Person. indirid. Of/j. Vol. 21, No. 6. pp. 1081-1084.

1996 Copyright c 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed tn Great Britain. All rights reserved 0191-8869196 $15.00+0.00 SO19b8869(96)00127-4

Sensation seeking, television viewing motives, and home television viewing patterns
Richard Potts,* Angela Dedmon and Jeff Halford

Department of Psychology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, U.S.A. (Received 3 August 1995; receivedfor publication 26 June 1996) Summary-This study examined the relationships between sensation seeking and television viewing motives and home TV viewing preferences. A total of 189 participants completed a sensation seeking scale, rated the importance of several global television viewing motives, and indicated viewing frequency for 18 categories of TV programming. Findings indicated that, contrary to previously-reported results, high sensation seekers did not watch less television or rate it as less important in their lives compared to low sensation seekers. Sensation seekers did, however, indicate several program viewing preferences. Compared to low sensation seekers, high sensation seekers watched more music videos, daytime talk shows, stand-up comedy programs, documentaries, and animated cartoons; they watched fewer newscasts and drama series. Findings are discussed in terms of selective exposure processes and social-environmental influences on behavioral manifestations of sensation seeking. Copyright 0 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd.

INTRODUCTION

Sensation seeking is defined as a need for novel, complex, and varied stimulation (Zuckerman, 1979, 1988). Considerable evidence supports the concurrent validity of a sensation seeking trait, as scores on the sensation seeking scale are predictive of a wide range ofstimulation-seeking behaviors (e.g. Horvath & Zuckerman, 1993; Zuckerman, 1979, 1988,1994). Regarding selective exposure to media content, sensation seekers should prefer intense, emotionally-evocative television program material, and/or material that presents novel and unusual content, over other less stimulating fare. The present study was an investigation of the relationship between sensation seeking and television viewing motives and home television viewing patterns. Several studies on sensation seeking and media use have been reported, although each has certain limitations. Studies that use self-report television viewing preference questionnaires, and/or laboratory channel-changing preferences measures, have found that sensation seekers preferred newscasts, erotic material, action/adventure, and horror programs, and disliked romantic fare, certain comedy fare, and musical productions (e.g. Schierman & Rowland, 1985; Zuckerman & Litle, 1986). Limitations of the questionnaire studies include the fact that only TV content preferences were assessed, not reports of actual home TV viewing behavior. The laboratory channel-changing measures have high internal validity for the study of relative content preferences, but they do not necessarily reflect naturalistic viewing patterns that routinely occur in the home environment (cf. Webster & Wakschlag, 1985). In what is perhaps the only reported study to assess the relationships between sensation seeking and home TV viewing patterns, Rowland, Fouts and Heatherton (1989) used a method in which Ss perused a schedule of the previous weeks TV listing and marked which programs they had actually viewed. No relationships were found between home TV viewing patterns and sensation seeking, except that sensation seeking was negatively related to overall weekly viewing hours. It is possible that Rowland et al.s (1989) null findings were due to the unusually low viewing level of that college student sample. Their mean of only 1 hour per day is substantially lower than estimates by audience ratings services and empirical TV viewing studies of that age group (e.g. Condry, 1989; Potts & Sanchez, 1994). It is not difficult to imagine that different communities (e.g. urban settings vs small towns) have differing options for extracurricular activities, such that some populations use TV more frequently than others, including even the high sensation seekers. While results of Rowland et al.s home viewing assessment are no doubt valid for their samples, such infrequent viewing necessarily constrains available program choices. The present study assessed home TV viewing and sensation seeking in a college sample known from previous research to report more than twice the weekly viewing hours as those in Rowland ef al.s (1989) sample, which may provide greater opportunity for observing potential relationships with a sensation seeking trait. Also, home TV viewing was assessed using a greater number of program categories than used by Rowland et al. Both of these considerations were expected to provide a more generalizable assessment of sensation seeking and TV viewing relationships than the method used by Rowland et al. In addition to individual TV viewing patterns, sensation seeking may also be related to overall motivations for using television, i.e. Why a person watches TV. Thus, the present study also assessed gratifications sought from TV by sensation seekers, using a conceptualization and method used frequently for examination of audience uses of TV in mass communication research (e.g. Finn & Gorr, 1988; Potts & Sanchez, 1994; Rubin, 1983).

METHOD

Subjects Participants were 189 college students (75 males, 114 females) from a university of about 19,000. located in a midwestern United States community with a total population of about 40,000. Ages ranged from 18 to 35 years, with a mean of 19 years, *To whom all correspondence should be addressed. 1081

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Participation was solicited through introductory psychology classes in exchange for extra credit points. S recruitment and experimental procedures complied with guidelines of the American Psychological Association for human experimentation. Ail Ss reported virtually unlimited access to cable teIevision service, which provided about 40 channels.

Participants received a questionnaire for assessment of television viewing motives and home TV viewing patterns. Eleven television viewing motives were selected from previous studies on media uses and gratifications (e.g. Potts & Sanchez, 1994; Rubin, 1983). Ss rated the importance of each viewing motive on a O-3 scale, where 0 = not an important reason, and 3 = a very important reason for viewing. A final item in this list asked Ss to rate the overall importance of TV in your life on the same O-3 scale. These 12 items are listed in Table 1. Participants indicated their home TV viewing patterns by rating the frequency with which they watched each of 18 categories of programs. These categories represented virtually all genres of commercial programming typically available, and was derived from previous program categorization schemes (Center for Research on the Influences of Television on Children, 1983; Tangney, 1988). On this instrument, each category was listed, along with several example program titles (e.g. Situation comedies. Examples: Seinfeld, Family Matters, Wings). Ss indicated typical viewing frequency of each program category on a O-3 scale, where 0 = almost never; 1 = occasionally; 2 = fairly often; and 3 = very often. Ss also estimated their overall weekly viewing total. The 18 viewing categories are listed in Table 2. Validity of the home TV viewing instrument was established in an independent sample of 93 persons for the same college population. Ss in the validation sample first responded to the program category viewing assessment just described. Next they were given photocopied pages from the local television schedule for the preceding week, and they marked which programs they had actually watched. Correlations were examined between the frequency ratings (0,1.2,or 3) on the program category viewing instrument and the number of programs actually viewed from the corresponding categories. Statistically significant positive correlations were found for 16 of the 19 TV program categories, and ranged from 0.18 to 0.65 (for 14 categories, P < 0.01; for two categories, P<O.O5), and averaged 0.35. Participants also completed a sensation seeking scale (Form V; Zuckerman, 1979). They were given the sensation seeking measure and the TV motives and program viewing questionnaire in small groups of between two and IO; the order of questionnaires alternated between groups. All were able to complete the materials in less than I hour.

Table

I. Regression

analyses

of television

viewing

motives

Predictors: Motive:
Entertainment Relaxation Information Passing To To To To the time others things problems from topics be with get away avoid

Mean
2.69 2.28 2.00 1.90 1.60

(SD)
(0.58) (0.89) (0.83) (0.99) (1.02) (0.96) (1.10) (I .05) (0.97) (0.95) (I .06) (0.83)

Age
-0.20*** -0.03 0.20*** -0.12 -0.20*** 0.26**** 0.07 0.11 0.08 0.12 -0.18** -0.01

Sex
0.11 0.04 0.01 -0.01 -0.04 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.07 -0.02 -0.01 0.10

ss
0.03 -0.06 - 0.06 -0.04 0.01 0.11 - 0.06 -0.03 0.01 -0.07 -0.04 -0.05

ss X Sex
-0.15 -0.11 -0.03 0.02 -0.04 -0.01 0.02 -0.05 -0.09 0.01 -0.01 -0.06

see unconventional depression

I .36 I .35
1.15 1.11 1.08 1.02 1.54

Conversation

To learn about human relationships To get away from people

Overall importance

***p *P < 0.05; l *P < 0.01; ***fJ < 0.005; l

< 0.001

Note: Predictor coefficients are part correlations.

Table 2. Regression

analyses

of television

program

preferences Predictors

Program Movies Situation sports Music Late soap Comedy Game

type:

Mean 2.18

(SD) (0.73) (0.84) (I .07) (1.03) (0.80) (0.96) (1.01) (1.28) (I .OO) (0.98) (0.93) (1.11) (0.81) (0.92) ( .02) (0.93) (0.94) (0.93)

Age 0.02 -0.01 -0.09 -0.08 0.19** -0.04 -0.07 -0.16** 0.01 0.01 -0.08 0.08 0.20** -0.01 -0.01 0.38*** -0.03 0.08

Sex 0.05 0.01 0.10 -0.01 0.08 0.02 -0.05 -0.18 0.26**** 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.11 0.02 -0.18** 0.19*** 0.06 - 0.07

ss 0.09 -0.04 -0.02 0.18* -0.141 -0.06 0.131 -0.04 0.27**** -0.02 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.01 -0.13 0.26**** 0.15* -0.05

SS x Sex -0.04 -0.04 0.01 0.0 I 0.06 -0.01 0.07 0.02 -0.24*** 0.02 -0.06 -0.04 -0.15 - 0.03 0.07 -0.16** -0.06 0.04

comedy videos

2.15 1.86 1.85 1.70 I .52 I .46 1.30

Newscasts night opera performance show talk talk Daytime

1.25
I .26 1.24 I.12 I.11 I .08 I .09 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.01:

Police/rescue Action/adventure Newsmagazine Expose/scandal Drama Documentaries Cartoons Morning P < 0.05; talk

**p <

l **p< o.o05;****P< 0.001

are part correlations.

Now:

Predictor

coefficients

Notes

and Shorter

Communications

1083

RESULTS

Multiple regression analyses were used to examine relationships between each dependent variable (I 1 TV viewing motives, overall TV importance rating, 18 TV program category viewing scores, total weekly TV viewing hours) and a set of predictors including age. gender, sensation seeking, and the interaction of sensation seeking and gender, which were entered into the regression equation simultaneously. The remaining interaction terms were not of theoretical interest and not included as predictors. This regression model allowed examination of the independent variance contributed by each predictor of interest cited by previous researchers (e.g. Rowland et al., 1989) but avoided the necessity of artificial groupings of continuous scores (e.g. high, medium, and low sensation seekers). However, for interpretation of significant Gender x Sensation seeking interactions, means of high. medium, and low sensation seeking groups within each gender were calculated.
Television ciewing motices

Part correlations and significance levels for predictors of each TV viewing motive are listed in Table 1, Sensation seeking was not related to any TV viewing motives, with the exception that the interaction of Gender x Sensation seeking was a significant predictor of the motive viewing for entertainment. On that measure. mean ratings of importance for low. medium, and high sensation seeking males were 2.7, 2.6, and 2.4. respectively. and for females, 2.7, 2.8, and 2.8, respectively. Thus, sensation seeking was generally unrelated to different TV viewing motives. In particular, there was no relation between sensation seeking and Ss ratings of the importance of TV in their lives.

Part correlations and significance levels for predictors of each TV viewing category are listed in Table 2. In addition to age and gender differences in several viewing categories, sensation seeking was significantly related to several viewing preferences. Sensation seeking was a significant positive predictor of viewing of documentaries, music videos, daytime talk shows. stand-up comedy performance programs, and animated cartoons; it was a negative predictor of viewing of newscasts and drama programs. Additionally, significant Gender x Sensation seeking interactions were found for viewing of news magazine programs. documentaries, and stand-up comedy performance. For news magazine programs, means for low, medium, and high sensation seeking males were I .O. 1.2. and 0.8. respectively, and for females, 1.O, 1.4, and 1.2, respectively. For documentaries, means for low, medium, and high sensation seeking males were 0.9, I .2. and 0.9, respectively, and for females, 0.4, 0.7, and 0.9. respectively. For stand-up comedy performance. means for low. medium, and high sensation seeking males were I .7, I .5, and 1.2, respectively, and for females, 0.6, I. I, and I .6, respectively. The total weekly viewing hours estimated by this sample was 18.5 (SD = I l.5), or about 2.6 hours per day. An additional overall viewing index was created by summing the program category viewing scores (C&3) across all 18 categories; the mean of this score was 24.5 (SD = 6.8). and was significantly correlated with total viewing hours, r = 0.41,~ < 0.001. No significant relationship was observed between any predictor and either of these overall TV viewing indices.

DISCUSSION

In a recent text summarizing many years of research on sensation seeking. Zuckerman (1994) states Clearly, television is of lesser interest than other life activities to high sensation seekers (p. 209). a conclusion apparently based on the findings of Rowland e/ al. (1989). Schierman and Rowland (1985). and Zuckerman and Litle (1986). The present findings offer evidence contrary to this conclusion, and indicate that a low regard for television by high sensation seekers is not so clearly established. Analyses of measures of overall TV use and importance to viewers indicated no relationship with sensation seeking. Thus, high sensation seekers in this sample watch as much TV and regard it as equally important in their lives as low sensation seekers. Differences in the local culture and environment may partially explain the discrepancy between these findings and those of Rowland et ui. (1989). Limitations on available extracurricular activities, cultural events, recreational attractions, and the like may result in more TV viewing by high sensation seekers compared to those living in more enriched locations. Both Arnett (1995) and Farley (1991) have discussed mechanisms by which the immediate cultural and social environment may determine behavioral manifestations of a sensation seeking disposition. Unlike the findings of Rowland el al. (1989). sensation seeking was related to specific TV viewing preferences in the present study. Sensation seekers tended to watch more music videos, dayttme talk shows, stand-up comedy programs (females only), documentaries, and animated cartoons, and watched fewer newscasts and drama programs, compared to low sensation seekers. Several of these relationships are in accordance with previous research findings or sensation seeking theory. Music videos offer up-tempo rock music and highly stylized, often sexual, images (Litle & Zuckerman, 1986). Daytime talk shows offer presentation of unusual lifestyles with audience participation that is often confrontational, which may be congruent with the social disinhibition component of sensation seeking. Documentaries offer presentation of potentially novel people, places, and other material that may not appear frequently in entertainment fictional programming. Schierman and Rowland (1985) reported that sensation seekers enjoyed non-fiction print media: TV documentaries can be seen as the electronic analogue to that preference. Comedy performance programs and animated cartoons offer humorous material, of which certain types are preferred by sensation seekers, such as sexual humour, which is often the topic of stand-up comedy routines, and non-sensical humor, which is typical of animated cartoons (Ruth, 1988; Zuckerman. 1994). Some predictions based on theory and previous empirical reports were not supported. Of perhaps most significance was a negative relationship between sensation seeking and news viewing. which is contrary to the positive relationship reported by Schierman and Rowland (1985). This is somewhat surprising, considering that TV newscasts often feature violence, conflict, and other unusual and out-of-the-ordinary content. Future research is indicated for investigation of what aspects of TV newscasts are considered appealing or unappealing to sensation seekers. Additionally, sensation seekers did not report preferential viewing of exciting action/adventure programs, sports events, or videorealism police/rescue programs. While they may choose such programs over less-desirable options in forced-choice, selective exposure situations (e.g. Schierman & Rowland, 1985). there does not appear to be a special preference for these types of TV programs in a home viewing setting. The significance of personality correlates on media preferences is that cumulative social learning effects of trait-influenced selective exposure might be expected across years of TV viewing (e.g. Bandura, 1986; Weaver, 1991; Wober, 1986). However,

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the present findings suggest that sensation seekers do not appear to shun television viewing in favor of other more dramatic
and exciting activities, nor are their typical viewing patterns substantially different from those of non-sensation-seekers.

REFERENCES

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