THE WORKING SUBSTANCE

DEFINITIONS:
Thermodynamics is the study of heat and work and those properties of substance that bear a relation to heat and work Working Substance a substance to which heat can be stored and from which heat can be extracted a. Pure Substance a working substance whose chemical composition remains the same even if there is a change in phase. Ex. Water, ammonia, Freon-12 b. Ideal Gas a working substance which remains in gaseous state during its operating cycle and whose equation of state is PV = mRT ; Ex. Air, O2, N2, CO2

PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE:

1. Mass and Weight Mass a property of matter that constitutes one of the fundamental physical measurements or the amount of matter a body contains. Units of mass are in lbm, slugs, kgm, or in kg. Weight the force acting on a body in a gravitational field, equal to the product of its mass and the gravitational acceleration of the field. Units of weight are in lbf, kgf, N or kN. 2. Volume Volume the amount of space occupied by, or contained in a body and is measured by the no. of cubes a body contains. Units of volume are in ft3, Gallons, liters, cm3, or m3.

3. Pressure = force per unit area. Units of pressure are measure in psi, kg/cm2, kN/m2, or in kPa.
Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Absolute Atmospheric Pressure kPaa = kPag + 101.325 Psia = Psig + 14.7 1 Atm Pressure = 0 kPag, 0 psig = 101.325 kPa = 1.033 kg/cm2 = 29.92 in Hg = 760 mm Hg = 14.7 psia 1 bar = 100 kPa Pressure of Perfect Vacuum = - 101.325 kPag = absolute zero pressure

4. Temperature
Temperature the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance Relations of Temperature Scales, oC and oF:
oC oF

= 5/9 ( oF 32 )
= 9/5oC + 32

Temperature at which molecules stop moving = - 273oC = - 460 oF Absolute Temperatures: oK = oC + 273 oR = oF + 460 Temperature Change or Temperature Difference: oC = 5/9 oF oF = 9/5 oC oK = oC oR = oF

THERMAL ENERGY VERSUS TEMPERATURE

Thermal Energy is kinetic energy in transit from one object to another due to temperature difference. (Joules) Temperature is the average kinetic energy of particles in an object not the total amount of kinetic energy particles. (Degrees)
Temperature #1 Temperature #2

Heat

TEMPERATURE SCALES
Scale Freezing Boiling point point of water of water

Celsius
Fahrenheit Kelvin
energy)

0C
32F 273K

100C
212F 373K

Matter is made up of molecules in motion (kinetic An increase in temperature increases motion A decrease in temperature decreases motion Absolute Zero occurs when all kinetic energy is removed from a object 0 K = -273 C

5. Specific Volume, Density, and Specific Weight

Density, p = Mass Volume kg/m3

Specific Volume, v = Volume = 1 m3/kg Mass p Specific Weight, w = Weight Volume kN/m3

Specific Gravity of a liquid = Density of Liquid (Relative Density) Density of Water Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 = 9.81 kN/m3 = 62.4 lb/ft3 Specific Gravity of a Gas = Density of a Gas (Relative Density) Density of Air Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3 at 101.325 kPa and 21.1 oC.

EXAMPLES:
1. A water temperature rise of 18oF in the water cooled condenser is equivalent in oC to: A. 7.78oC B. 10oC Solution: Temperature Change, oC = 5/9oF = 5/9(18) = 10oC C. 263.56oK D. -9.44oC

2. An iron block weighs 5 N and has a volume of 200 cm3. What is the density of the block?
A. 988 kg/cu.m B. 1255 kg/cu.m C. 2550 kg/cu.m D. 800 kg/cu.m

Solution:
Density = Mass Volume = 5N x 200 cm3 kg 9.81 N x (100)3cm3 m3

= 2548 kg/m3

PROBLEM SOLVING:
1. A fluid moves in a steady flow manner between two sections in a flow line. At section 1: A1 = 10 ft2, v1 = 100 fpm, v1 = 4 ft3/lb. At section 2: A2 = 2 ft2, p2 = 0.20 lb/ft3. Calculate (a) the mass flow rate and (b) the speed at section 2. 2. Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa absolute, assuming that the barometer reads 760 mm Hg: (a) 90 cm Hg gage; (b) 40 cm Hg vacuum; (c) 100 psig; (d) 8 in. Hg vacuum, and (e) 76 in. Hg gage.