An early medieval settlement/cemetery at

Carrowkeel, Co. Galway

Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde

A multi-period settlement/cemetery was excavated at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway. The main phase of the site was a
substantial early medieval enclosure ditch with a cemetery area contained in its eastern half.The enclosure and associated
features were divided into three phases based on their uses and location. The human remains assemblage is made up
of 132 individuals, although the cemetery could originally have been much larger, extending beyond the limit of
excavation. It was separated into four phases, from the seventh to the fifteenth century AD, and contained a
disproportionate percentage of non-adults, with predominantly infant and foetal remains in the later phases. Non-
metric traits may indicate a degree of relatedness in the assemblage, consistent with the possibility that Carrowkeel was
founded by an extended family splitting from a larger kin group. The Carrowkeel cemetery appears to represent the
spatial segregation of non-adults within a normal cemetery population and is not thought to be a cillín, which are
common in the later and post-medieval period, especially in the west of Ireland. The segregation at Carrowkeel may
be a precursor to this Irish tradition, however.

INTRODUCTION eastern half, was a cemetery that had probably been

This paper describes the archaeological excavation of a
multi-period enclosure and cemetery site at
Carrowkeel, Co. Galway (NGR 159326/223949;
Ministerial Direction No. A024/E2046) (Fig. 1). The
site was on the brow of an east–west ridge surrounded
by a landscape of lower, gently undulating hills,
approximately 7km from Loughrea, at a height of 45m
OD. It was recorded in the Sites and Monuments
Record (GA097-066) as an enclosure and featured
clearly on the first edition OS map (sheet 72), but had
since been subject to extensive ploughing and was no
longer visible as an upstanding earthwork. The site was
less than 1km from an extensive early medieval
settlement complex (GA097-068), also in the townland
of Carrowkeel, and 2km from medieval churchyards at
Kiltullagh to the north-west (GA097-114) and
Tooloobaun to the south (GA097-148).
The main enclosure at Carrowkeel comprised a
large ditch and remnants of a substantial internal bank,
probably constructed in the seventh or eighth century
(Pl. 2). Originally the enclosure probably encircled the
brow of the hill, but approximately one third of it and
an unknown portion of the cemetery remained beyond
the limit of the excavation. A small number of post-
holes were identified in the north-west of the
enclosure, but these could not be unequivocally
assigned to the main phase of enclosure and probably
pre-dated its construction. In the absence of clear
structural evidence, general indicators of settlement
included a large animal bone assemblage, pits, two
cooking pits, and iron slag recovered from ditch
features. Near the centre of the enclosure, but in its
used from the seventh to the fifteenth century. Four
cemetery phases have been identified on the basis of
grave-cut truncation and radiocarbon dating, although
a general continuity was observed. One hundred and
thirty-two skeletons were excavated, but as the
incidence of burials increased towards the edge of the
excavation it is safe to assume that the cemetery
originally extended beyond the limit of excavation,
possibly extending over the brow of the hill.
METHODOLOGY
The site was excavated in advance of construction of
the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe road scheme between
September 2005 and January 2006, on behalf of the
National Roads Authority and Galway County
Council. A geophysical survey prior to test-trenching
identified a series of anomalies interpreted as potential
ditches, and a large open area of topsoil was removed
to assess their extent and character. The topsoil was
removed mechanically under supervision using a
toothless ditching bucket. A total area of 3,500m2 was
investigated, with topsoil deposits removed to the depth
of the glacial till to ascertain the extent of the
enclosure, except in the cemetery area, where all
deposits below vegetation layer were removed by hand.
Three main phases were recognised: an early
sequence of ditches and discrete cut features possibly of
prehistoric date (phase 1), the main enclosure and
associated cemetery (phase 2), and a phase of linear
cultivation features outside the enclosure (phase 3).

The Journal of Irish Archaeology Volume XVII, 2008 57–83

58 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde

Fig. 1 —Location of excavation area and overall site plan, with detail of cemetery area.
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 59
NATURAL DEPOSITS
The site was on a limestone ridge, covered with a
limestone-derived till consisting of calcareous silts,
stony sand and clays with a highly mixed and variable
character. A number of areas of dense silty clay and clay
were uncovered during topsoil-stripping. These were
examined and determined to be naturally occurring,
constituting variations in the glacial till. The orange
colouration of the silty clays and clays suggests that
these deposits contain more iron or have iron in a more
highly oxidised state than the majority of the
surrounding till. The topsoil in the cemetery area was
extremely shallow. Some loss of topsoil in this area can
be accounted for by soil creep and plough wash, but
the depth also reflects the fact that these graves were
originally topsoil burials placed just below the
contemporary ground surface. This also accounts for
why many burials have no identifiable grave-cut, and
why in other cases only a slight cut into the subsoil was
observed. The absence of grave-cuts is explicable in
terms of ongoing processes of reworking in the topsoil,
particularly through earthworm activity.
PHASE 1: FEATURES PRE-DATING THE
MAIN ENCLOSURE AND CEMETERY
Though much less substantial than the main enclosure
ditch, an earlier phase was represented by a sequence of
ditches. A number of discrete pits, one of which
produced three pieces of undiagnostic but possibly late
Neolithic struck chert (Ballin 2007), were also
identified in the northern part of the enclosure and
could be associated with this phase. These artefacts
could also have been residual finds indicative of a
general ‘background noise’ of prehistoric activity, and
although the sequence of phase 1 ditches were
truncated by the main enclosure, this could have
occurred soon after silting, in which case both phases
may be early medieval.
Phase 1 ditches
The early ditches 1015, 1020 and 1022 were located to
the north of the main enclosure ditch. Ditches 1015 and
1020 may represent an enclosure ditch forming an
entrance onto the brow of the hill, and ditch 1022 was
possibly associated with this phase of enclosure, forming
a secondary barrier to the entrance ditches. The full
Pl. 1—Working shot of
ditch 1023, looking
north.
60 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
extent of ditch 1015 was uncertain within the interior
of the main phase 2 enclosure (1023) but was clearly
truncated by it. It may originally have extended further
south, but if so this section may have been shallower
owing to outcropping of bedrock at the top of the hill
and may subsequently have been adversely affected by
the relatively deep plough truncation in this area. It was
1.95m wide, 0.67m deep and 11m long. Two primary
deposits of red-brown silt were noted at the base (1016
and 1018). The main fill was a mid- to dark brown silt
(1017) with inclusions of approximately 35% small
stones. A small gully (1535), 1.2m long, 0.6m wide and
0.32m deep, was associated with this ditch. It was filled
by orange-brown silty clay (1536) of moderate
compaction.
In conjunction with 1015 just described, ditch 1020
formed a possible entrance onto the brow of the hill. It
was V-shaped in plan, 1.8m wide and 0.6m deep, and
extended east–west for 12m before turning sharply to
run north–south for 10m. It was filled by a mid-brown
silty sand (1021) containing a large quantity of stones,
animal bones and charcoal. A weathered piece of
medieval pottery (E2046:1302:001) of a local, oxidised
fine orange fabric was recovered from this feature, but its
abraded nature and position close to the surface of the
feature suggested that it was residual. Ditch feature 1020
appeared to be truncated by the phase 2 main enclosure
ditch (1023), although at this point it was very shallow
and the area was disturbed by a large modern pit (1375).
This modern pit truncated the inside edge of the main
enclosure but extended no further.
Linear feature 1022 was L-shaped in plan and was
located to the north-east of 1020 and 1015, running
west–east for 15m before turning south and continuing
in that direction for 7m. It had sloping sides and a
concave base that was almost V-shaped in section at the
western end but flattened out considerably towards the
eastern end. Deposit 1316 was light brown silty clay
within 1022 and contained small stones, charcoal and
animal bone inclusions. It contained an iron strap
(E2046:1315:001), and during environmental processing
of the samples a small blue glass bead was retrieved.
Feature 1372 was a small linear feature running east–west
on the northern side of the main enclosure ditch (1023),
although its precise relationship with earlier ditches
could not be determined owing to similarities of
deposits. It had sloping sides and a flat base and was 0.6m
wide and 0.15m deep. It was filled by deposit 1373,
which comprised a mid-grey-brown sandy silt of firm
compaction with animal bone and stone inclusions.
Phase 1 discrete features
A linear arrangement of six cut features was identified in
the north-west quadrant of the main (phase 2) enclosure
on the brow of the hill, described below in sequence.
Owing to their shallow nature these features could not
be characterised as either post-holes or pits, although
their linear arrangement suggests the former. Moving
from north to south, the first subcircular cut feature
(1051) was 0.75m long, 0.63m wide and 0.23m deep. It
was filled by mid-brown sandy silt (1052), with a
moderate quantity of stone inclusions up to 0.2m in size.
A subcircular cut feature (1049) was excavated south of
this. It was 0.5m in diameter and 0.06m deep, with
shallow sides and a flat base. It was filled by a deposit of
black-grey silty clay (1050) with occasional charcoal
flecks and small fragments of chert inclusions.
Subcircular cut 1047 had steep sides and a concave base.
It was 0.6m in diameter and 0.11m deep, and was filled
by black-grey silty clay (1048) with inclusions of small
stones, frequent charcoal flecks and burnt bone. An
irregular subcircular cut (1057) with irregular shallow
sides and a concave base was excavated adjacent to this
feature. It was 0.5m in diameter and 0.11m deep and
filled by black-grey silty clay (1058). Cut feature 1045
was subrectangular with shallow sides and a flat base. It
was uneven and only 0.05m in depth and 0.4m in
diameter. It was interpreted as a post-hole in alignment
with other features even though it was rectangular,
uneven and very shallow. It was filled by 1046, a dark
grey silty clay of moderate compaction with stones and
occasional charcoal flecks. A suboval cut (1053) in
alignment with these features was likely to have been a
natural feature.
Three pieces of black chert were recovered from a
subcircular cut feature (1051). These artefacts were not
strictly diagnostic but were the product of a well-
controlled flake industry supporting a date in the late
Neolithic (Ballin 2007). They included a secondary
hard-hammer flake with an untrimmed platform edge
(30mm x 28mm x 8mm), a proximal section of tertiary
hard-hammer flake (23mm x 23mm x 4mm) and a
tertiary irregular or multi-directional core (24mm x
19mm x 19mm). Although all these features were
assigned to phase 1, they could equally be contemporary
with the main enclosure, with chert incorporated into
earlier fills as residual material. A rim fragment
characteristic of Carrowkeel ware (E2046:1001:001) was
also recovered from the topsoil. It consisted of a reduced
buff-grey fabric, with frequent black and red small stone
and occasional mica inclusions, and may also be
indicative of generalised low-level Neolithic activity.
PHASE 2: THE MAIN ENCLOSURE AND
ASSOCIATED FEATURES (EXCLUDING
THE CEMETERY)
The main enclosure ditch (1023) was truncated by the
line of the proposed road and continued around the
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 61

Pl. 2—Ditch 1023 and upcast bank. looking north-west.

Fig. 2—Sections of main enclosure ditch (1023).

62 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
contour of the hill. Three main subphases were
recognised in the ditch and bank sections (phases 2a,
2b and 2c; Fig. 2). In the eastern portion of the
enclosure three contemporary ditches (1260, 1359 and
1475) served to partially delineate the cemetery area,
separating it from the rest of the site. The similarity of
the fills of these features, their parallel construction and
the lack of truncation suggested that they were
contemporary rather than successive phases of recut. A
number of discrete but undated features were also
identified as most likely belonging to the occupation
phase of the enclosure.
The main feature of phase 2 was a U-shaped ditch
(1023) with the partial remnants of an internal upcast
bank (Fig. 2; Pl. 2). It measured approximately 65m by
47m and was situated in a commanding position at the
top of the hill, overlooking a valley and the surrounding
landscape. The enclosure continued around the brow of
the hill and was truncated by the line of the proposed
road scheme, with approximately a third of the enclosed
area beyond the limit of excavation.The enclosure ditch
was on average 1.5m deep and 3m wide at the top and
was excavated by a series of sixteen 2m-wide slots (Figs
2 and 3).There were no breaks in the ditch indicating an
entrance, although this may lie in the unexcavated part
of the site. The upcast bank was partly preserved by a
much later drystone field wall that respected the line of
the bank for a short distance in the southern part of the
site (Pl. 2).
The main deposits filling ditch 1023 were fairly
uniform, and variations were accounted for by changes
in the natural subsoil through which the ditch had
been cut (Fig. 2). The three main subphases recognised
in the ditch and bank sections are as follows. After the
construction of the ditch (phase 2a), a thin layer of silt
and unconsolidated natural subsoil was washed into its
base (phase 2b). The primary silting began soon after
construction, as the upcast bank began to slump back
into the ditch. The presence of slump material on both
sides of the ditch indicates that unconsolidated material
eroded from the sides of the ditch as well as from the
internal bank. Following this initial slumping, the ditch
stabilised into an S-shaped profile, consolidated by a
possible vegetation layer (phase 2b). This was followed
by a final phase when the ditch was deliberately
backfilled with large stones and boulders, probably as a
result of field clearance (phase 2c). A series of small,
isolated burnt patches were identified in the upper
topsoil deposits filling the ditch but proved too diffuse
to section properly.They were often discovered against,
or near to, the outside of the ditch cut, particularly
around the northern and north-eastern parts of the
ditch. These features were interpreted as temporary
hearths located within the depression formed by the
partially silted ditch, which may have been chosen
because it would act as a windbreak.
The evidence for phase 2 occupation is quite
limited, comprising a few discrete features that do not
seem to belong to phase 1 or phase 3. These included
a subrectangular pit (1292) with steep sides and a flat
base that was located outside the enclosure near the
northern end of the excavated area. It was interpreted
as a cooking pit owing to its alternating fills of charcoal
and silt, indicating in situ burning. The burning was
concentrated at the northern end of the pit, where
there was also evidence of burnt clay in its base. It was
2.7m long, 1.2m wide and 0.65m deep. A further
feature (1346) was a pit to the north of the site, also
interpreted as a cooking pit. Soil analysis of samples
recovered high concentrations of charcoal, a small
quantity of unidentified burnt animal bone but no
charred cereal grain. Feature 1351 was subrectangular
and aligned north–south, with gentle sides that were
steeper on the northern and southern ends. The base
was concave and dropped to a deeper northern end,
where most of the burnt bone was found. It was lined
with medium-sized stones and was 3.02m in length,
2.5m in width and 0.35m in maximum depth.
The animal bone assemblage from Carrowkeel
provided much better evidence for domestic
occupation (see Appendix 1;Tourunen 2007).The total
assemblage comprised 13,631 specimens characteristic
of domestic waste, consisting of both high- and low-
utility skeletal elements. No wild mammal specimens
relating to subsistence were recovered. Cattle were the
dominant species, followed by sheep, pig and horse, and
these derive mainly from the main enclosure ditch.The
animal bones were characteristic of domestic waste,
consisting of butchery remains, food debris and
discarded dead animals like cats and dogs or stillborn
calves, piglets and lambs.
House mice bones (Mus musculus) were recovered
from processed soil samples originating from a context
in the main enclosure ditch at the interface between
phases 2b and 2c. They were radiocarbon-dated to cal.
AD 860–1020 (GU-15327) and cal. AD 670–890
(GU-15326). Because mice are burrowing animals it
cannot be assumed that these ranges accurately date
phases 2b and 2c, but this possibility is strongly
supported by the fact that these date ranges are broadly
contemporary with cemetery phase 2 (below). The
house mouse tends to live near human populations and
does not dig deeply into the ground, so there is every
possibility that these bones derive from animals
contemporary with the main phase of occupation
within the enclosure. In addition, these ranges are of
intrinsic significance because before now it was not
certain that the house mouse was present in Ireland
prior to the arrival of the Anglo-Normans (see
Appendix 1; Tourunen 2007).
An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 63

Fig. 3—Metal artefacts.

64 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
Fig. 4—Cemetery phases at Carrowkeel.
PHASE 2: THE CEMETERY
A clearly defined cemetery area was excavated in the
eastern half of the large enclosure. It was partially
delimited by three slightly curving parallel ditches,
1260, 1359 and 1475, which (within the excavated
area) extended from the south side of the cemetery to
its eastern end. Here they terminated, leaving the
north-eastern and north-western sides of the cemetery
unenclosed.These ditches bounded the cemetery in an
area where the underlying topography took a
pronounced slope. The division of this area from the
rest of the enclosure indicates an internal separation of
activities, with no burials extending beyond these
ditches to the south-east.
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 65
Fig. 5—Sections of cemetery ditches.
Two discrete features excavated in the cemetery
area could have been structural, although no clear
pattern could be discerned. An oval post-hole (1229)
was recorded adjacent to the limit of excavation,
truncated by the cemetery phase 2 burial of skeleton
32. It contained a single bird talon but no other finds.
Close to this a second oval post-hole (1279) was
recorded, truncated on the south side by the cemetery
phase 1 burial of skeleton 49. These features were
identified close to the limit of excavation, and they raise
the possibility that there was a structure in this area
during cemetery phase 2.
The human remains assemblage represented a total
of 158 individuals, a minimum number calculated from
both articulated burials (132 individuals) and
disarticulated bone (26 individuals). The burials can be
split into four cemetery phases over 800 years from the
seventh to the fifteenth century. Phasing of the
cemetery was undertaken using a combination of
stratigraphic analysis and radiocarbon dating of 40
individuals.Table 1 shows the distribution of adults and
non-adults across the cemetery population. In this case,
‘Juvenile’ covers age categories from younger child to
adolescent, from six to eighteen years at death
(Appendix 4).
Cemetery phase 1 (c. 650–850)
At some time between c. AD 650 and 770, ditch 1260
was dug at the eastern extent of the burial-ground,
forming a curving boundary to this part of the
cemetery. This was the largest of the three ditches
delimiting the cemetery area, with steep sides and a
concave base, a maximum width of 2.46m and
maximum depth of 1m. A consistent deposit sequence
was observed, although slight variation in the
composition of fills was recorded. The primary fill
(1368) was identified in all sections. It was rapidly
deposited soon after construction as the sides of the
freshly cut ditch weathered. This was followed by
secondary deposit 1353, which had gradually
accumulated through the natural silting of the ditch
and surrounding ground surface over time. The
carcasses of at least eleven sheep were buried within the
basal fill (1368). The colouration of the ends of long
bones indicates that they were articulated when buried,
probably placed longitudinally, although there was
some degree of post-depositional disturbance
(Appendix 1). Any cutting of the bodies prior to
deposition was more likely for ease of transport rather
than for consumption.
The adolescent remains of skeleton 72 were also
66 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde

Table 1—Number of individuals in the assemblage from Carrowkeel, by cemetery phase and age category.

Cemetery Calendar Foetus Infant Juvenile Adult Adult Total

phase date (AD) Male Female
1 650–850 8 6 12 3 7 37
2 850–1050 24 23 25 2 - 75
3 1050–1250 3 5 5 2 1 18
4 1340–1450 2 - - - - 2
37 34 42 7 8 132

Table 2—Radiocarbon dating results from cemetery phase 1 individuals.

SK no. Age category Sex Lab no. BP date Calendar date (AD)
1 Young adult Female UB-7448 1249 ± 31 678–832
22 Older middle adult Male UB-7412 1186 ± 32 770–899
27 Younger child – UB-7414 1156 ± 31 798–906
51 Older adult Female UB-7417 1228 ± 31 761–884
53 Infant – UB-7418 1214 ± 31 765–890
57 Younger middle adult Female UB-7420 1264 ± 31 667–783
69 Younger adult Male UB-7423 1244 ± 32 682–872
70 Older child – UB-7424 1182 ± 32 771–900
72 Adolescent – UB-7425 1250 ± 34 676–870
85 Older child – UB-7430 1185 ± 31 770–899
86 Younger child – UB-7431 1193 ± 34 766–899
87 Younger child – UB-7432 1261 ± 33 668–827
93 Infant – UB-7434 1215 ± 32 764–890
100 Younger child – UB-7435 1203 ± 32 765–895
107 Younger middle adult Male UB-7436 1193 ± 31 768–897
112 Foetus – UB-7483 1227 ± 31 761–884
113 Younger child – UB-7439 1168 ± 32 775–903
114 Younger middle adult Male UB-7440 1301 ± 31 660–772
115 Younger adult Female UB-7441 1182 ± 31 771–900
119 Younger middle adult Female UB-7443 1305 ± 34 658–773
122 Younger adult Female UB-7445 1196 ± 35 765–898
124 Infant – UB-7446 1223 ± 33 761–887
125 Foetus – UB-7447 1193 ± 33 767–898

interred within ditch 1260, deposited as the feature was
beginning to silt up. The burial was partially cut into
the silting deposit (1353) and the north-western
section of the ditch terminus. This burial also cut the
interface between this ditch and the smaller ditch
(1359). This individual was buried in a flexed position
(Pl. 3) and was dated to cal. AD 676–870 (UB-7425)
(Table 2). Following this burial, the ditch continued to
silt and skeleton 33 (cal. AD 857–991 (UB-7482)) was
interred directly above its south-western end. Other
cemetery phase 1 burials (skeletons 42 and 52) were
also interred over both ditches 1260 and 1359.
Cemetery phase 2 skeletons 13, 14 and 71 also utilised
the ditch area once both ditches had fallen out of use.
Even then, however, the remnants of the ditches were
probably visible and continued to be perceived as the
boundary of the cemetery, for no interments took place
outside the south-eastern edge of ditch 1260.
A smaller ditch (1359) ran parallel to ditch 1260
(Fig. 1). It had steep sides with a concave base and a
maximum depth of 0.44m. The function of this ditch
was difficult to determine, as it was very close to the
larger ditch feature (1260) and comparatively very
narrow. One possibility is that it formed the foundation
trench for a palisade fence, although no post-holes were
discovered within it. Ditch feature 1475 was located
3m south of these two ditches and further downslope.
It also terminated at the eastern end of the cemetery. It
had a V-shaped profile, was 1m wide and 0.5m deep,
and the primary deposit (1477) had accumulated as a
consequence of the slumping of upcast material and
colluvial erosion. The secondary deposit (1476) was
likely to be the result of stones and gravel accumulating
at the base of the ploughsoil in the depression of the
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 67
ditch, probably owing to bioturbation and worm
action.The similarity of fills and the lack of intercutting
stratigraphy made the relationships between these three
ditches difficult to determine. The presence of
cemetery phase 2 burials directly above ditches 1359
and 1260 suggests that these ditches may be
contemporary. It is possible that ditch 1475 is a
replacement cemetery boundary, dating from cemetery
phase 2, but this is not supported by any dating
evidence.
The cemetery phase 1 assemblage totals 37
individuals (28% of the whole), 22 of whom were
radiocarbon-dated (Table 2). Just over 70% of the
individuals from cemetery phase 1 are non-adults. This
group can be further subdivided into foetus (14%),
perinate (8%), infant (16%), younger child (16%), older
child (11%) and adolescent (5%). Of the adults at
Carrowkeel, cemetery phase 1 has 61% of the total
number, and almost 90% of the females. Of those
burials for which direction could be assessed, the
majority (76%, n = 28) lay north-east/south-west (Fig.
4). Body position was recorded for 31 individuals; 71%
(n = 22) were supine and extended, while the
remaining 29% (n = 9) were found to be flexed. The
majority of the flexed burials were non-adults, aside
from skeleton 51 and skeleton 119, both adult females.
Cemetery phase 2 (c. 850–1050)
The second cemetery phase dates from the mid-ninth to
the eleventh century (Table 3; Fig. 6).The largest part of
the assemblage, this cemetery phase contains 75
individuals, 93% (n = 73) of which are non-adult. The
only adult remains present were skeleton 90 and skeleton
105, both male. Cemetery phase 2 contains the largest
proportion of very young children. Of these, 64% were
below one year of age at death (foetus 27%, perinate 7%,
neonate 4% and infant 27%).Younger children made up
16%, and 12% were older children. The excavated
portion of the cemetery appears to have been used
almost exclusively for the burial of non-adults in this
period. Body position was more varied than in cemetery
phase 1.This is probably linked to the higher number of
non-adults, who show more differention in their burial
positions than the adults. In total, 44% (n = 33) were
Table 3—Radiocarbon dating results from cemetery phase 2 individuals.
SK no. Age category Lab no. BP date
16 Older child UB-7449 1113 ± 32
17 Younger child UB-7411 1129 ± 31
24 Foetus UB-7413 1148 ± 31
33 Older child UB-7482 1127 ± 32
41 Infant UB-7416 1125 ± 31
82 Older child UB-7429 1104 ± 31
121 Older child UB-7444 1113 ± 32
buried supine and extended, 1% (n = 1) crouched and
21% (n = 16) flexed. One infant, skeleton 50, was buried
flexed and prone, the only burial of its type in the
cemetery. The crouched burial of a younger child,
skeleton 84, is also unique in the assemblage. As in
cemetery phase 1, the majority of the burials were
aligned north-east/south-west. Four individuals,
skeletons 10, 17, 18 and 34, were truncated by later
agricultural activity in the form of an east–west furrow.
Cemetery phase 3 (c. 1050–1250)
It appears that the cemetery began to fall out of use
during the latter part of cemetery phase 3, dating from
the mid-eleventh to the mid-thirteenth century (Table
4; Fig. 7). Only eighteen individuals were recovered
from this phase, with a more even spread of age
categories than in the previous cemetery phases. This
may indicate a shift in use of this portion of the
cemetery towards a more ‘normal’ burial population.
Non-adults still account for 78% (n = 14) of the
cemetery phase 3 assemblage, but they are older than in
cemetery phase 2, with only 44% (n = 8) below one
year of age at death (foetus 17%, infant 28%). No
perinates, neonates or adolescents were recovered in
this period. Burial orientation followed the same broad
pattern as cemetery phases 1 and 2, with 67% (n = 12)
aligned north-east/south-west (Fig. 4). Body position
was more uniform. Supine extended burials account
for 50% (n = 9) of the group and 17% were flexed.The
remaining 33% (n = 6) were disarticulated. East–west
furrow 1169 also truncates two individuals in this
period, skeletons 46 and 47. Skeleton 46 was recovered
disarticulated within the furrow itself.
Cemetery phase 4 (c. 1340–1450)
Only two individuals belong to the final cemetery
phase (Table 5). One dates from the fourteenth century,
while the other dates from the fifteenth century. This
may indicate a move away from this portion of the
cemetery, the discontinuation of use of the burial-
ground as a whole, or later burials unconnected with
the earlier cemetery phases. The very young age of
both burials suggests that in this period the site was
used as a cillín.
Calendar date (AD)
869–1015
857–989
804–975
857–991
859–991
885–999
869–1015
68 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde

Fig. 6—Cemetery phase 2 (AD 850–1050).

Table 4—Radiocarbon dating results from cemetery phase 3 individuals.

SK no. Age category Sex Lab no. BP date Calendar date (AD)
60 Foetus – UB-7422 815 ± 31 1169–1269
74 Infant – UB-7426 830 ± 31 1159–1265
77 Adult Female UB-7427 940 ± 31 1024–1161
79 Older middle adult Male UB-7428 906 ± 31 1038–1208
89 Younger adult Female UB-7433 954 ± 31 1022–1156
110 Infant – UB-7437 949 ± 32 1023–1208
111 Younger middle adult Male UB-7438 935 ± 31 1024–1165
116 Younger child – UB-7442 907 ± 30 1037–1192
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 69
Fig. 7—Cemetery phase 3 (AD 1050–1250).
The demographic profile
The Carrowkeel assemblage is dominated by non-
adults (Table 1). Only 11% of the individuals are adults.
There were no older adults and the majority died
before the age of 35. Males and females were equally
represented in the adult portion of the assemblage; the
majority of females were found in cemetery phase 1,
however. This may indicate preferential burial of
women in one area of the cemetery during this earliest
period. Estimations of attained adult stature showed
close male and female means (168cm and 164cm
respectively). Often stressed populations will not
achieve their full genetic potential, especially in adult
stature levels. Males tend to be more affected than
females, with the result that there is less sexual
dimorphism in stature level (S. Lewis 1997, 35).
The calculation of a life table provided an estimated
life expectancy of 55 years for the assemblage. The size
of the population from which the assemblage is derived
was calculated using formulae provided by Acsádi and
Nemeskéri (1970):
P = D(e/t)K,
where P = size of living population, D = size of skeletal
assemblage (158), e = life expectancy at birth (28.5), t
= time-span of cemetery (800), and K = constant (10%
of t) (80). The contributing population size was thus
estimated to be 450.3 individuals over 800 years. It
should be remembered that as the cemetery was not
fully excavated this number refers only to the size of
population for this part of the cemetery. In reality, the
associated population may have been much larger.
As discussed above, the assemblage was
characterised by young children, with almost 90%
made up of non-adults. Over 53% of individuals were
70 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde

Table 5—Radiocarbon dating results from cemetery phase 4 individuals.

SK no. Age category Lab no. BP date Calendar date (AD)

15 Foetus UB-7410 499 ± 29 1400–1447
54 Foetus UB-7419 638 ± 30 1340–1396

aged below one year; of these, 52% were foetuses

Fig. 8—Distribution of foetal deaths from Carrowkeel by
cemetery phase compared to modern stillbirth and live birth
rates (after Mays 1998, 64–5).
Fig. 9—Patterns of non-adult mortality from Carrowkeel presented
by cemetery phase and in comparison with the expected trend
(after M. Lewis 2007, 86).
(28% of the whole assemblage). It is suggested that
this reflects the spatial organisation of the cemetery
rather than the totally separate burial of children as
in a cillín. Had the entire cemetery been excavated,
the assemblage may have resembled a normal
population with an even distribution of age
categories.
Using regression formulae developed by
Scheuer et al. (1980), it was possible to further refine
the age estimation of the foetuses through limb
bone measurements. Age estimation data were then
compared to information on modern still and live
births. Cemetery phases 3 (n = 3) and 4 (n = 2) were
not included in this analysis owing to their small
sample size.
Foetal age distribution follows the ‘flat’ pattern
of modern stillbirths, suggesting normal losses
through premature birth or miscarriage rather than
infanticide practised at birth (Fig. 8). If the latter
were true, we might expect a peak of foetal deaths
around 38–40 weeks, following the live birth
pattern (Mays 1998, 64–5). High infant mortality is
a common feature of past populations when, for the
first year of life, children were particularly
vulnerable. In a review of 42 assemblages and 9,658
individuals, Lewis found a second peak of mortality
during the weaning period, a highly dangerous time
owing to bacterial infections from feeding bottles
and traditional weaning ‘paps’. The age at which
children enter the adult world can also sometimes
be recognised in the archaeological record, with an
increase in deaths around the age of ten to nineteen
years as they are exposed to the dangers of the wider
world (M. Lewis 2007, 86–7).
The Carrowkeel assemblage does not follow the
expected trend of non-adult mortality (Fig. 9). In
contrast to the expected peak between ten and
nineteen years, all cemetery phases from Carrowkeel
experience a fall.This may have more to do with the
spatial uses of the excavated portion of the cemetery
than with an actual mortality pattern. Certainly we
do see a peak in infant losses and again in the older
child group. It is possible that the children of the
Carrowkeel population are entering the adult world
at this latter stage, being expected to help with
domestic and agricultural tasks, and suffering fatal
accidents while undertaking these duties.
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 71
Health and disease
In general the sample appears to be healthy, with low
rates of infectious disease and trauma. Prevalence rates
of congenital conditions were also low. Pathological
conditions that were noted were linked to physical
activity and poor nutrition. Poor levels of nutrition
were also seen in metrical analyses. Levels of general
health appear to have fallen in the later phases.This can
be seen through the increasing rates of dental enamel
hypoplasia, porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia in
cemetery phases 2 and 3. These increases could be
linked to a genuine fall in the levels of nutrition and
general health of the population, or they could be
connected to the shift in focus of the cemetery towards
more child burials. If the section of the population
being buried in this part of the cemetery is different,
we may expect a difference in the rate of general health
indicators.
Dental disease
Rates of calculus (plaque) and periodontal (gum)
disease are high in all cemetery phases, while caries and
abscesses are rare throughout the sample. This suggests
that the diet probably did not contain a lot of
cariogenic foods such as sugar and refined
carbohydrates. The pattern of calculus deposition
suggests that oral hygiene was poor. Cemetery phase 2
sees a clear reduction in all types of dental disease. This
is probably due to the high number of infants and
foetal remains with unerupted dentition.
Pl. 4—Os acromiale of the right scapula, skeleton 90, a middle-aged adult male, cemetery phase 2.
Activity indicators
Although fracture rates were low, the assemblage clearly
derives from an active population. The presence of os
acromiale also indicates an active non-adult population.
Os acromiale is thought to be the result of strenuous
movements of the shoulder during an individual’s
period of growth (Pl. 4). Regarded as a rare anomaly
today, it is largely seen in professional sports people
such as baseball players, who often train heavily during
adolescence (Knüsel 2000, 103–5). The Carrowkeel
assemblage showed two bilateral examples of the
condition from cemetery phases 2 and 3, in a young
adult female and middle adult male respectively.
Only the adult sample was assessed for degenerative
joint disease. The rate of vertebral degradation
remained constant at 28–29% from cemetery phases 1
to 3. Males showed higher rates of degradation,
probably linked to more strenuous activity. While
degenerative joint disease was a constant in the adult
sample, cases were mild and restricted to osteophytic
lipping of joint surfaces. There were no cases of
osteoarthritis, which requires eburnation (polishing of
the joint surface) for a positive diagnosis. Extra-spinal
joint degradation was only found in cemetery phase 1.
This is probably due to the low number of adults in the
later periods and their younger age profile, as this group
of pathologies is strongly linked to advancing age.
Non-metric traits
Non-metric, or discontinuous, traits are classed as non-
pathological variants in bone morphology, such as the
72 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
Fig. 10—Cranial non-metric traits displayed by the adult sample
from Carrowkeel, providing the expression of a trait as a
percentage of the possible expressions within the phase.
Definitions of each trait can be found in Table 6.
presence of an extra foramen on the anterior mandible,
ossicle within cranial sutures or the presence of a third
trochanter on the femur.There is some argument in the
literature as to the cause and significance of these traits,
and several studies have used them as markers of
biodistance between populations and within samples
(Bondioli et al. 1986; Ossenberg 1976). The
relationship between trait expression and age is
controversial; trait expression is not necessarily an
indicator of familial relationships. Many infra-cranial
traits may be related to physiological rather than
genetic factors (Tyrrell 2000).
The Carrowkeel sample was assessed for 45 traits in
total, 28 cranial and seventeen post-cranial. Primary
traits (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) that were expressed
by more than one individual were plotted into Fig. 10.
Phases 1 and 2 show an increase in the parietal
foramina and mandibular tori. The septal aperture is
only found in cemetery phase 1. This trait is reliably
genetically linked, and is often expressed only by
females. It is likely that it only appears in cemetery
phase 1 owing to the high number of females in this
phase. The absence of the trait in the later phases does
not indicate a change in population. The positive
expression of mandibular tori is thought to have a
genetic cause (Gorsky et al. 1998). The consistent
presence of this trait in the assemblage may indicate a
familial relationship between some of the individuals.
The general low level of trait expressions and the
partial nature of the assemblage mean that any trends
within the data may not be reliable, however.
PHASE 3: LINEAR CULTIVATION
FEATURES
A large oval pit (1375) truncated the main enclosure
ditch during the final stages of silting. It had concave
sides and was 1m deep and 5m wide. The primary fill
was predominantly silt and the secondary fill was
predominantly cobbles and large stones, the probable
result of field clearance. A series of parallel
north/south-running linear cultivation features was
identified outside the enclosure to the north. They
were generally 0.48m wide, 0.08m deep and 16m long,
with a concave profile filled with orange-brown silty
clay. They respected the course of the main enclosure,
running up to the ditch but not continuing into the
interior. The enclosure had been identified on the first
edition OS map, dated to 1838 (sheet 72), though not
on subsequent map surveys. These furrows respect the
enclosure and represent cultivation when the enclosure
was still extant, sometime prior to the early nineteenth
century.
DISCUSSION
The main enclosure at Carrowkeel was probably
constructed in the seventh or, less likely, the eighth
century. At this time a great number of enclosed
settlements were being constructed in Ireland. Most of
them fall into one of two categories: ringforts and
cashels, which are secular farmsteads of circular plan,
and ecclesiastical settlements, which often have larger,
less regular but usually curvilinear enclosures (e.g. Stout
1997, 14, 100; Swan 1983). Carrowkeel cannot be
assigned to either of these categories.Though structural
evidence was limited, the large animal bone assemblage
suggests that it served as a settlement for a considerable
period. Given that under two thirds of the enclosure
was excavated, a question remains as to how
representative the recovered evidence is. A significant
portion of the site lay beyond the line of the proposed
road scheme, and the location of possible structures in
this area, especially towards the brow of the hill, should
not be ruled out. Nevertheless, its overall morphology
and the presence of a cemetery rule out its classification
as a ringfort.
Its somewhat irregular shape is more reminiscent of
an ecclesiastical enclosure, and the position of its
cemetery in the eastern half of the enclosure is also
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 73
paralleled in the majority of ecclesiastical sites. Swan
(1983, 274) defined ecclesiastical sites on the basis of
eleven attributes: evidence of enclosure, a burial area
(normally in the south-east corner), a place-name with
an ecclesiastical element, structural remains, a nearby
holy well, a bullaun stone, a carved or decorated stone
cross or slab, a townland boundary forming part of the
enclosure, a souterrain, a pillar stone, a founder’s tomb,
and a traditional ritual or folk custom. He further
specified that at least five of these are required. On this
basis Carrowkeel would not qualify as an ecclesiastical
site. The absence of evidence for a church in particular
means that it cannot be definitively classified as
ecclesiastical, though it is possible that a church stood
in the unexcavated part of the enclosure.
Alternatively, Carrowkeel may belong to a group of
sites recently recognised as a result of pre-development
archaeology that are generally referred to as
settlement/cemeteries (e.g. Clarke 2002; Seaver 2006;
A. O’Sullivan and Harney 2008, 78–84). In many
respects these are similar to ecclesiastical settlements but
they appear to lack church buildings. The possibility
that they were not ecclesiastical sites is supported by
documentary evidence that indicates that until at least
the eighth century some communities were not
bringing their dead for churchyard burial but
continued to bury them in non-ecclesiastical family
burial-grounds (O’Brien 1984; 1999, 52). Compilers of
the early eighth-century Collectio Canonum Hibernensis
were not entirely opposed to the continuing use of
ancestral burial-grounds.They cited biblical precedents
for the practice, in particular the example of Jacob and
Joseph, who requested that their bones be carried back
from Egypt to the land of Canaan in order that they
might be buried in the tomb of their ancestors.
Increasingly, however, monks, ecclesiastical tenants and
sections of the wider population were being
encouraged to have their affiliation recognised in death
through burial at ecclesiastical sites (O’Brien 1999, 52).
Some ancestral burial-grounds were unenclosed or
partially enclosed sites dedicated purely to burial, but
others, the so-called settlement/cemeteries, like
Johnstown, Raystown and Carrowkeel, are within
larger enclosures that were used for occupation as well
as burial. To date, the vast majority of these have been
identified in Leinster. Carrowkeel is particularly
significant as it is the first possible example excavated
west of the Shannon.
The cemetery at Carrowkeel remained in use until
the fifteenth century. The social conditions in which
the cemetery was established were very different to
those that led to its eventual abandonment. Both
founding and abandonment represent breaks with
tradition: a significant initial investment in a new
cemetery and an active decision not to continue to
place the dead in the usual site of disposal (Parker
Pearson 1999).To focus discussion on the foundation of
the site, Chrisitianity had already become established as
the dominant belief system by AD 600 (Edwards 1990,
99), so religious reasons were unlikely to have been the
only, or indeed the principal, motivation for the
founding of Carrowkeel. Possibly it was founded as a
result of a family lineage breaking away from a larger
kin group. The prominence of Carrowkeel on a hill
overlooking an area of known early medieval and
prehistoric activity (RMP: GA097-068) may have
influenced the choice of location for the main
enclosure. Another factor may have been the presence
of earlier ditches and discrete features pre-dating the
main enclosure, though the date, duration and character
of this earlier phase of activity remain unclear.
Notwithstanding the trend towards burial at
ecclesiastical sites, it seems that a group at Carrowkeel
continued to bury their dead, or at least some of their
dead, in a non-ecclesiastical burial-ground throughout
the early medieval period and beyond. They may have
had pragmatic reasons for doing so. The founding of
the cemetery and its enduring use as a formal burial
area was a deliberate strategy by a group bound by
familial and kinship ties to perpetuate their relationship
with their ancestors. The act of burial makes the
remains of the dead a fixed part of the landscape,
thereby legitimising the rights of the living to it (Parker
Pearson 1999, 125). In a predominantly pastoral
economy based on a transhumance model of summer
grazing, the settlement enclosure would also have
helped to secure tenure of the surrounding land.
Seasonal occupation is one possible explanation for the
limited evidence for substantial structures within the
enclosure.
Funerary practices
The extent to which pagan or Christian religious
beliefs can be seen to dictate burial custom at
Carrowkeel throughout this period is uncertain. The
role of Christian ideology in the Irish early medieval
period can be usefully separated into two phases: an
expansion period when the faith was still a minority
practice and not fully integrated, and a consolidation
period when Christianity was the dominant (but not
exclusive) belief system (Mytum 1992, 60). The
positioning of the body as a supine west–east
inhumation is usually regarded as a Christian practice.
This reflects the Christian belief that the dead will rise
again, and an alignment with the orientation of the
rising sun during Eastertide (mid- to late April) was
preferred. A lack of grave-goods is also interpreted as
reflecting a change from a pagan to a Christian
conception of the afterlife.
Cross-cultural surveys of burial practice also advise
74 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
caution when applying generalisations: because of the
diverse nature of mortuary rites there will usually be
divergences from the norm (Ucko 1969, 262). An
analysis of the Irish excavation evidence indicates that
Roman burial customs were adopted independently of
Christianity, so there must be other supporting evidence
to determine the religion of an individual (Raftery
1981).The Carrowkeel burials were almost all uniformly
simple in nature, with little evidence of lining of graves,
grave-markers or grave-goods. Burial was in accordance
with Christian rites in a roughly east–west orientation,
although there were some startling departures from the
general pattern. Unusual burials included the flexed
Pl. 3—Adolescent
flexed burial at the
terminus of ditch
1260, cemetery phase
1 (cal. AD 676–870).
adolescent found at the terminus of ditch 1260 from
cemetery phase 1 (Fig. 4; Pl. 3), the tightly crouched
adolescent from cemetery phase 2 and the highly
unorthodox ‘akimbo’ female burial, also from cemetery
phase 2 (Fig. 4). The placement of these individuals in
deliberately different burial positions may indicate that
some funerary rituals were the site of contested
meaning, although the reasons why they were accorded
such treatment was not evident. No patterning in either
age, sex or temporal and spatial distribution could be
identified, and no pathological conditions could be
determined that would have singled these individuals
out as different.
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 75
River-rolled quartz and some animal bone were
also found in a number of burials, which may represent
older, non-Christian practices retained by the
population, although quartz pebbles are commonly
found in burials at early ecclesiastical sites (Cardy 1997,
556; White Marshall and Walsh 2005, 81). The pattern
of quartz deposition does not vary greatly between the
cemetery phases, nor does there seem to be a significant
trend in the inclusion of quartz with male, female or
non-adult burials.The significance of the stone to Irish
burial culture is not certain; quartz may symbolise the
soul of the dead, or light the way into the next world.
Excavations in Wales have also found quartz placed in
graves dating from the early medieval period, and it has
been suggested that the practice is linked to a passage
from Revelations which states ‘. . . give him a white
stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no
man knoweth saving he that receiveth it’ (Revelations
2:17, quoted in Holbrook 2005).
Segregated burial in the early medieval period
Phase 1 of the cemetery was made up of three distinct
subphases, identified through stratigraphic analysis and
a programme of radiocarbon dating. The majority of
burials (n = 75) were found in phase 2 of the cemetery,
dating from AD 850 to 1050. This is distinct in
character from the earlier and later use of this section
of the cemetery, and seems to provide evidence for the
deliberate spatial segregation of children. Cillíní are
essentially children’s burial-grounds, common
throughout Ireland but mainly focused in the western
counties such as Kerry and Galway (Dennehy 1997).
They are known to have been in use during the
medieval and post-medieval periods, but their origins
remain obscure. Often sited in visible monuments such
as abandoned ringforts, tower-houses and ecclesiastical
ruins, they have been described as a physical
embodiment of limbo within the landscape. The
development of this practice is assumed to coincide
with the twelfth-century Church reforms leading to
the establishment of the doctrine of limbo infantus
(Finlay 2000, 408–9).
Archaeologically, cillíní are recognised through the
seemingly disorganised burial of very young children
within older monuments, often overlying more
organised and formal burials. During excavation it was
assumed that the cluster of young children buried at
Carrowkeel represented the later, probably post-
medieval reuse of the site as a cillín. The extensive
programme of radiocarbon dating undertaken on the
remains showed this not to be the case, and generated
questions about the origin of the cillín tradition and
how this may relate to the spatial segregation of
children within early medieval cemetery populations. It
is possible that the separate burial of children in the
early medieval period was a common phenomenon
across Britain and Ireland, one which had an influence
on the Irish tradition of cillín burial in later centuries.
While the separate burial of children in cillíní has
been well documented for the later and post-medieval
period in Ireland (Finlay 2000), there has been little
evidence for the segregation of children in the early
medieval period, although in recent years excavations at
the Rock of Cashel and Raystown, Co. Meath
(Hodkinson 2003; Seaver 2006), have found separate
clusters of non-adults within larger cemeteries. Clusters
of child burials are often found within Anglo-Saxon
cemeteries, and there does appear to be a Christian
trend in early medieval Britain for the separation of
young children within cemeteries such as Raunds
Furnells in Northamptonshire and Whithorn Priory in
Galloway (Boddington 1987; Cardy 1997).The pattern
is also seen at other ecclesiastical sites in Europe from
the period, including the cathedrals of Trondheim and
Hamar in Norway (M. Lewis 2007, 30–3). The
segregated burial of children has also been recognised
at the Late Roman site of Cazzanello in central Italy,
where a small group of perinate burials was found
within the remains of a fourth-century AD bathhouse.
This seems to form part of a wider Etruscan pattern
that may be a precursor to the modern Italian practice
of separate burial for foreigners and very young
children (Becker 2007, 290).
There is evidence for the segregation of certain
groups during the medieval and post-medieval period
at sites such as Relignaman, Co. Tyrone (Hamlin and
Foley 1983), and St Ronan’s, Iona (J. O’Sullivan 1994),
where the separate burial of women is connected to
the presence of convents or chapels dedicated to the
Virgin. Defining conceptual divisions between the
dead, therefore, may be a common European practice
which in some areas develops into the practice of
establishing totally separate burial-grounds for certain
sections of society.
The Carrowkeel assemblage provides a securely
dated example of the spatial segregation of children in
an Irish context. This spatial segregation of children in
one section of the cemetery may be a precursor to the
later and post-medieval cillín tradition, which is now
becoming better understood but whose origins remain
obscure (Finlay 2000). Recent excavations at
Cloncowan II, Co. Meath (Baker 2007, 72), revealed an
earlier ditched enclosure reused as a possible cillín
between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. This
corresponds to Carrowkeel cemetery phase 3 and
suggests an emerging pattern. The work reported here
should highlight the importance of extensive
radiocarbon dating of cemeteries, or areas within
cemeteries, dominated by infant remains, for it shows
that we cannot assume that these are post-medieval
76 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
cillín assemblages. Rather, like the Carrowkeel
assemblage, they may provide important new insights
into the complex and potentially early origins of this
phenomenon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to all staff at Headland
Archaeology Ltd, particularly Stuart Callow, Kevin
Murphy and Deborah Riches, who supervised the
excavations, and to Emer O’Donovan and Bryan
McDomhnail for survey work. Dr Stephen Lancaster
visited the site on two occasions and assisted greatly
with interpretation of the archaeological sediments.
Thanks to Eavan O’Dochartaigh for all illustrations and
to Amy Bunce for drafting the stratigraphic report.
Thanks must also go to Colm Maloney, who project-
managed the excavation, and to Damian Shiels, who
managed all post-excavation work. Sincere thanks to
Jerry O’Sullivan, NRA Project Archaeologist, and also
to Martin Jones, NRA Assistant Project Archaeologist,
who provided welcome comment and guidance at all
stages of the project. Thanks to the staff of RPS
Consulting Engineers for their assistance throughout
the project—Senior Resident Engineer Tom
Prendergast, Resident Engineer Niall Healy and
Resident Archaeologist Ross MacLeod. We would also
both like to extend thanks to Jean Price for her
patience with the final editing of this text. Special and
final thanks are reserved for our team of excavators,
who braved the storms through three cold months on
what has to be the windiest hill in County Galway.
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78 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde

APPENDIX 1: SUMMARY OF FAUNAL 14057, GU-15327), and 1245 ± 45 uncal. BP, cal. AD
REMAINS 670–890 (SUERC-14234, GU-15326). This is the
AULI TOURUNEN earliest dated house mouse from Ireland and
categorically confirms the presence of the species in
A total of 13,631 animal bone specimens were analysed Ireland in the early medieval period.The history of the
from Carrowkeel (Table 6). Of these, 8,437 specimens house mouse (Mus musculus) in Ireland is not yet fully
were recovered by hand-picking and an additional understood. Mice bones, interpreted to be those of the
5,194 were found in soil samples. The high number of house mouse, were recovered in thirteenth-century
unidentified specimens reflects both the high deposits in Cork with some rat bones (McCarthy 2003,
fragmentation rate and the sieving of the soil samples. 381). The house mouse had already arrived in Britain
In both quantification methods used (NISP, during the Iron Age (Buczacki 2002, 474). Some claim
Number of Identified Specimens, and MNE, that it was introduced into Ireland during the Norman
Minimum Number of Elements), the assemblage is period (D’Arcy 2006, 8). According to Kelly (1997,
dominated by cattle. According to MNE figures, in 243), the early Irish written sources mention the house
enclosure phase 1 66.1% of the bones derive from mouse as a significant vermin. There was some
cattle, 18.6% from sheep or goat and 15.3% from pig. uncertainty about this before now, however, because
Comparison of enclosure phase 2 was hampered by the the Irish word for mouse, luch, seems also to have been
presence of bones from the articulated skeletons, mixed applied to rats (ibid., 244).
with disarticulated remains. Specimens categorised as
large ungulates, deriving mostly from ribs and Table 6—Species representation (NISP) in material. Rabbit and
vertebrae, are likely to derive from both cattle and rat are likely to be later intrusions. Specimens deriving from
horse, but most of these bones probably belong to cattle complete skeletons are in brackets.
and they are included in cattle figures. Sheep is the next
most common species. As goat is represented by only Species NISP
one specimen, it is probable that most of the specimens Cattle 846
in the ‘sheep or goat’ category derive from sheep, as Sheep 49 (318)
well as many of the specimens in the small ungulate Goat 1
category. Pig was the least common of the three main Sheep/goat 432
domesticates. Pig 196
As the site was intensively sampled, a large number Horse 31
of bird, small mammal and lizard bones were recovered. Dog 58 (36)
The hunting of wild animals did not play an important Cat 4 (96)
role in the economy, nor did fishing. Bones of domestic Rabbit 8
fowl, quail and possibly red grouse (or grey partridge, Rat 1
but the former species is more likely: the size of the Mouse 188
bone matches better with red grouse) are likely to Shrew 46
represent consumed birds. Bones of larger songbirds Rodent 3
like thrushes may also indicate consumption, but they Large ungulate 728
could derive from natural deaths too. Some passerine Small ungulate 425
(perching bird, ‘songbird’) bones derive from such a Carnivore 6
small species that their consumption is unlikely. Small mammal 19
Variations observed in the species representation or Small animal 192
in the anatomical representation within features and Bird 172
phases might be the result of changes in the deposition Fish 29
pattern inside the site or changes in the subsistence Lizard 22
pattern. The higher number of small ungulates in the Unidentified 9,725
main enclosure ditch is likely to represent their Total 13,631
increased importance compared to the earlier phase
(Table 7). There seems to be a change in consumption Table 7—Proportion of cattle, sheep or goat and pig in features
pattern, as more young cattle are represented in the and areas (% NISP).
material during the later phase. Ditch 1260 contained
the articulated skeletons of eleven sheep, which Phase Cattle Sh/g Pig N
probably died in an accident or from disease. Phase 1 84 8 8 270
Two house mice mandibles were radiocarbon-dated Phase 2 (main 69 17 14 336
to 1115 ± 35 uncal. BP, cal. AD 860–1020 (SUERC- enclosure ditch)
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 79
APPENDIX 2: SUMMARY OF
ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT
SUSAN LYONS
Introduction
A comprehensive sampling strategy was employed
whereby a total of 158 bulk soil samples were taken,
representing all significant fills and deposits. One
hundred and forty-three of these soil samples were
selected for the recovery of palaeobotanical remains
and small finds, and the results are presented below.
Methodology
One hundred and forty-three soil samples were
selected for the recovery of palaeobotanical remains
and small finds. Each sample was subjected to a system
of flotation in a Siraf-style flotation tank. The floating
debris (flot) was collected in a 250µm sieve and, once
dry, scanned using a binocular microscope. Any
remaining material in the flotation tank (retent) was
wet-sieved through a 1mm mesh and air-dried. This
Two tables was then sorted by eye and any material of
archaeological significance removed.
mentioned
An assessment of each sample was made to
here but determine whether it would benefit from any more
not sup- detailed analysis.
plied so
ref deleted Results summary
The soil samples assessed from Carrowkeel contained a
OK?
mixed assemblage of archaeological and
archaeobotanical material, reflecting the domestic
material associated with occupational debris. The
botanical remains were preserved by charring in all
cases.
All samples contained wood charcoal in low to high
concentrations. A higher concentration of wood
charcoal was recorded from samples associated with the
excavation of ditch features, pit/linear features, post-
holes and deposits associated with skeletal remains.
Barley, wheat and oats were all identified and are all
crops collectively cultivated since the early medieval
period. The grains, which were altogether recorded in
small numbers, were randomly scattered across the site
in ones and twos and were not associated with any
conflagration deposits.This suggests that the material is
the result of secondary, or even tertiary, deposition of
crop-processing debris, which would have entered
structural deposits and grave fills via local water
channels, through wind and human activity, or during
infilling of open features.
The archaeological material recovered from
Carrowkeel reflects the typical refuse associated with
domestic activities, which has been discarded or
dumped into open features around the site.
APPENDIX 3: THE METAL FINDS
JULIE FRANKLIN
Introduction
There were eighteen metal finds, most of which were
found in the enclosure ditch. Two finds came from
grave fills, where they appear to be deliberate
inclusions, and a handful more from the general
graveyard soil and other features, possibly displaced
from other graves or chance losses by visitors.
The dating for the cemetery runs from c. 700 to c.
1450. It is assumed that the enclosure ditches were in
use during the earliest cemetery and silted up over the
course of the cemetery’s lifespan.
Copper alloy
Both these objects are from the enclosure ditch. The
ring is extremely robust and in very good condition. Its
size might suggest that it was intended as a toe-ring.
There have been examples found in situ on the toe
bones of skeletons (Jones 1999, 95). Spiral rings have a
very long lifespan and wide distribution (ibid.; Clarke
1971). Examples are found all over Britain and Ireland
and far further afield from as early as the Bronze Age
through the Iron Age, Roman and early medieval
periods. The earliest examples tend to be of gold, later
ones of copper alloy. The fact that they are extremely
simple to make and easily adjusted for any size of digit
has ensured the survival of the type as other fashions
have come and gone. It would seem to date from the
earliest use of the cemetery, whether displaced from an
early burial or a chance loss by a mourner.
1. Spiral finger-ring. Large heavy ring made from
two revolutions of thick ovoid-sectioned plain
rod, with rounded terminals. Diam. 26mm,
internal diam. 18mm, thickness 3.5mm. SF2,
context 1029, fill of enclosure ditch 1023 (Fig. 3).
2. Strip. Rounded end with large rivet, broken at
other end. Length 57mm, width 18mm. SF2,
context 1030, fill of enclosure ditch 1023 (not
illus.).
Iron
Finds from the ditches
Finds nos 5–7 are from the fill of the enclosure ditch,
which is assumed to have silted up over the course of
the cemetery’s use, while finds nos 3–4, both knives, are
from another, probably earlier, ditch. Knife no. 6
appears to have been damaged by being used as a lever
to prise something up or open. Another lost tool, no.
5, is an awl, used for piercing holes in leather (cf.
Goodall 1993, 189, fig. 141:1478). This may originally
have been buried in the grave of a craftsman, as a tool
of his trade. Other finds are of less certain
80 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
identification. No. 6 probably formed a decorative
finial, such as are commonly found on candle prickets
(cf. Egan 1998, 141). No. 7 may be part of the
mouthpiece from a horse-bit (cf. Clark 1995, 49).
3. Knife. Complete pointed single-sided blade.
Whittle tang, possibly broken at end. Overall
length 148mm, length of blade 93mm, width of
blade 21mm. SF1, context 1315, secondary fill of
ditch 1317 (Fig. 3).
4. Knife. Blade broken and bent at tip. Tang broken.
Overall length 85mm, width of blade 14mm. SF1,
context 1316, primary fill of ditch 1317.
5. Awl. Double-pointed tool, tapering evenly from
centre to a square-sectioned point, and on the
other side to a round-sectioned blunted point.
Length 112mm, max. width 10mm. SF4, context
1029, fill of enclosure ditch 1023.
6. Curling finial. Short length of wrought iron rolled
into tight curl. SF1, context 1076, fill of enclosure
ditch 1023 (Fig. 3).
7. Horse-bit? Length of iron, with remains of two
broken loops at each end in perpendicular planes.
Length 69mm. SF1, context 1029, fill of enclosure
ditch 1023 (Fig. 3).
Finds from graves
Both the finds from graves are a little enigmatic. There
is little to identify the use of no. 8, as there is no
apparent means of attaching it to anything. It may have
been part of a strap end. No. 9 may be a pin, for
securing either clothing or a shroud. Ringed pins are a
common find in early medieval Ireland, but are
typically in copper alloy (Edwards 1990, 141).This may
be a baser version of the same, in iron, possibly with an
organic ring.
8. Strip with possible rivet at wide end, tapering to a
rounded point at other. SF1, context 1437, fill of
grave, SK100, younger child (18mths–2yrs),
beneath legs, phase 1 (650–850), 14C 765–895
(Fig. 3).
9. Pin? Long thin pointed shaft, curled into a loop at
top. Length 66mm. SF1, context 1518, fill of grave,
SK116, younger child (5–6yrs), undisturbed stone- OK? or
lined grave-cut, under left scapula, phase 3
(1050–1250), 14C 1037–1192 (Fig. 3).
1315
Nails and coffin fittings
There appear to be very few coffin nails in the
assemblage and none at all from grave fills, suggesting
that wooden coffins were a rarity at the cemetery.
There were only seven nails from the site, spread
through the graveyard soil, pits and other features. One
is very large and is more likely to be part of some kind
of structural work than from a coffin. Of the remainder,
four are small, suitable for fixing down coffin lids, while
two are larger and could have been used in the
construction of coffin walls. Only one of the smaller
examples (from pit fill 1468), however, has mineralised
wood remains adhering to the shaft, a feature often
found in coffin nails where the wood decays with the
nails in situ.
There are also two flat strip fragments, which may
be part of corner brackets or other coffin fittings. One,
from the graveyard soil (1098), appears to be
decoratively shaped but is too fragmentary to be certain
of its use or shape.
Discussion
The finds from the ditch seem to form a more varied
and interesting collection than those from graves,
including tools, fittings and the large finger-ring.
Unfortunately, most are of little help in terms of dating.
Even the ring is of a type current for such a long time
that it cannot be taken as definitive dating evidence.
There is little evidence of grave-goods. Two iron
objects may be dress accessories, or may be coffin
fittings or shroud-fastenings.
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 81

Table 8—Iron finds from Carrowkeel.

Site Ctxt SF Material Qty Description Cn Box

2.25 1024 001 Fe 1 Plate fragment XR11 2
2.25 1029 004 Fe 1 Awl. Double-pointed tool, tapering evenly XR11 2
from centre to a square-sectioned point, and
on the other side to a round-sectioned
blunted point. Length 112mm, max. width
10mm.
2.25 1030 002 Cu 1 Strip. Rounded end with large rivet, broken XR10 2
at other end. Length 57mm, width 18mm. C07-0037
2.25 1098 001 Fe 1 Plate fragment XR11 2
2.25 1098 002 Fe 1 Nail shaft XR11 2
2.25 1098 003 Fe 1 Nail, complete, round shaft, small flat round XR11 2
head
2.25 1098 004 Fe 1 Fragments XR11 2
2.25 1217 001 Fe 1 Nail shaft? Round-sectioned. XR11 2
2.25 1315 001 Fe 1 Knife. Complete pointed single-sided blade. XR11 2
Whittle tang, possibly broken at end. Overall C07-0038
length 148mm, length of blade 93mm, width
of blade 21mm.
2.25 1316 001 Fe 1 Knife. Blade broken and bent at tip. Tang XR11 2
broken. Overall length 85mm, width of blade C07-0040
14mm.
2.25 1324 001 Fe 1 Pin/wire/nail shaft XR11 2
2.25 1468 001 Fe 1 Nail, small, with wood adhering to shaft XR11 2
(coffin nail?)
2.25 1493 001 Fe 1 Nail, complete, clenched tip, small round XR11 2
head
2.25 1029 001 Fe 1 Horse-bit? Length of iron, with remains of XR11 3
two broken loops at each end in C07-0039
perpendicular planes. Length 69mm.
2.25 1029 002 Cu 1 Spiral finger-ring. Large heavy ring made XR10 3
from double spiral of thick ovoid-sectioned C07-0036
wire. Diam. 26mm, internal diam. 18mm,
thickness 3.5mm.
2.25 1076 001 Fe 1 Curling finial. Short length of wrought iron XR11 3
rolled into tight curl (e.g. from pricket?). C07-0042
2.25 1437 001 Fe 1 Strip with possible rivet at wide end, tapering XR11 3
to a rounded point at other. From beneath C07-0041
legs of SK100.
2.25 1518 001 Fe 1 Pin? Long thin pointed shaft, curled into a SK116. 3
loop at top. Length 66mm. XR11
C07-0043
82 Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde

APPPENDIX 4: NOTE ON OSTEOLOGICAL

TERMS

Age estimation is an assessment of biological rather

than chronological age. It should be remembered that
it is not a precise science, using age categories rather
than exact age estimations.

Younger adult: 18–25 years

Younger middle adult: 25–35 years
Older middle adult: 35–45 years
Older adult: 45+ years

The age estimation of non-adults is easier, as the

growth and maturation of the skeleton has been widely
studied. There are several systems used in the
categorisation of non-adult remains. In this case they
were placed into one of seven age categories, as used by
skeletal biologists and clinicians (Scheuer and Black
2000).

Foetus: 3rd foetal month until birth

Perinate: around the time of birth
Neonate: birth–2 months
Infant: birth–1 year
Younger child: 1–6 years
Older child: 7–12 years
Adolescent: 13–17 years
 An early medieval settlement/cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway 83

APPENDIX 5: RADIOCARBON DATES

Notes
1. All of the sample material from Carrowkeel is 2. The calibration programme for dates from
unburnt human bone from inhumation burials, apart Carrowkeel is that of Reimer et al. (2004).
from two samples of mouse bone recovered from the
primary deposit of the main enclosure ditch (1023).
Table 9—Radiocarbon dates.

Lab code Site Sample Yrs BP Calibrated date range

UB-7410 Carrowkeel Foetus 499 ± 29 One sigma AD 1415–1436 Two sigma AD 1400–1477
UB-7411 Carrowkeel Child 1129 ± 31 One sigma AD 888–970 Two sigma AD 782–989
UB-7412 Carrowkeel Adult 1186 ± 32 One sigma AD 781–885 Two sigma AD 721–960
UB-7413 Carrowkeel Foetus 1148 ± 31 One sigma AD 785–968 Two sigma AD 780–975
UB-7414 Carrowkeel Child 1156 ± 31 One sigma AD 783–960 Two sigma AD 779–971
UB-7416 Carrowkeel Infant 1125 ± 31 One sigma AD 890–970 Two sigma AD 783–991
UB-7417 Carrowkeel Adult 1228 ± 31 One sigma AD 717–865 Two sigma AD 689–884
UB-7418 Carrowkeel Infant 1214 ± 31 One sigma AD 774–871 Two sigma AD 693–890
UB-7419 Carrowkeel Foetus 638 ± 30 One sigma AD 1293–1388 Two sigma AD 1284–1396
UB-7420 Carrowkeel Adult 1264 ± 31 One sigma AD 689–773 Two sigma AD 667–861
UB-7422 Carrowkeel Foetus 815 ± 31 One sigma AD 1211–1261 Two sigma AD 1169–1269
UB-7423 Carrowkeel Adult 1244 ± 32 One sigma AD 688–808 Two sigma AD 682–872
UB-7424 Carrowkeel Child 1182 ± 32 One sigma AD 781–887 Two sigma AD 726–964
UB-7425 Carrowkeel Adolescent 1250 ± 34 One sigma AD 687–802 Two sigma AD 676–870
UB-7426 Carrowkeel Infant 830 ± 31 One sigma AD 1186–1254 Two sigma AD 1159–1265
UB-7427 Carrowkeel Adult 940 ± 31 One sigma AD 1034–1153 Two sigma AD 1024–1161
UB-7428 Carrowkeel Adult 906 ± 31 One sigma AD 1045–1170 Two sigma AD 1038–1208
UB-7429 Carrowkeel Child 1104 ± 31 One sigma AD 896–981 Two sigma AD 885–1013
UB-7430 Carrowkeel Child 1185 ± 31 One sigma AD 781–886 Two sigma AD 723–951
UB-7431 Carrowkeel Child 1193 ± 34 One sigma AD 779–881 Two sigma AD 710–949
UB-7432 Carrowkeel Child 1261 ± 33 One sigma AD 688–775 Two sigma AD 668–864
UB-7433 Carrowkeel Adult 954 ± 31 One sigma AD 1026–1151 Two sigma AD 1022–1156
UB-7434 Carrowkeel Infant 1215 ± 32 One sigma AD 773–873 Two sigma AD 692–890
UB-7435 Carrowkeel Child 1203 ± 32 One sigma AD 778–870 Two sigma AD 694–936
UB-7436 Carrowkeel Adult 1193 ± 31 One sigma AD 780–880 Two sigma AD 716–943
UB-7437 Carrowkeel Infant 949 ± 32 One sigma AD 1028–1152 Two sigma AD 1023–1158
UB-7438 Carrowkeel Adult 935 ± 31 One sigma AD 1039–1153 Two sigma AD 1024–1165
UB-7439 Carrowkeel Child 1168 ± 32 One sigma AD 781–934 Two sigma AD 775–968
UB-7440 Carrowkeel Adult 1301 ± 31 One sigma AD 667–766 Two sigma AD 660–772
UB-7441 Carrowkeel Adult 1182 ± 31 One sigma AD 781–887 Two sigma AD 728–962
UB-7442 Carrowkeel Child 907 ± 30 One sigma AD 1045–1168 Two sigma AD 1037–1207
UB-7443 Carrowkeel Adult 1305 ± 34 One sigma AD 665–766 Two sigma AD 658–773
UB-7444 Carrowkeel Child 1113 ± 32 One sigma AD 894–974 Two sigma AD 832–1015
UB-7445 Carrowkeel Adult 1196 ± 35 One sigma AD 779–880 Two sigma AD 694–946
UB-7446 Carrowkeel Infant 1223 ± 33 One sigma AD 723–869 Two sigma AD 689–887
UB-7447 Carrowkeel Foetus 1193 ± 33 One sigma AD 780–881 Two sigma AD 712–947
UB-7448 Carrowkeel Human bone 1249 ± 31 One sigma AD 688–801 Two sigma AD 678–869
UB-7449 Carrowkeel Human bone 1113 ± 32 One sigma AD 894–974 Two sigma AD 832–1015
UB-7482 Carrowkeel Human bone 1127 ± 1432 One sigma AD 889–971 Two sigma AD 782–991
UB-7483 Carrowkeel Human bone 1227 ± 31 One sigma AD 718–866 Two sigma AD 689–884
SUERC-14057
(GU-15326) Carrowkeel Mouse bone 1245 ± 45 One sigma AD 680–820 Two sigma AD 670–890
SUERC-14057
(GU-15327) Carrowkeel Mouse bone 1115 ± 35 One sigma AD 890–850 Two sigma AD 860–1020