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'Cooperative learning is the use of small groups through which students work together to accomplish shared goals and to maximise their own and others potential .' Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (ASCD 1994)
5. Group members analyse how effectively they are working together in achieving their goals.
Their findings were translated into three objectives contained within a publication in 1994 for ASCD, the main curriculum organisation in the US. This involved using collaborative learning approaches to: 1. raise achievement for all 2. include those who are gifted or academically challenged 3. give students the experiences they need for healthy social, psychological and cognitive development. Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (ASCD, 1994)
Teachers need to control less In collaborative learning the role of the teacher changes. Although pupils become the crew rather than the passengers, the teacher still remains the pilot, setting the classroom on course and ensuring that the pupils work and learn together effectively. Paradoxically, the less controlling the teacher, the better the students will perform.
The goals are different Helping young people to work and learn well together becomes an important aim in itself. In many classrooms, the underpinning goals must change, for example: to create a learning community to improve our knowledge together to help each other learn to learn how to learn together. Students need to be taught new skills The social skills for effective collaborative working must be taught to students, just as professionally and precisely as academic skills. These skills include leadership, decisionmaking, communication, building trust, and conflict management. Moving from a classroom culture where the students are totally dependent on the teacher and work individually to one where there is an emphasis on collaboration involves what Johnson and Johnson call 'disciplined effort'. They point out that it can take years for some classrooms to get it right. It can require a fundamental change in thinking, behaviour and beliefs. No one is suggesting that all learning should be collaborative. There is still a place for lessons where the teacher explains and coaches and where pupils engage in independent learning activities. Johnson and Johnson suggest that if teachers are going to establish genuinely cooperative learning, they need to use it for 60-80% of the time in their classrooms.
Teachers must foster positive interdependence The changing role of the teacher requires them to use new techniques, skills and strategies. It involves: doing more planning and design work in advance forming different kinds of groups for different purposes using different methods to compose and recompose groups
working out ground rules with students to help them move from debate and discussion to dialogue training peers to teach peers using a range of techniques such as jigsaws and carousels to promote collaborative working taking time to give more feedback on the process of learning as well as the product of learning and on how well students work together. Schools must become learning communities The idea of classrooms as learning communities goes against the grain of how most classrooms and schools actually operate. To encourage and support teachers to work more collaboratively with students, they need to experience what it is like to work in a collaborative community themselves. If teachers are expected to control less, so must school and education authority management. Many head teachers already know that top-down management does not empower teachers to create vibrant and innovative learning environments. Many schools in the UK are now using collaborative learning methods to run staff development meetings and also to help teachers become more involved in the decisions about the school. When governments are too prescriptive about classroom practice and ask for too much content to be covered, they not only reduce teachers morale but they make it more difficult for them to run their classrooms in a way that promotes collaboration. Also, when teachers are held accountable for students performance in national examinations that do not measure their ability to work together, they become more controlling and teach to the test.
http://www.journeytoexcellence.org.uk/resourcesandcpd/research/summaries/rscollaborativelearning .asp
Indigenous People
Indigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as "indigenous" according to one of the various [1] definitions of the term, though there is no universally accepted definition. In the late twentieth century, the term began to be used primarily to refer to ethnic groups that have historical ties to groups that existed in a territory prior tocolonization or formation of a nation state, and which normally preserve a degree of cultural and political separation from the mainstream culture and [2] political system of the nation state within the border of which the indigenous group is located. The political sense of the term defines these groups as particularly vulnerable to exploitation and oppression by nation states. As a result, a special set of political rights in accordance with international law have been set forth by international organizations such as the United Nations, the International Labour [3] Organization and the World Bank. The United Nations have issued a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples to protect the collective rights of indigenous peoples to their culture, identity, language, employment, health, education and natural resources. Depending on which precise definition of
"indigenous people" used, and on the census, estimates of a world total population of Indigenous people [4] [2] range from 220 million Indigenous peoples in 1997 to 350 million in 2004.
Definitions
The adjective indigenous has the common meaning of "from" or "of the original origin". Therefore, according to its meaning in common usage in English, any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as being indigenous in reference to some particular region or location. However during the late twentieth century the term Indigenous peoples evolved into a legal category that refers to culturally distinct groups that had been affected by the processes of colonization. These are usually collectives that have preserved some degree of cultural and political separation from the mainstream culture and political system that has grown to surround or dominate them economically, politically, culturally, or geographically. The status of the indigenous group in this relationship can be characterized in most instances as an effectively marginalized, isolated or minoritised one, in comparison to other groups or the nation-state as a whole. Their ability to influence and participate in the external policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands and practices is very frequently limited. This situation can persist even in the case where the indigenous population outnumbers that of the other inhabitants of the region or state; the defining notion here is one of separation from decision and regulatory processes that have some, at least titular, influence over aspects of their community and lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to variously constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the indigenous society is regulated largely by its own tradition and custom. They may be purposefully imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction; and have a measurable effect even where countered by other external influences and actions deemed to be beneficial or which serve to promote indigenous rights and interests within the wider community. A definition of "indigenous people" has criteria which includes cultural groups (and their continuity or association with a given region, or parts of a region, and who formerly or currently inhabit the region) either: