Design of Buildings Wind Loading

Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Haefner - 1 -

Design of Buildings - Wind Actions on Building after EURCODE 1

The general procedures and loadings to be adopted in the design of Buildings is
Eurocode EC1 (Ref. Eurocode 1 ENV 1991-1-4); alternative is to use SABS 0160-
1989 or other building code.

1. Wind and Wind Pressure

The EC1, Part 1-4 (Ref. Eurocode 1 ENV 1991-1-4, 2004) is intended to predict
characteristic wind actions on land-based structures, their components and
appendages. The fundamental basic wind velocity v
b,0
, is the 10 minute mean wind
velocity with an annual risk of being exceeded of 0,02 (50-year occurrence),
irrespective of wind direction, at a height of 10 m above flat open country terrain and
accounting for altitude effects. The value of the basic wind velocity, v
b,0,
may be given
in National Annex with wind maps.

Figure 1 shows an appropriate wind speed map from South Africa code SANS 10160
(e.g. see Ref. Goliger, A.M., (2007)), however, appropriate wind-speed infos are
presently not available for Namibia.


Figure 1: Maximum mean hourly wind speed (50-year return period)


The wind loading conditions of SANS 10160 are in terms of a 3-s gust wind speed,
while the ENV 1991-1-4 is in terms of a 10-min mean wind speed. The conversion of
the magnitude of wind speeds to link to various averaging periods can be performed
with any standard textbook (e.g. Holmes J. D, (2001); it can be derived with a
multiplier of 1.1 to convert an hourly mean wind speed to a 10-min mean. However,
additional research is required for a wind speed map and the weather situation in
Namibia (Ref. Barnard, E. (2003))

Design of Buildings Wind Loading

Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Haefner - 2 -


The basic wind velocity shall be calculated with following equation

v
b
= c
dir
c
season
v
b,0


However, there is v
b
= v
b,0
with the directional factor c
dir
and the season factor c
season
,
with the recommended value 1,0 for both factors (see Eurocode 1- prEN 1991-1-4,
(2004) in chapter 4.1 Basic Values).

The mean wind velocity v
m
(z) at a height z above the terrain depends on the terrain
roughness and orography and on the basic wind velocity v
b
, and should be
determined using following expression

v
m
(z) = c
r
(z) c
o
(z) v
b


Where:
Roughness factor ( ) ( )
0
/ ln ) ( z z k z c
T r
= for z
min
z z
max
and
) ( ) (
min
z c z c
r r
= for z z
min

Terrain factor
07 , 0
, 0
0
19 , 0
|
|

\
|
=
II
T
z
z
k
with appropriate roughness length z
0
and z
0,II
from terrain category.
Orography factor c
0
(z) a function from = H/L
u
; see EC1, Part1-4, Annex A.3

Turbulence factor 0 , 1 =
I
k the recommended turbulence factor
Further details are obtainable in Ref. Eurocode 1 - prEN 1991-1-4, (2004).

The basic velocity pressure q
b
on relevant surface of buildings follows with following
equation

q
b
=

v
b
10
-3
[kN/m]

with regional basic wind speed v
b
in m/s and air density = 1,25 kg/m and with
these specific dimensions results

q
b
=

[kN/m]

Peak Pressure

For the calculation of wind loads for non-vibration sensitive structures is required the
gust wind velocity and the equivalent wind peak pressure q
p
.

[ ]
2
2
1
) ( 7 1 ) (
m v p
v z l z q + =
With the turbulence intensity

Design of Buildings Wind Loading

Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Haefner - 3 -


for z
min


z

z
max

for z < z
min


The peak pressure depends from ground roughness and orography (e.g. cliffs, hills).
There are terrain categories in following Table 1 with the terrain parameter z
o
and
z
min
. In the above expression for peak pressure the right hand first part is called the
gust factor the last part the mean wind pressure.

Terrain Category Illustrations
Z
o
/ z
min
[m]


0 Sea or coastal area exposed to the
open sea




0,003 / 1





I Lakes or area with negligible
vegetation and without obstacles




0,01 / 1



II Area with low vegetation such as
grass and isolated obstacles (tree,
buildings) with separations of at least
20 obstacle heights.




0,05 / 2



III Area with regular cover of vegetation or
buildings or with isolated obstacles with
separations of maximum 20 obstacle
heights (such as villages, suburban
terrain and permanent forest).




0,3 / 5



IV Area in which at least 15 % of the surface
is covered with buildings and their
average height exceeds 15 m



1,0 / 10

Table 1: Terrain Categories with Parameter from Eurocode 1 - prEN 1991-1-4, (2004)
(

+ =
) / ln( ) (
7
1 ) (
0 0
z z z c
k
z l
I
v
) ( ) (
min
z l z l
v v
=
Design of Buildings Wind Loading

Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Haefner - 4 -


A different and faster method is to calculate the peak pressure to use the equation
[ ] ( )
b e m v p
q z c v z l z q = + =
2
2
1
) ( 7 1 ) (

with the exposure factor c
e
(z) from diagram in Figure 2 and basic wind pressure q
b.
However, this requires that the orography factor c
0
and turbulence factor kI are equal
1,0.



Figure 2: Exposure factor c
e
(z) for Terrain Categories 0 to IV - the orography factor
c
0
=1,0 and turbulence factor k
I
= 1,0)


2. Wind pressure on Surface

The wind pressure acting on cladding, fixing and structural elements is obtained with
following equation:

w
e
= q
p
(z
e
) c
pe


where q
p
(z
e
) is the peak velocity pressure, z
e
is the reference height for the external
pressure and c
pe
is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure.

The wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces of a structure, w
i
, should be
obtained from the expression

w
i
= q
p
(zi ) c
pi


where q
p
(zi) is the peak velocity pressure z
i
is the reference height for the internal
pressure and c
pi
is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure in following.

Design of Buildings Wind Loading

Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Haefner - 5 -


Wind actions on structures and structural elements shall be determined taking
account of both external and internal wind pressures (Figure 3).



Figure 3: Wind pressure on Buildings suction and pressure inside and outside


2.1 Pressure coefficients for buildings

2.1.1 External Pressure
Dependent on the shape of the buildings there are different aerodynamic coefficient
to be determined. First of all, we consider for rectangular plan buildings the vertical
walls with a small height. With the crosswind dimension b and height h (Figure 4) of
the walls follows the parameter e and with the width d the ratio e/d



With the ratio e/d we divide the width d of the lateral wall to obtain the various zones
A, B, C with various c
pe
pressure coefficients for the external pressure. Furthermore,
there are windward side zone D and leeward zone E with different pressure
coefficients.

The external pressure coefficients c
pe
for buildings and parts of buildings depend on
the size of the loaded area A, which is the area of the building, which yields the wind
action. The external pressure coefficients are given for loaded areas A of 1 m
2
and
10 m
2
in the Table 2 for the ratio h/d appropriate building configurations as c
pe,1
, for
local coefficients, and c
pe,10
, for overall coefficients, respectively.

Following formula can be used for 1 m
2
< A < 10 m
2
to intercalate.

c
pe
= c
pe,1
- (c
pe,1
- c
pe,10
) log
10
A

{ } d e 2h b; min e =
Design of Buildings Wind Loading

Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Haefner - 6 -



Figure 4: Zone for Aerodynamic Coefficient of Plan Walls


Zone A B C D E
h/d c
pe,10
c
pe,1
c
pe,10
c
pe,1
c
pe,10
c
pe,1
c
pe,10
c
pe,1
c
pe,10
c
pe,1

5 -1,2 -1,4 -0,8 -1,1 -0,5 +0,8 +1,0 -0,7
1 -1,2 -1,4 -0,8 -1,1 -0,5 +0,8 +1,0 -0,5
0,25 -1,2 -1,4 -0,8 -1,1 -0,5 +0,7 +1,0 -0,3
Table 2: Values of external Pressure Coefficients for vertical walls of rectangular plan
Buildings

The reference heights, z
e
, for windward walls of rectangular plan buildings (zone D,
see Figure 5) depend on the aspect ratio h/b and are always the upper heights of the
different parts of the walls.

e = min { b; 2h}
with crosswind dimension b
Elevation e/d < 1
Elevation e/d 1 Elevation e/d 5
Design of Buildings Wind Loading

Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Haefner - 7 -



Figure 5: Reference height, z
e
, depending on h and b, and corresponding velocity pressure
profile

Further appropriate aerodynamic coefficients have to be determined for buildings with
structure elements like flat roofs, monopitch roofs, duopitch roofs, hipped roofs,
multispan roofs, vaulted roofs and domes etc. (see Eurocode 1- prEN 1991-1-4,
(2004), Section 7). There should be considered different wind direction like = 0
and = 90and/or = 180depending from the shape of the building/st ructure.
2.1.2 Internal Pressure
The internal pressure coefficient c
pi
depends on the size and distribution of the
openings in the building envelope and is determined with the following expression
and Figure 6.
openings all of area
or negative is c where openings of area
pe

=
0 , 0


Design of Buildings Wind Loading

Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Haefner - 8 -






Figure 6: Internal pressure Coefficients for uniformly distributed openings



2.2 Wind Forces with Coefficients
Wind forces on special obstacle like ad-cubes, traffic boards etc. are not considered
here and it is recommend to study Eurocode 1- prEN 1991-1-4, (2004) Section 5.3.

Furthermore, aeroelastic response should be considered for flexible structures such
as cables, masts, chimneys and bridges and is part of this lecture notes.


Design of Buildings Wind Loading

Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Haefner - 9 -


References:

Eurocode 1- prEN 1991-1-4, (2004): Actions on structures General actions Part 1-4:
Wind actions

SANS 10160-1989 (1994): South African standard code of practice for the general
procedures and loadings to be adopted in the design of buildings. The South
African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria, reprint 1994.

Goliger, A.M., (2007): South African wind loading specifications -The Euro way?; Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 95 (2007), p 1053 1064.

Holmes, J. D. (2001): Wind Loading of Structures, Spon Press, London, p 1 356.

Barnard, E. (2003): The Process of Wind Data Acquisition and Analysis, Engineering
Research, Seminar Polytechnic of Namibia, 2003.