4

Energy and Cellular Metabolism

About this Chapter
0*Energy in biological systems 1*Chemical reactions 2*Enzymes 3*Metabolism 4*ATP production 5*Synthetic pathways

Energy: Biological Systems

Energy transfer in the environment

Energy: Capacity to Do Work

6*Chemical work
7* Making and breaking of chemical bonds

8*Transport work
9* Moving ions, molecules, and larger particles 10* Creates concentration gradients

11*

Mechanical work
Used for movement

12*

Energy: Two Forms

The relationship between kinetic energy and potential energy

Energy: Two Forms Energy: Two Forms Energy: Thermodynamics

13* First law of thermodynamics
Total amount of energy in the universe is constant

14*

15*

Second law of thermodynamics

16* Processes move from state of order to disorder or entropy

Chemical Reactions: Overview

Activation energy is the energy that must be put into reactants before a reaction can proceed A+B C+D

Chemical Reactions: Coupling

Energy transfer and storage in biological reactions

Enzymes: Overview
17* 18* Speed up the rate of reactions Isozymes
Catalyze same reaction but under different conditions

19*

20*

May be activated, inactivated, or modulated

Coenzymes vitamins Chemical modulators temperature and pH

21* 22*

Enzymes: Speed Up Reactions

Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions

Enzymes: Law of Mass Action Enzymes: Law of Mass Action Enzymes: Types of Reactions Metabolism: Overview
A group of metabolic pathways resembles a road map

Metabolism: Cell Regulation

23* 24* Controlling enzyme concentrations Producing modulators
25* Feedback inhibition

26* 27* 28*

Using different enzymes Isolating enzymes Maintaining ratio of ATP to ADP

ADP + Pi + energy ATP

29*

ATP Production: Overview

Overview of aerobic pathways for ATP production

ATP Production: Glycolysis

Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + P 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 H20

ATP Production: Pyruvate Metabolism

Pyruvate can be converted into lactate or acetyl CoA

ATP Production: Citric Acid Cycle

30* Acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle producing 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP

ATP Production: Electron Transport ATP Production: Electron Transport ATP Production: Electron Transport ATP Production: Electron Transport ATP Production: Electron Transport
NADH and FADH2 ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

ATP Production: Large Biomolecules

31* Glycogenolysis
Glycogen Storage form of glucose in liver and skeletal muscle Converted to glucose or glucose 6-phosphate

32* 33* 34*

ATP Production: Large Biomolecules

35* Protein catabolism and deamination
Catabolism Hydrolysis of peptide bonds Deamination Removal of amino group

36* 37* 38* 39*

ATP Production: Lipolysis

If acetyl CoA production exceeds capacity for metabolism, production of ketone bodies results

Synthesis: Gluconeogenesis
Glucose can be made from glycerol or amino acids in liver and kidney

Synthesis: Lipids Synthesis: Lipids Synthesis: Lipids Synthesis: Lipids Synthesis: Lipids Synthesis: Protein
The major steps required to convert the genetic code of DNA into a functional protein 20 different amino acids made from 4 nitrogenous bases

Synthesis: Protein Synthesis: Protein Synthesis: Protein Synthesis: Protein Synthesis: Protein Protein: Transcription
40* 41* 42* 43* Transcription factors bind and activate promoter region RNA polymerase binds and unwinds DNA mRNA created from sense strand mRNA is processed by

44* 45*

RNA interference Alternative splicing

Protein: Transcription and Translation Protein: Transcription and Translation Protein: Transcription and Translation Protein: Transcription and Translation Protein: Transcription and Translation Protein: Transcription and Translation Protein: Post-Translational Modification
46* Protein folding
Creates tertiary structure

47*

48*

Cross-linkage
Strong covalent bonds disulfide

49*

50* 51* 52*

Cleavage Addition of other molecules or groups Assembly into polymeric proteins

Protein: Post-Translational Modification and the Secretory Pathway Summary

53* Energy
Chemical Transport

54* 55*

56*

Mechanical work

57* 58*

Kinetic energy Potential energy

Summary
59* Chemical reactions
Reactants Products Reaction rate

60* 61* 62*

63* 64* 65*

Free energy and activation energy Exergonic versus endergonic reactions Reversible versus irreversible reactions

Summary
66* Enzymes
Definition Characteristics Law of mass action Type of reactions

67* 68* 69* 70*

Summary
71* Metabolism
Catabolic versus anabolic reactions Control of metabolic pathways

72* 73*

74*

Aerobic versus anaerobic pathways

Summary
75* ATP production
Glycolysis Pyruvate metabolism Citric acid cycle Electron transport chain

76* 77* 78* 79*

80*

Glycogen, protein, and lipid metabolism

Summary
81* Synthetic pathways
Gluconeogenesis Lipid synthesis Protein synthesis Transcription Translation Post-translational modification

82* 83* 84* 85* 86* 87*