the basis of number of fibres per millilitre of air (f/ml). Many countries strictly regulate the methodology applied to the MFM. Chemical Sampling Two types of chemically absorbent tubes are used to sample for a wide range of chemical substances. Traditionally a chemical absorbent 'tube' (a glass or stainless steel tube of between 2 and 10 mm internal diameter) filled with very fine absorbent silica (hydrophilic) or carbon, such as coconut charcoal (lypophylic), is used in a sampling line where air is drawn through the absorbent material for between four hours (minimum workplace sample) to 24 hours (environmental sample) period. The hydrophilic material readily absorbs water-soluble chemical and the lypophylic material absorbs non water-soluble materials. The absorbent material is then chemically or physically extracted and measurements performed using various gas chromatograph or mass spectrometry methods. These absorbent tube methods have the advantage of being usable for a wide range of potential contaminates. However, they are relatively expensive methods, are time consuming and require significant expertise in sampling and chemical analysis. A frequent complaint of workers is in having to wear the sampling pump (up to 1 kg) for several days of work to provide adequate data for the required statistical certainty determination of the exposure.

In the last few decades, advances have been made in 'passive' badge technology. These samplers can now be purchased to measure one chemical (e.g. formaldehyde) or a chemical type (e.g. ketones) or a broad spectrum of chemicals (e.g. solvents). They are relatively easy to set up and use. However, considerable cost can still be incurred in analysis of the 'badge'. They weigh 20 to 30 grams and workers do not complain about their presence. Unfortunately 'badges' may not exist for all types of workplace sampling that may be required and the charcoal or silica method may sometimes have to be applied. From the sampling method, results are expressed in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) or parts per million (PPM) and compared to the relevant occupational exposure limits. It is a critical part of the exposure determination that the method of sampling for the specific contaminate exposure is directly linked to the exposure standard used. Many countries regulate both the exposure standard, the method used to determine the exposure and the methods to be used for chemical or other analysis of the samples collected. General Activities measurements of noise levels using a sound level meter is a component of the occupational hygiene assessment. The occupational hygienist may be involved with the assessment and control of physical, chemical, biological or environmental hazards in the workplace or community that could cause injury or disease. Physical hazards may include noise, temperature extremes, illumination extremes, ionizing or non-ionizingradiation, and ergonomics. Chemical hazards related to dangerous goods or hazardous substances are frequently investigated by occupational hygienists. Other related areas including indoor air quality (IAQ) and safety may also receive the attention of the occupational hygienist. Biological hazards may stem from the potential for legionella exposure at work or the investigation of biological injury or effects at work, such as dermatitis may be investigated. As part of the investigation process, the occupational hygienist may be called upon to communicate effectively regarding the nature of the hazard, the potential for risk, and the appropriate methods of control. Appropriate controls are selected from the hierarchy of control: by elimination, substitution, engineering, administration and personal protective equipment (PPE) to control the hazard or eliminate the risk. Such controls may involve recommendations as simple as appropriate PPE such as a 'basic' particulate dust mask to occasionally designing dust extraction ventilation systems, work places or management systems to manage people and programs for the preservation of health and well-being of those who enter a workplace.

Education The basis of the technical knowledge of occupational hygiene is from competent training in the following areas of science and management.

Basic Sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics (Statistics), Physics); Occupational Diseases (Illness, injury and health surveillance (biostatistics, epidemiology, toxicology)); Health Hazards (Biological, Chemical and Physical hazards, Ergonomics and Human Factors);

Working Environments (Mining, Industrial, Manufacturing, transport and storage, service industries and offices); Programme Management Principles (professional and business ethics, work site and incident investigation methods, exposure guidelines, Occupational exposure limits, jurisdictional based regulations, hazard identification, risk assessment and risk communication, data management, fire evacuation and other emergency responses); Sampling, measurement and evaluation practices (instrumentation, sampling protocols, methods or techniques, analytical chemistry); Hazard Controls (elimination, substitution, engineering, administrative, PPE and Air Conditioning and Extraction Ventilation); Environment (air pollution, hazardous waste).

However, it is not rote knowledge that identifies a competent occupational hygienist. There is an "art" to applying the technical principles in a manner that provides a reasonable solution for workplace and environmental issues. In effect an experienced "mentor", who has experience in occupational hygiene is required to show a new occupational hygienist how to apply the learned scientific and management knowledge in the workplace and to the environment issue to satisfactorily resolve the problem. Professional Societies The development of industrial hygiene societies originated in the United States, beginning with the first convening of members for the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists in 1938, and the formation of the American Industrial Hygiene Association in 1939. In the United Kingdom, the British Occupational Hygiene Society started in 1953. Through the years, professional occupational societies have formed in many different countries, leading to the formation of the International Occupational Hygiene Association in 1987, in order to promote and develop occupational hygiene worldwide through the member organizations.The IOHA has grown to 29 member organizations, representing over 20,000 occupational hygienists worldwide, with representation from countries present in every continent. Fig 5. Fig 6.

Occupational Health and Safety Health and safety of the employees is an important aspect of a company's smooth and successful functioning. It is a decisive factor in organizational effectiveness. It ensures an accident-free industrial environment. Companies must attach the same importance towards achieving high

OH&S performance as they do to the other key objectives of their business activities. This is because, proper attention to the safety and welfare of the employees can yield valuable returns to a company by improving employee morale, reducing absenteeism and enhancing productivity, minimizing potential of work-related injuries and illnesses and increasing the quality of manufactured products and/ or rendered services. The Constitution of India has also specified provisions for ensuring occupational health and safety for workers in the form of three Articles i.e. 24, 39(e and f) and 42. The regulation of labour and safety in mines and oil fields is under the Union list. While the welfare of labour including conditions of work, provident funds, employers' invalidity and old age pension and maternity benefit are in the Concurrent list. The Ministry of Labour , Government of India and Labour Departments of the States and Union Territories are responsible for safety and health of workers. Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) and Directorate General Factory Advice Services & Labour Institutes (DGFASLI) assist the Ministry in technical aspects of occupational safety and health in mines and factories & ports sectors, respectively. DGMS exercises preventive as well as educational influence over the mining industry. Its mission is the reduction in risks of occupational diseases and casualty to persons employed in mines, by drafting appropriate legislation and setting standards and through a variety of promotional initiatives and awareness programmes. It undertakes inspection of mines, investigation of all fatal accidents, grant of statutory permission, exemptions and relaxations in respect of various mining operation, approval of mines safety equipment, appliances and material, conduct examinations for grant of statutory competency certificate, safety promotional incentives including organization of national awards and national safety conference, etc. DGFASLI is an attached office to the Ministry of Labour and relates to factories and ports/docks. It renders technical advice to the States/Union Territories in regard to administration and enforcement of the Factories Act. It also undertakes support research facilities and carries out promotional activities through education and training in mattersconcerning occupational safety and health. Legislations The statutes relating to OH&S are broadly divided into three:

Statutes for safety at workplaces Statutes for safety of substances Statutes for safety of activities At present, safety and health statutes for regulating OH&S of persons at work exist only in four sectors:-

Mining Factories

Ports Construction

The major legislations are:The Factories Act, 1948 Mines Act, 1952

It regulates health, safety, welfare and other working conditions of workers in factories. It is enforced by the State Governments through their factory inspectorates. The Directorate General Factory Advice Service & Labour Institutes (DGFASLI) coordinates matters concerning safety, health and welfare of workers in the factories with the State Governments. DGFASLI conducts training, studies and surveys on various aspects relating to safety and health of workers through the Central Labour Institute in Mumbai and three other Regional Labour Institutes located at Kolkata, Chennai and Kanpur. It contains provisions for measures relating to the health, safety and welfare of workers in the coal, metalliferous and oil mines. The Mines Act, 1952, prescribed duties of the owner (defined as the proprietor, lessee or an agent) to manage mines and mining operation and the health and safety in mines. It also prescribes the number of working hours in mines, the minimum wage rates, and other related matters. Directorate General of Mines Safety conducts inspections and inquiries, issues competency tests for the purpose of appointment to various posts in the mines, organises seminars/conferences on various aspects of safety of workers. Courts of Inquiry are set up by the Central Government to investigate into the accidents, which result in the death of 10 or above miners. Both penal and pecuniary punishments are prescribed for contravention of obligation and duties under the Act.

Dock Workers (Safety, Health & Welfare) Act, 1986

It contains provisions for the health, safety and welfare of workers working in ports/docks. It is administered by Director General Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes, Directorate General FASLI as the Chief Inspector there are inspectorates of dock safety at 10 major ports in India viz. Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Paradip, Kandla, Mormugao, Tuticorin, Cochin and New Mangalore overall emphasis in the activities of the inspectorates is to contain the accident rates and the number of accidents at the ports.

Other legislations and the rules framed there under:

Plantation Labour Act, 1951 Explosives Act, 1884

Petroleum Act, 1934 Insecticide Act, 1968 Indian Electricity Act, 1910 Indian Boilers Act, 1923 Indian Atomic Energy Act, 1962 Building and Other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 Beedi and Cigar Workers' (Conditions of Employment) Act, 1966 .

National Safety Council of India (NSCI) The National Safety Council of India (NSCI) was set up to promote safety consciousness among workers to prevent accidents, minimize dangers and mitigate human suffering, arrange programmes, lectures and conferences on safety, conduct educational campaigns to arouse consciousness among employers and workers and collect educational and information data, etc. It has launched new initiatives in three sectors:

Road Transportation Safety Safety of Health in Construction Sector Safety, Health and Environment in Small and Medium Scale Enterprises(SMEs)

At the international level, NSCI has developed close collaboration with International Labour Organisation (ILO); United Nations Environment Programmes (UNEP); World Bank ; Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC),Bangkok; World Environment Centre (WEC), New York; and the member organizations of Asia Pacific Occupational Safety and Health Organisation (APOSHO) of which NSCI is a founder-member. The National APELL (Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level) Centre (NAC) has been established since April 2002 in the NSCI Headquarters under the MoU with the Division of Technology, Industry & Economics (DTIE) of UNEP, Paris. It is the first APELL Centre in the world. It has the technical support and information from UNEP and other international sources and the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India and the stakeholders. It is dedicated primarily to strengthen chemical emergency preparedness and response in India through the use of the internationally accepted APELL process. Policy Announcement of the National Policy On Safety, Health And Environment At Work Place was also a step towards improvement in safety, health and environment at workplace performance. Objectives of the policy were:

Continuous reduction in incidence of work related injuries, fatalities, diseases, disaster and loss of national assets. Continuous reduction in the cost of work place injuries and diseases. Extend coverage of work related injuries, fatalities, and diseases for a more

comprehensive data base as a means of better performance and monitoring. Continuous enhancement of community awareness regarding safety, health and environment at workplace related areas.

Indian Standard on OH&S management systems Occupational Health and Safety demands adoption of a structured approach for the identification of hazards, their evaluation and control of risks in the organisation. Hence,Bureau of Indian Standards has formulated an Indian Standard on OH&S management systems. It is called as the IS 18001:2000 Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems. This standard prescribes the requirements for an OH&S Management Systems, to enable an organization to formulate a policy, taking into account the legislative requirements. It also provides information about significant hazards and risks, which the organization can control in order to protect its employees and others, whose health and safety may be affected by the activities of the organization. India and International Labour Organisation (ILO) India is a founder member of International Labour Organization. The principal means of action in ILO is the setting up the 'International Labour Standards' in the form of Conventions and Recommendations. Conventions are international treaties and are the instruments which create legally binding obligations on the countries ratifying them. Recommendations are non-binding guidelines which orient national policies and actions. ILO has so far adopted 182 conventions and 190 recommendations, encompassing subjects such as worker's fundamental rights, worker's protection, social security, labour welfare, occupational safety and health, women and child labour, migrant labour, indigenous and tribal population, etc The approach of India with regard to International Labour Standards has always been positive. India has accordingly evolved legislative and administrative measures for protection and advancement of the interests of labour in India. The practice followed by India so far has been that a Convention is ratified only when the national laws and practices are in conformity the provisions of the Convention in question. India has so far ratified 41 ILO Conventions. The unratified Conventions of the ILO are also reviewed at appropriate intervals in relation to our National laws and practice Human factors and ergonomics Human factors and ergonomics is a multidisciplinary field incorporating contributions from psychology, engineering, biomechanics, mechanobiology, industrial design, graphic design, statistics,operations research and anthropometry. In essence it is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body and its cognitive abilities. The two terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous. The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics or human factors as follows: Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies

theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance. HF&E is employed to fulfill the goals of health and safety and productivity. It is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines and equipment. Proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.

Human factors and ergonomics is concerned with the "fit" between the user, equipment and their environments. It takes account of the user's capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, functions, information and the environment suit each user. Related organizations Formed in 1946 in the UK, the oldest professional body for human factors specialists and ergonomists is The Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, formally known as The Ergonomics Society. The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) was founded in 1957. The Society's mission is to promote the discovery and exchange of knowledge concerning the characteristics of human beings that are applicable to the design of systems and devices of all kinds. The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) is a federation of ergonomics and human factors societies from around the world. The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and to improve the quality of life by expanding its scope of application and contribution to society. As of September 2008, the International Ergonomics Association has 46 federated societies and 2 affiliated societies. According to the International Ergonomics Association within the discipline of ergonomics there exist domains of specialization:

Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomy, and some of the anthropometric, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. (Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human-computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to human-system and Human-Computer Interaction design.) Organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of socio-technical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. (Relevant topics include communication, crew resource management, work design, design of working times, teamwork, participatory design, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management.) Environmental ergonomics is concerned with human interaction with the environment. The physical environment is characterized by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, light.

Applications Human factors issues arise in simple systems and consumer products as well. Some examples include cellular telephones and other hand held devices that continue to shrink yet grow more complex (a phenomenon referred to as "creeping featurism"), millions of VCRs blinking "12:00" across the world because very few people can figure out how to program them, or alarm clocks that allow sleepy users to inadvertently turn off the alarm when they mean to hit 'snooze'. A usercentered design (UCD), also known as a systems approach or the usability engineering life cycle aims to improve the user-system. Ergonomic principles have been widely used in the design of both consumer and industrial products. Past examples include screwdriver handles made with serrations to improve finger grip, and use of softthermoplastic elastomers to increase friction between the skin of the hand and the handle surface. HF&E continues to be successfully applied in the fields of aerospace, aging, health care, IT, product design, transportation, training, nuclear and virtual environments, among others. Physical ergonomics is important in the medical field, particularly to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as arthritis (both chronic and temporary) or carpal tunnel syndrome. Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be very painful, or render a device unusable, for those who are. Many ergonomically designed products are also used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders, and to treat pressure-related chronic pain. One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries are musculoskeletal disorders. Workrelated musculoskeletal disorders (WRMDs) result in persistent pain, loss of functional capacity and work disability, but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they are mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms.Every year 1.8 million U.S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly 600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work. Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate worker complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort, or pain that does not go away after overnight rest. These types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions; frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts; awkward work positions; or use of vibrating equipment. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has found substantial evidence that ergonomics programs can cut workers' compensation costs, increase productivity and decrease employee turnover.Therefore, it is important to gather data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most problematic, using sources such as injury and illness logs, medical records, and job analyses. The emerging field of human factors in highway safety uses human factor principles to understand the actions and capabilities of road users - car and truck drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists, etc. - and use this knowledge to design roads and streets to reduce traffic collisions. Driver error is listed as a contributing factor in 44% of fatal collisions in the United States, so a topic of particular interest is how road users gather and process information about the road and its environment, and how to assist them to make the appropriate decision.

Legislation Accident is an event that has the potential to become a catastrophe -Clean air act

-Superfund amendments and re-authorization act SARA ,1986 - Occupational health and safety act,1970 - Resource conservation and recovery act,1976 - Hazardous waste operation and emergency response regulation ,1989. Emergency planning and response : Planning committee Hazard survey Plan for emergencies Personnel training Notification of publicand regulatory officials Plan implementation Process fundamentals: Physical and chemical properties like pressure ,temperature,molecular weight ,pH,heat diffusivity,vapour pressure.boiling point,autoignition temperature also affect plant safety. Protective and safety systems employed to reduce hazards and risks: Pressure relief/vent collection Release devices (flares,scrubbers) Plant equipment isolation Critical alarms /interlocks Fire detection /protection Gas detection Flame arrestors Emergency systems services Appropriate grounding and bonding Personnel protection equipment Relief systems are incorporated in pressure units to protect ancillary piping from failure due to pressure above operating limits.In emergency level, discharge may be from source at elevated level.Dry chemical extinguishing systems are used primarily for fflammable liq fires since they provide rapid flame knock down. High expansion foam system, halogenated systems,monitors and deluge and their combinations are employed. Conditions and operations leading to failure: Abnormal Temperature and pressure Equipment leakage and spill Blocked outlet Vacuum problem Thermal expansion

 Fig 7.

Power failure Instrumental air failure Fig 8.

1.

Recommendations/procedure

Only seamless tubes should be used for exchangers that allow thermal expansion and contraction. Protective operation and maintanence program is a must 2. All reactors should meet ASME code es for boiler and vessels and should be fail safe type 3. Heaters and furnaces should be designed in accordance with standards and codes, inspected periodically in accordance with insurance and state regulations,should be provided with sight glasses for flame observation, monitoring devices for flame out detection and temperature alarms. Fig 9.

Fig 10.

Fig 11.

Electrical failures Should follow national electrical code recognized by testing organizations .Insulation,grounding,guarding done. A ground fault circuit interrupter is a fast acting circuit breaker that senses small imbalances in circuit caused by leakages to the ground. When it exceeds 51 mA, it interrupts the circuit prevents electrocution as little as 1/40 sec. Failure mode effective and critical analysis. It is a systematic qualitative management tool where equipment ,system failures and effects are determined.probablity method is used for ranking and relative scales are employed. Sample chart for FMECA Table 2. equipment Failure mode Effect on system Ranking remarks

Ranking 0 to 5 Remarks poor to excellent

 Computers used as aid in HAZOP and HAZAN: Programs are available for recording the results of studies and can remind teams of various possible deviations and remedies so that they are less likely to overlook them. If the team is considering a no flow in pipeline, the computer can remind that possible causes are empty suction valve,pump failure,slip plate or broken pipe.process hazard review should check what if and check lists for the safety audit in the hazard and operability and hazard and analysis studies.

Some accidents that could have been prevented: 1. Bhopal disaster

The material in the tank contaminated with water and chloroform to form a run-away reaction. When the relief valve on the storage tank lifted,scrubbing system which should have absorbed the vapour, refrigeration to provide cooling were out of commission.Methyl iso-cyanate is an intermediate not a product or raw material ,so there is no need for storage but why was it stored? 2. Fire in water sump A sump contained water with a layer of oil on top.welding had to take place nearby so that sump was emptied with an ejector and filled to level of overflowpipe.when sparks fell,fire broke .The U bend had not been emptied and there was a layer of oil in bend on toop of water. When runaway reaction occurred instead of water entering the reactor increased pressure blew out the water. A protective device that did not work:A reactor was fitted with a tank containing water.If the contents got too hot, the operator was to open the remotely operated valve so that water would flow by gravity into reactor.The designers overlooked the fact that when reaction started to runaway the pressure would rise, the water was blown out the vent and the reactor exploded. 3. Computer controlled batch reactor: It is programmed so that a fault occur, all control variables would be left as such and the alarm sounded. Incidentally a catalyst had been added to the reactor and the computer started to increase the water flow to the reflux condenser to reduce the temperature. The reactor overheated, relief valve lifted and the contents were discharged to the atmosphere. The operators established the signal to be false,but by the time, the reactor over-heated. 4. Services and modifications 2 neglected areas:

The blown fuse de-energised part of instrument panel and trip system shut the plant down safely. The turbine and pumps stopped and furnace tripped. Condensate pumps continued to run so that steam drum did not get empty. Then condensate overflowed into steam main. Turbine was driven by hot gases but could start with steam. Operators decided to turn the turbine slowly ( to prevent damage to shaft).As no furnace gas was available, they cracked open the steam valve. Condensate came into contact with hot line from furnace and the line ruptured. 5. Dose response threshold Relation present between agent and effect is studied.When concentration at active sites increase,probability of response in host increases. A threshold would exist if there was a level of dose for which no apparent effect would be discerned. Fig 12.

Incidence rate = no of new cases during time period Total number at risk Flammability characteristics: The limits define the concentration range of gas air mixture within which an ignition source can start self-propogation reaction. The minimum and maximum fuel concentration in air that will produce self sustaining reaction are lower flammability limit and upper flammability limit given by Le-chatliers law LFL(mix) = 1/f1/LFL1+fn/LFLn UFL(mix) = 1/f1/UFL1+fn/UFLn f1fn MF of component n LFL1LFLn lower flammable limit in volume fraction UFL1 - Component UFL in MF If data are not available for a particular gas mixture , take data for similar material and apply.

LFLA = (MB/MA)LFLB Future trends: While process plant operators are best placed to determine what happens at the macro level of plant operations, the safety requirements at the micro level for safe gas analysis are increasingly being devolved to process analyzer manufacturers. Maintaining the example of process gas analysis, consider the case of a high-pressure toxic process being regulated to provide a low-pressure sample to an oxygen gas analyzer. If there is a catastrophic failure of the pressure regulator, the high pressure will be forced into the gas analyzer. Whether the analyzer contains the excess pressure or ruptures to release potentially lethal gas is a question for which only the analyzer manufacturer is likely to have specialist knowledge and experience. What is important to note is this is primarily a safety issue; whether the analyzer continues to function correctly after the accident is a secondary issue when compared to maintaining plant safety. As a consequence, manufacturers across a wide spectrum of instrumentation and control are increasingly integrating the safety requirements of their customers into their products and long-term support. Manufacturers and suppliers are more aware of what the effects of failure will be on their systems, so they are now required to participate more closely in optimization studies.Consider a recent example where excess flare gas was being routed to make power via gas turbines. The primary analysis requirement was for monitoring oxygen levels to ensure complete and efficient combustion, but there was a significant side effect of the process: the sample gas contained a variable level of hydrogen sulphide, sufficient to cause harm if released into the atmosphere. The inclusion of the manufacturer in the system study quickly determined the production of high pressure in upset conditions would not affect the analyzer itself, but could force high pressure gas containing hydrogen sulphide back down the utilities unit used to supply air and nitrogen. Having identified this potential danger, a utilities unit designed to contain the pressure was supplied, and the threat effectively neutralized.Anticipating possible dangers, rather than simply reacting to established threats, has also been key to the development of safety systems such as Safety Integral Level analysis. The striving for the minimisation of undetected failures (i.e., unsafe plant conditions) has resulted in instrumentation, analyzers, and systems being fitted with sensors that provide as much diagnostic information as possible on a range of measurements, as well as the relative health of that measurement. With digital communications allowing more sophisticated data to be transmitted to a control room, information can be quickly analyzed remotely and appropriate steps taken.The combination of improved remote diagnostics and the ability to involve proven process experts continues to make a wide range of industries increasingly efficient and more profitable. It is making plants and operations safer than ever. On that basis, a relationship that brings the expertise of the manufacturer closer to the needs of the user can only be encouraged.

Fig 13.

Fig 14.

Fig 15.

References: 1. Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations, N.S.C.Chicago, 1982 2. Heinrich H.W. Industrial Accident Prevention McGraw-Hill Company, New York, 1980. 3. Krishnan N.V. Safety Management in Industry Jaico Publishing House, Bombay, 1997. 4. John Ridley, Safety at Work, Butterworth & Co., London, 1983. 5. Blake R.B., Industrial Safety Prentice Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 1973 6. Handbook of Occupational Health and Safety, NSC Chicago, 1982 7. Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, Vol. I & II, International Labour Organisation, Geneva, 1985. 8. McCornick, E.J. and Sanders, M.S., Human Factors in Engineering and Design, Tata McGraw-Hill, 1982. Loss Prevention in Process Industries-Frank P. Less Butterworth-Hein UK 1990 (Vol.I, II & III) 9. Methodologies for Risk and Safety Assessment in Chemical Process Industries, Commonwealth Science Council, UK 10. Hazop and Hazon, by Trevor A Klett, Institute of Chemical Engineering.