Select and Erect Terrestrial Antennas PDF

Select and Erect Terrestrial Antennas
7. Select and Erect Terrestrial Antennas

A Learning Object in support of the Certificate II in Antennae Equipment UEE21205 from the National Electrotechnology Training Package UEE05
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NSW Department of Education and Training (DET) 2006 All rights reserved. This work is copyright to NSW Department of Education and Training. Permission is given to trainers and teachers to make copies by photocopying or other duplicating processes for use within their own training organisations, or in a workplace where training is being conducted. This permission does not extend to the resale of this material to third parties, the making of copies for use outside the immediate training environment for which they are made, and the use of the materials for hire. Outside these guidelines, all material is subject to copyright under the Copyright Act. 1968 (Commonwealth) and permission must be obtained in writing from the NSW Department of Education and Training. Disclaimer The views expressed in this work do not necessarily represent the views of the NSW Department of Education and Training. The NSW Department of Education and Training does not give warranty nor accept any liability in relation to the content of this work. Acknowledgment This work has been produced initially with the assistance of funding provided by the NSW Department of Education and Training, Training Development Unit, through the Training Resources & Support Program with advice from the Product Advisory Committee.
Resource Development Team David Neyle, Systems Lightship People
Product Advisory Committee Mike Horne, ElectroSkills Centre Peter Bowd, NSW TAFE Naomi Dinnen, NSW UEITAB Deborah Griffin, NSW DET Giselle Mawer, Giselle Mawer and Associates
Technical Reference Committee George Kozak Stephen Creese, Matchmaster P e t e r O C o n n o r , F o x t e l Graham La Motte, NSW TAFE OTEN
Copyright Acknowledgements The assistance of Matchmaster is acknowledged in the production of this learning object.
Further copies of this resource are available from: Website: www.skillsonline.net.au For further contact: Email: skillsonline@det.nsw.edu.au information,
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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 4 LEARNING OUTCOMES ................................................................ 5 MAPPING TO TRAINING PACKAGE............................................. 6 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION................................................ 7
FREQUENCY ....................................................................................................7 W AVELENGTH ..................................................................................................8 SIGNAL P ROPAGATION ......................................................................................8 SIGNAL POLARISATION ....................................................................................11
BASIC ANTENNAS....................................................................... 12
THE DIPOLE ...................................................................................................12 PRACTICAL ANTENNAS ....................................................................................14 ANTENNA C HARACTERISTICS ...........................................................................15 COMMERCIAL ANTENNAS .................................................................................16
FREE-TO-AIR (FTA) TELEVISION SIGNAL STANDARDS ......... 20

ANALOG TELEVISION STANDARDS ....................................................................20 DIGITAL TELEVISION S TANDARDS .....................................................................21 RADIO FREQUENCY ........................................................................................23 TV BANDS AND F REQUENCIES IN AUSTRALIA .....................................................24 DIGITAL C OMPATIBILITY WITH ANALOG INSTALLATIONS .......................................26 CARRIER TO NOISE RATIO ...............................................................................31 FREE AIR ATTENUATION ..................................................................................32
REQUIRED SIGNAL LEVEL AT ANTENNA................................. 34

ANALOG SIGNAL LEVELS .................................................................................34 DIGITAL SIGNAL LEVELS ..................................................................................34 SUMMARY OF REQUIRED TV SIGNAL FACTORS ..................................................36
BALUNS........................................................................................ 37 COMBINING ANTENNAS ............................................................. 38

ANTENNA SEPARATION ...................................................................................39 INCREASING GAIN...........................................................................................41 SITE SURVEY .................................................................................................42
CONCLUSION............................................................................... 45 SELF ASSESSMENT.................................................................... 46

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Introduction
When you look at the rooftop level of any suburb you will see TV antennas mounted on a variety of styles of hardware. As you move from place to place, between city and rural areas, you will notice that the design of the antenna varies. Sometimes the elements are longer or shorter. Sometimes the
boom length will be very long, or the antenna will be mounted very high on a guyed mast. In some regions the antenna is mounted sideways, in others it lies parallel with the ground. There are
specific and good reasons why various styles and designs of TV antennas are used throughout Australia. The careful selection and installation of the correct antenna (or antennas) for the location you are working in will ensure a satisfactory TV picture, whether it is for the older analog system, or the newer digital TV system. It is also important that you
understand some basic concepts about how television signals are transmitted and received, as this will determine the types of antenna system components you will use to ensure a satisfactory installation. This Learning Object will introduce you to the different factors that influence the design of TV antennas so that you can correctly select or specify the requirements for antennas that you use in installations.
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LEARNING OUTCOM ES
When you have completed this Learning Object you will be able to: Describe in simple terms the concepts of frequency and wavelength. Name different types of TV antenna. Describe the characteristics and differences between analog and digital free-to-air television signals. State the frequency bands used for television transmission in Australia and the lower and upper frequencies that a TV installation must be designed for. Perform simple calculations using decibels. Describe how RF travels through free space and the causes of signal attenuation. State the required signal levels at the output of the antenna necessary to receive a high quality picture. Perform an antenna site survey. Calculate the required antenna gain based upon the results of a site survey. Select an appropriate antenna for the site at which it is to be installed. Describe the use of diplexers and baluns. Position multiple antennas.
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Self Assessment
After reading through this Learning Object you will find a series of questions that you should attempt. This will enable you to check your level of understanding and knowledge before progressing onto your workplace assessment. You should not request a workplace assessment unless you have attempted these questions, checked your answers, and are confident that you can achieve a satisfactory outcome.
Recognition of Prior Learning

If you believe you are already competent in the content of this Learning Object then you should check yourself out with the Self Assessment questions and then request a workplace assessment.
M apping to Training Package

This learning object provides knowledge and skills for parts/aspects of the following Unit of Competence: UEENEEH008A Assemble and erect reception antennae and signal distribution equipment
In particular, it addresses the following Essential Knowledge and Skills from the Training Package UEE05: 2.10.14(a) 2.10.15(a) 2.10.15(b) 2.10.15(c) 2.10.15(d) The common reception. difficulties associated with TV
Propagation of radio waves from a transmitter to a receiver. Characteristics of antenna systems. Selection of applications. antennae systems for various
Installation techniques for antenna to receiver and antennae to transmitter transmission and distribution systems.
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Electromagnetic Radiation
A television signal transmitted from any site is a form of electromagnetic radiation; this radiation has both an electric and magnetic field component and as such is induced into most metallic objects. However a receiving a n t e n n at h a ti s t u n e d t ot h e
frequency of the transmitter will be much more effective in the reception of signal able to be used by a receiver or processed by a distribution system. It is for this reason that the elements of antennas are of different lengths, depending upon the frequency they must receive.
Frequency
Electromagnetic radiation is measured according to the number of times the signal changes per second; one cycle change per second is known as one Hertz (Hz), one thousand changes per second is one Kilohertz (kHz), one million changes per second is one Megahertz (MHz) and one billion changes per second is one Gigahertz (GHz).
1 sec
Time
A one Hertz signal: a singlesine wave cycle in one second.
Fig 7.1: 1 Hz wavelength
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Wavelength
The distance an electromagnetic wave travels in the course of one cycle is known as the wavelength. Since electromagnetic radiation travels at the speed of light (300,000,000metres/second) the wavelength can be calculated as follows: Wavelength (metres) = 300 divided by the frequency in MHz (You may also see this formula written as: = 300 / f )
This means that the wavelength of a 300MHz signal is 1 metre It follows that the lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength and the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength. Example Channel 28 has a vision carrier frequency of 527.25MHz. wavelength is therefore 300 527.25 = 0.57 metres. The
Task 7.1 What is the wavelength of Digital Ch 9a, which has a centre frequency of 205.5MHz? ________________________
Signal Propagation
Electromagnetic signals radiated from a transmitter can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted as the signal travels through the atmosphere. Reflection Reflection occurs when the electromagnetic energy hits an object and some of the energy is then reflected away at an angle.
Solid
Fig 7.2: Reflection
Large buildings (skyscrapers), mountains and hills, and even passing aircraft, can cause reflections of TV signals, and are the ma j o r c a u s eo f g h o s t i n g . Ghosting When a TV signal is reflected the TV antenna may receive two of the same signals, the second arriving slightly later (because of the longer path length) and at a lower signal strength. The more c o r r e c t t e r mf o r g h o s t i n gi s mu l t i p a t h i n g .O na na n a l o gT Vt h i s causes a second image to appear slightly beside the main picture. (Digital TV is not affected by ghosting, and in fact a multipath signal can actually enhance digital reception.) The selection of an appropriate model of TV antenna that has a high front-to-back ratio (for ghost signals coming in from the rear of the antenna) or an antenna with a narrow acceptance angle (for ghost signals coming in from the sides) will help to deal with ghosting problems. Refraction Refraction occurs when the signal passes through a change of density/temperature of the atmosphere. This results in a bending or refraction of the signal as it passes through that layer. Lower
frequencies (HF) are more susceptible to this than higher frequencies (VHF and UHF).
Fig 7.3: Refraction
On rare occasions refraction can cause TV signals to travel much further than the intended coverage area, causing interference to local TV stations. (TV channel allocations in different regions have been carefully selected to minimise the problems caused by refraction.) Diffraction Diffraction occurs when the signal grazes the edge of an object (e.g. the tops of mountains) and tends to bend around that edge. ( T h es a mee f f e c t e x p l a i n sh o wy o uc a ns e eac a r sh e a d l i g h t so v e r the crest of a hill before you see the main headlight beam come into view.)
Fig 7.4: Diffraction
Even though VHF and UHF signals travel in straight lines (line of sight) it also explains why hilly areas can still receive some signal,
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even though the receiver is somewhat shadowed from the transmitter.
Signal Polarisation
During particular atmospheric conditions (usually caused by r e f r a c t i o n , a l s ok n o w na s d u c t i n g )a T Vs i g n a l c a nt r a v e l mu c h further than normally intended. If the different TV signals are on the same frequency they will cause a distorted picture on the analog receiver. To help avoid this problem some signals are transmitted with horizontal polarisation and others are transmitted with vertical polarisation. A correctly polarised TV antenna will reject the
unwanted signal by approximately 20dB. Capital cities in Australia usually have horizontally polarised signals, and many regional areas have vertically polarised signals. (In
regional Australia it is quite common to see a combination of vertical and horizontally polarised antennas used at the one location to receive the full complement of available signals.) Polarisation is defined by the plane that the elements of the antenna are in. If the elements are horizontal, then the antenna is receiving a horizontally polarised signal. The opposite is true for vertically polarised signals.
The three issues of reflection, refraction and diffraction can have an impact on antenna selection for television reception. TV antenna designs and characteristics are covered in the following sections.
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Basic Antennas
The Dipole
It was mentioned previously that the wavelength of a 300MHz signal is 1 metre; if a metal rod was cut to a length of 50cm this would correspond to one half wavelength at 300MHZ. A 300MHz signal would induce a voltage and current into the rod as shown in Figure 4.5.
Fig 7.5 Voltage and current distribution
The induced voltage is maximum and opposite at the ends and minimum at the centre, while the current is minimum at the ends and maximum at the centre. The frequency at which this occurs is called the resonant frequency and the rod is a resonant half wave dipole. In practice, the dipole would be cut in the middle and connected to a feeder as shown; a signal can now be fed to a receiver from this dipole.
wavelength dipole. Transmission line to receiver. ~ 70 ohms impedance. Fig 7.6: Basic Dipole
The connection point to this basic antenna has an impedance of approximately 70 ohms at the resonant frequency and would
require connection to a balanced 70 ohm feeder cable. the dipole is approximately 300 ohms (balanced).
If the
a n t e n n ai s f o l d e d , a s s h o w nb e l o w , t h e i mp e d a n c ea t t h ec e n t r eo f
wavelength folded dipole. Transmission line to receiver.
300 ohms impedance
Fig 7.7: Basic Folded Dipole
I nmo s t c a s e s , c o n n e c t i o nt oas t a n d a r d7 5 c o a x i a l c a b l er e q u i r e s the use of a balun (covered later in this Learning Object). Characteristics of the Dipole Antenna Directivity A simple dipole will receive signals from either direction (at right angles to the dipole). This receiving performance (or the strength of the received signal at different angles of incidence) is known as directivity and is specified by a polar diagram.
Fig 7.8: Simple dipole antenna and a graphic representation showing which direction it receives signal from. (A polar diagram.)
The receiving characteristic of a simple half wave dipole is used as standard and is used to compare the directivity of more complicated receiving antennas.
Practical antennas
Parasitic Elements The receiving performance of a simple dipole can be modified by the presence of additional elements adjacent to the dipole. The dipole connected to the feeder cable is called the driven element, while elements not connected to the feeder are called parasitic elements. A parasitic element slightly shorter than the driven
element and placed in front of it will reinforce the pick-up from the forward direction; it is known as a director. A parasitic element slightly longer than the driven element and placed behind it will also help to reinforce the pick-up from the forward direction and reduce the pick-up from the rear. This element is known as a reflector.
Driven Element
Reflector
An antenna such as this combining a driven element with a director and reflector is known as a Yagi antenna; the name is applied to many variations of this basic design. Any number of directors can be used but only one reflector or reflecting system is used for any one frequency.
Director
Fig 7.9: Changing the directivity of a basic dipole by the addition of a director and reflector.
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Example of a Yagi antenna, showing one rear reflector and a number of directors.
If a parasitic element is positioned very close to the driven element, variations of its length and its distance from the driven element will modify the current distribution in the driven element. By doing this, the driven element can be made resonant over a particular range of frequencies and its impedance can be changed. A parasitic element used in this way is referred to as a resonator or phasing element.
Fig 7.10: Shown here is a typical polar diagram for a Yagi antenna. It has a large forward receiving lobe and a small rear lobe. This gives it increased output signal power compared to a basic dipole. It also gives it an ability to reject undesired signals coming from the rear of the antenna.
Antenna Characteristics
As well as the frequency range covered (the channels that the antenna can receive) there are two other characteristics of the antenna that you, as an installer, will be interested in. These are: Gain, and Front-to-Back ratio Gain The gain of an antenna is the power of the signal received by the antenna compared to that received by a reference dipole; this is
expressed as a ratio in dB. The gain of the antenna determines the amount of signal captured by the antenna from the atmosphere. Front-to-Back Ratio. The Front-to-Back ratio of an antenna is the ratio of the signal received when the back of the antenna is facing the transmitter, compared to the signal received when the front of the antenna is facing the transmitter. Front-to-Back ratio is measured in dB; it is a me a s u r eo f t h ea n t e n n a sa b i l i t y t or e j e c t u n w a n t e dr e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s being received from the rear. A good (high) front-to-back ratio is important if you are experiencing problems with ghosting.
Commercial Antennas
Commercial antennas are available to receive VHF/UHF signals in a variety of forms. Common types are: Yagi, Collinear or Phased array, and Log Periodic. Yagi Yagis always comprise reflectors (longest element at the rear), the driven element or dipole (the element where the connection is made), and directors (short elements at the front). The more
elements incorporated into the antenna, the more signal received by the driven element. When fitted with several directors these antennas are very directional. Yagi antennas are available for use on VHF and UHF frequencies. UHF Yagi antennas can be
recognised by their short elements usually 140mm to 300mm long. S o me mo d e l sa r e c o mb o a n t e n n a sw i t hV H Fa n dU H Fy a g i s combined on a single boom (although the interaction of the antennas does reduce the gain somewhat). These are common in metropolitan domestic use where both VHF and UHF channels are required, signal strength is good, and they reduce the installation cost.
VHF Yagi
UHF Yagi
Combination VHF/UHF Yagi
Phased Array A phased array is based on two collinear half wave dipoles arranged as a pair in phase (so that the signals add together). (The t e r m c o l l i n e a r me a n s a r r a n g e di no n el i n e ;t h i s me a n st h a ta collinear element may comprise several half-wave elements all in one line.) Phased arrays are available for VHF and UHF bands and when stacked provide high gain and good anti-ghosting properties.
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A typical 4 bay phased array is shown below left.
VHF Horizontally Polarised Phased Array
UHF Vertically Polarised Phased Array
Log Periodic A log periodic antenna is recognisable by the tapered length of the elements and the cross connection of the closely spaced dipoles. The gain of log periodics is relatively low, however they offer wideband performance and relatively constant gain over the frequencies they are designed to receive.
A combination VHF-UHF Log Periodic
Log periodics exhibit relatively flat gain and have become popular for digital TV reception, especially in regional and rural areas. (The flatness in gain helps ensure good multiplex flatness covered later in this Learning Object.)
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Task 7.2 Ask your Workplace Trainer to demonstrate to you a range of TV antennas used in your locality. Identify whether they are Yagis, Phased Arrays, or Log Periodics. Then identify whether they are VHF, UHF, or combination antennas. Variations on the Theme Yagis, phased arrays, and log periodics all have variations that designers have developed and are marketed by the various antenna manufacturers. Sometimes the reflector is of a more solid s t y l e , o r i s a n g l e d( a s i nt h e c o r n e r r e f l e c t o r s t y l e ) . It can be difficult at times to classify these more unusual designs, however they will almost always be one of the three basic types described in this Learning Object.
Corner reflector
Corner reflector UHF Yagi
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FREE-T O-AIR (FTA) TELEVISION SIG NAL STANDARDS

There are currently two standards for television broadcasting in Australia: Analog PAL, and Digital DVB standards.
Analog Television Standards

Analog television has been the regular standard for television transmission and reception that we have used since TV was introduced into Australia in 1956. The analog signal was slightly modified with the addition of colour transmission in 1975. At the television studio, the luminance signal (black/white level), the chrominance signal (colour), and the audio signal (stereo FM s o u n d ) a r emi x e dt o g e t h e r t oma k et h er a w b a s e b a n ds i g n a l .I f you looked at this signal on a spectrum analyser it would look like the picture shown below:
Fig. 7.11: 7 MHz Analog TV signal
Important points to note about this analog signal are: The bandwidth of the total signal is restricted to 7MHz The Vision Carrier (luminance) is at 1.25MHz The Sound Carrier (shown here as Stereo Carriers) is transmitted at a level of 13dB less than the Vision Carrier.
This is the standard for Australia. Other countries have different standards. A disadvantage of analog television is that it can suffer from interference that degrades the picture. An advantage is that even with a low or poor signal you may still receive an image on the TV screen, although it will be grainy or lacking in colour quality.
Digital Television Standards

Analog television is being phased out in Australia and replaced by Digital services. The baseband signal of digital television looks very different to an analog signal. It is composed of many individual carriers (6817 in total) with integral error correction, and the ability to carry extra services other than just the vision, colour and sound for the TV picture. It is beyond the scope of this course to explain how the coded digital signal is generated or converted back to a TV picture. However you should understand some of the basic characteristics of the signal. If you looked at this signal on a spectrum analyser it would look like the picture shown below:
6817 individual carriers (too many to be able to see individually)
7 MHz Wide
Fig 7.12: 7 MHz Digital TV Signal
The bandwidth of the signal remains 7MHz. bandwidth as an analog signal.
This is the same
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Digital television has the advantage that it produces a virtually perfect image and sound if the quality of the signal is acceptable. Poor signal will result in no picture (or sometimes cause freezing of the picture or pixilation, which is actually an inbuilt feature of the digital decoder as it tries to maintain something on the screen). A (potential) disadvantage of digital TV is that you basically either have a perfect picture or no picture. Impulse Noise On an analog picture impulse noise appears as a series of regular sparkles on the screen. You may be familiar with interference that can appear when kitchen appliances such as electric blenders are being used. The arcing of the brushes in the motor causes this interference. Another source of impulse noise is poorly designed switchmode power supplies in consumer appliances. Impulse noise can cause dropout of digital TV reception. Wellshielded components and coaxial cable can help reduce this problem. If you can see significant impulse noise on an analog picture it is worthwhile tracking down the source, otherwise customers are likely to complain about poor digital TV reception. Digital Cliff As the signal strength reduces, the effect of the background electrical noise becomes worse. (This is more correctly known as the Carrier to Noise Ratio and is covered in more detail later.) On an analog TV picture we see this as snow (noise) and colour drop out. However on a digital picture we do not see this degradation in picture quality the picture simply freezes or presents a blank screen. The signal level at which this complete loss of picture Just because you have a occurs is called the digital cliff.
watchable digital picture this does not mean that the signal strength is adequate. The digital receiver may be operating right on the threshold of the digital cliff. Anything that introduces minor signal loss (e.g. rain) can cause the signal level to fall over the digital cliff. Digital signals need to be measured with a signal strength meter,
just as analog signals do, to ensure satisfactory long-term performance.
Fig 4.13:
Experiment: Your Workplace Trainer may demonstrate the Digital Cliff Effect to you if the necessary equipment is available at your site.
Radio Frequency
Both analog and digital TV signals are upconverted to higher frequencies so that a number of TV signals can be transmitted simultaneously. 820MHz. Radio Frequency (RF) signals behave very differently to direct current or 50Hz AC. What may appear to be a short circuit at DC can behave very differently at RF. Tight bends in coaxial cable can act as inductors and capacitors, degrading the signal. Poorly In Australia, free-to-air (FTA) TV can be transmitted at frequencies ranging from 45MHz through to
shielded components become transmitters, causing further signal loss. Because UHF Bands are increasingly being used for free-to-air TV in Australia it is important that you learn and follow the principles contained in this Learning Object and the companion learning
materials if you are to ensure a trouble-free high quality TV antenna installation. Frequencies between 30MHz and 300MHz are known as Very High Frequencies (VHF). These are TV Bands I, II and III, and TV
antennas for these Bands are relatively large, with long elements. Frequencies between 300MHz and 3,000MHz (3GHz) are known as Ultra High Frequency (UHF). These are TV bands IV and V, and TV antennas for these Bands have short elements (although they may have long booms in order to maximise the signal received).
TV Bands and Frequencies in Australia

The following table may assist you in your role as a TV antenna installer.
Channel No. Vision MHz Sound MHz Freq Limits (MHz) Digital Centre Freq
Band I 0 1 2 Band II 3 4 5
Out-of-Band
46.25 57.25 64.25 86.25 95.25 102.25 138.25 175.25 182.25 189.25 196.25 209.25 216.25 223.25 -
51.75 62.75 69.75 91.75 100.75 107.75 143.75 180.75 187.75 194.75 201.75 214.75 221.75 228.75 -
45 - 52 56 - 63 63 - 70 85 - 92 94 - 101 101 - 108 137 - 144 174 - 181 181 - 188 188 - 195 195 - 202 202 - 209 208 - 215 209 - 216 215 - 222 216 - 223 222 - 229 223 - 230
177.50 184.50 191.50 198.50 205.50 212.50 219.50 226.50
5a Band III 6 7 8 9 9a digital 10 analog 10 digital 11 analog 11 digital 12 analog 12 digital
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Channel No.
Vision MHz
Sound MHz
Freq Limits (MHz)
Digital Centre Freq
Band IV 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 (Band V 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
527.25 534.25 541.25 548.25 555.25 562.25 569.25 576.25 583.25 590.25 597.25 604.25 611.25 618.25 625.25 632.25 639.25 646.25 653.25 660.25 667.25 674.25 681.25 688.25 695.25 702.25 709.25 716.25 723.25 730.25 737.25 744.25 751.25 758.25 765.25 772.25 779.25 786.25 793.25 800.25 807.25 814.25
532.75 539.75 546.75 553.75 560.75 567.75 574.75 581.75 588.75 595.75 602.75 609.75 616.75 623.75 630.75 637.75 644.75 651.75 658.75 665.75 672.75 679.75 686.75 693.75 700.75 707.75 714.75 721.75 728.75 735.75 742.75 749.75 756.75 763.75 770.75 777.75 784.75 791.75 798.75 805.75 812.75 819.75
526 - 533 533 - 540 540 - 547 547 - 554 554 - 561 561 - 568 568 - 575 575 - 582 582 - 589 589 - 596 596 - 603 603 - 610 610 - 617 617 - 624 624 - 631 631 - 638 638 - 645 645 - 652 652 - 659 659 - 666 666 - 673 673 - 680 680 - 687 687 - 694 694 - 701 701 - 708 708 - 715 715 - 722 722 - 729 729 - 736 736 - 743 743 - 750 750 - 757 757 - 764 764 - 771 771 - 778 778 - 785 785 - 792 792 - 799 799 - 806 806 - 813 813 - 820
529.50 536.50 543.50 550.50 557.50 564.50 571.50 578.50 585.50 592.50 599.50 606.50 613.50 620.50 627.50 634.50 641.50 648.50 655.50 662.50 669.50 676.50 683.50 690.50 697.50 704.50 711.50 718.50 725.50 732.50 739.50 746.50 753.50 760.50 767.50 774.50 781.50 788.50 795.50 802.50 809.50 816.50
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Digital Compatibility with Analog Installations

In the capital city areas the digital channels are being allocated next to the existing analog channels. For example, Ch9 analog is
broadcast on Ch8 digital. Therefore, in this case, a well designed and installed antenna and distribution system will work for digital if it works for analog. (N.B. The ABC is being transmitted on CH12 digital in most capital cities, so the existing antenna must have a bandwidth wide enough to receive this channel.) In rural and regional areas the new digital channels may not necessarily be in the same band or even transmitted from the same location. The website for Digital
Broadcasting Australia (DBA) [www.dba.org.au] can provide details of the frequencies and transmitter locations for digital broadcast channels. The introduction of digital television into your area may require an u p g r a d eo f t h ec u s t o me r se x i s t i n gT Va ntenna installation. Many older antenna and distribution systems will require upgrading due to poor cable quality, poor connections, and low quality distribution components. Good installations deliver a quality signal to the digital decoder, which should ensure trouble-free viewing.
Signal Strength Levels and Attenuation (dB V and dBs)

It is common practice in telecommunications to use logarithmic numbers to simplify calculations of signal strength. This practice has also been adopted in the allied industry of television transmission and reception. A Bit of Mathematics Logarithms are handy because we can use addition and subtraction to make calculations (rather than multiplication and division if the numbers are expressed as their true value). dBs are a logarithmic ratio.
dBs for Voltage In the TV industry we use a logarithmic ratio of voltage because the power levels are so small. The formula for calculating dBs when working with voltage ratios is:
x dB = 20 log Vo Vin
In the following example we have an amplifier, with the voltages shown at its input and output. We can calculate the gain of the amplifier.
0.1 mV
2 mV
20 log (2 mV 0.1mV) = 26dB gain
In the next example we have a circuit that has an attenuator in the line (it could be a length of coaxial cable). When we measure the input and output voltages we calculate a loss of 6dB.
500 V
1 mV
20 log (500 V 1mV) = - 6dB gain or 6 dB loss
Exercise 7.3 Calculate the gain in dB of the following systems: 300 Vi n p u t , 2 mVo u t p u t =?. d B 5 mVi n p u t , 2mVo u t p u t =?. . d B You will need a calculator with a logarithm function to answer these questions. There is a scientific calculator available in Microsoft Windows if you need one.
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For interest only: When working with power, the formula for calculating dBs is different. It is: x dB = 10 log
Po Pin
Regardless of whether working with voltages or power, the gain (or loss) still gives the same value in dB.
Adding and Subtracting Gains When we have a distribution system, such as a TV antenna distribution network made up of: o Antenna with gain o Masthead amplifier with gain o Cable with loss o Splitters with loss o Other active and passive devices, we can easily just add and subtract the gains of the component that make up the network.
Gain = 10 + 20 -8 -4 = 18dB
Fig 7.14: Example of calculating gain in a system.
This is why using dBs is preferable to using actual values the calculations become simple arithmetic.
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dB V By referencing the actual voltage back to 1 microvolt we can continue to use numbers that are easily added and subtracted. 1 millivolt (the minimum analogue signal at the wall plate) is now known as 60dB V. 20 log (1000 V 1 V) = 60dB V Signal level meters give readouts as dB Vs. Addition and
subtraction is used to calculate the signal levels throughout our installation if we know the losses and gains of our components in the installation. For example, if we have a system such as shown in Fig 7.15, and we are receiving a signal of 45dB V out of the antenna, we can calculate the signal level at the output from the splitter.
Fig 7.15: An example of gains and losses in an antenna distribution system.
Output of splitter = 45dB V + 20dB -8dB -4dB = 53dB V, which is insufficient to drive a TV receiver (needs minimum 60dB V).
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Exercise 7.4 Calculate the output signal level for the following system:
O u t p u t s i g n a l l e v e l =. d b V. Is this level sufficient to drive a TV receiver? Yes / No (This topic of calculating signal levels in a system is covered further i nt h eL e a r n i n gMo d u l e : Ma s t e r D i s t r i b u t i o nS y s t e ms . )
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Carrier to Noise Ratio

Signal strength is not the only parameter that will ensure a good picture (whether analog or digital). Just as important is the concept known as carrier to noise ratio (sometimes abbreviated to CNR). Electrical Noise All electrical components (both active and passive devices, including coaxial cables) produce a wide spectrum of random electrical noise. If you fully turn up the volume control on an audio amplifier with no signal being fed in you will hear a hiss. We call t h i s w h i t e n o i s e ,b e c a u s ei ti se q u a l l yd i s t r i b u t e da c r o s sa l l frequencies, just as white light is made up of all frequencies at once. This electrical noise extends right through into the radio
frequency spectrum, and if our desired signal is small it can be swamped by the noise. C/N ratio S o meo t h e r t e x t so nt h i st o p i cu s et h et e r m S i g n a l t oN o i s eR a t i o . For our purposes you can consider them to be the same, although strictly speaking there is a difference. (Because the signal is RF it i smo r ea p p r o p r i a t et ot h i n ki nt e r mso f t h e c a r r i e r p o w e r , h e n c e C N R . ) In an analog transmission we are measuring the vision carrier. Most modern signal level meters allow a channel to be directly selected and will automatically tune to the vision carrier when performing CNR measurements. Older meters and spectrum analysers may need to be tuned to the frequency, and hence the use of the Frequency Allocation Tables included earlier in this Learning Object. Digital transmission actually measures the average sum of the power across all the 6817 carriers. Noise Power in a Distribution System You can never achieve a better CNR than that received at the antenna. Using masthead or distribution amplifiers will not improve
the CNR, even though the signal strength may increase. This is a common mistake made by novice antenna installers; thinking that an amplifier will solve low received signal strength problems. It is also the reason why received signals are amplified as close as possible to the antenna. A clean signal that is amplified will swamp any noise introduced further downline. However, if a signal is
amplified too far down the distribution chain e.g. just before the TV receiver, the CNR will be already degraded by electrical noise introduced by the cable, splitters or other passive devices, and amplification will not be able to improve the CNR. CNR for Analog and Digital Transmission Analog television requires a minimum CNR of 48dB for an acceptable picture. Digital television requires a minimum CNR of 34dB to ensure that i t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r a w a y f r o mt h e d i g i t a l c l i f f .
Free Air Attenuation

The greater the distance between the transmitter and the receiving antenna the less signal that will be received. Each time the
distance from the transmitter is doubled the power received by the antenna is reduced by , or -6dB. In fringe areas (especially rural areas) this can be compensated for by doubling the height of the tower, which theoretically increases the signal by 6dB, however in practice it will be less. Other Causes of Free Air Signal Attenuation VHF and UHF signals essentially travel in line-of-sight. Any
obstructions between the transmitter and the receiving antenna will reduce the signal strength level. undulating ground, skyscrapers or trees. Obstructions can include
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Case Study 7.1 The owners of an apartment block in the Eastern Suburbs of Sydney had noticed that their analog TV reception had degraded over a number of years, to the point where it was unwatchable. The cause was a very large eucalyptus tree planted as a seedling a few years earlier, and which had grown up directly in the path of the signal. Day-Night Fade can cause as much as 3dB change in signal level. Rain Fade can also result in 3dB change in signal level. (The addition of these two types of attenuation is the reason why sometimes you will see a figure of 66dB V quoted for the level at the outlet plate (or even rounded off to 65dB V), and other times 60dB V. It is the margin that is allowed for attenuation, because ideally we want a minimum of 1mV [60 dB V] signal at the receiver.)
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Required Signal Level at Antenna

[Measuring signal levels requires the use of a signal level meter. This is c o v e r e di nt h eL e a r n i n gO b j e c t : R FS i g n a l T e s t i n g . ] The critical factor that will determine a high quality viewable picture is the signal level received at the antenna for the channel of interest. Do not be fooled into believing that a low level signal can be boosted by an amplifier, because when you do this you also boost the noise in the signal, which still results in a degraded picture. (See the previous topic on Carrier to Noise Ratio.)
Analog Signal Levels

Ideally you need 65dB V of signal or better at the output of the antenna. (This will provide a minimum 45dB carrier/noise ratio
resulting in a virtually perfect picture so long as the distribution system is correctly designed.) The absolute minimum signal level should be 60dB V. In an analog TV signal this is actually the
signal level of the vision carrier. Some older signal strength meters may need to be manually set to the required frequency, and for this purpose the table included in this Learning Object showing TV channel numbering and associated vision carrier frequency can be used. A/V Ratio Looking at the 7MHz analog TV spectrum (refer to diagram on page 17) you will see that the audio carrier is transmitted at 13dB down from the level of the vision carrier. This is a fixed value, and most signal strength meters will measure this A/V ratio. If the value is anything other than 13dB it can indicate ghosting problems.
Digital Signal Levels

To minimise adjacent channel interference, the digital TV signal (in Australia) is transmitted at 6dB less than analog TV signals. The specification is for 54dB V or better signal strength for the specified channel at the outlet plate.
Bit Error Ratio (BER) A second common measurement you may make with a digital signal strength meter is the bit error ratio (BER). This should be less than one error in a million, which is usually shown as 106. If the signal strength is at least 54dB V then typically the BER will be acceptable. Most meters simply approximate the BER from the signal strength level. As an installer you do not need to be overly concerned with BER; if you have sufficient signal with a good CNR then the BER will look after itself. Mulitplex Flatness This is a measure of how much difference in level there is across the 6817 carriers in the 7MHz digital signal. There must be no more than than 5dB variation. Some digital signal strength meters will measure multiplex flatness, abbreviated to MFlat.
5dB
6817 individual carriers
7 MHz Wide
Fig 7.16: Example of Spectrum for a Digital Channel showing variation in Digital Carriers.
Y o up r o b a b l yc a n td ot o o mu c ha b o u tt h eq u a l i t yo fmu l t i p l e x flatness received at the antenna. However, if multiplex flatness is acceptable at the antenna, but out-of-specification at the wall plate then it is an indication of a poorly installed distribution system. Multiplex flatness problems result in poor BER, and loss of digital picture (despite having adequate signal and good CNR).
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Summary of Required TV Signal Factors

Analog Signal Level = CNR A/V Ratio Digital Signal Level CNR BER MFlat = = = = 54dB V (minimum preferable to aim for 57 58 dB V better 34dB 106 5dB = = 60dB V (minimum allow 6dB more for fading) 48dB 13dB
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Baluns
At the antenna connection point it is necessary to correctly match the coaxial cable (which is 75 ohms impedance) to the antenna f o l d e dd i p o l e( a l s oc a l l e dt h e d r i v e ne l e me n t , w h i c hi s3 0 0o h ms impedance). This matching is done through a special type of RF transformer known as a balun (which is a combination of the two w o r d s B a l a n c e d a n d U n b a l a n c e d ).
Example of a high quality F-connector balun attached to a UHF dipole.
If you do not use a balun, a mismatch will occur, resulting in significant loss of signal and multiplex flatness problems. Good
quality Baluns are of the printed circuit board style, with F-connector outputs and protective UV stabilised ABS plastic casing. It is
recommended that you do not use the cheaper styles of balun commonly available at hardware stores and electronics shops (see examples below) as the insertion losses in these can be very high, and the life expectancy is low due to weathering problems.
Combining Antennas
In some regional and rural areas it is necessary to use a number of antennas pointing in different directions to pick up the range of channels available. Even in city areas the terrain may require a number of antennas pointing in different directions to receive all channels. (The Northern Beaches region in Sydney is an example where this is a common practice.) The gain from a combination VHF/UHF antenna may be insufficient, requiring separate VHF and UHF antennas. You cannot simply parallel connect antennas together. If you do you will cause ghosting problems and mismatch (resulting in signal loss). You must use a device called a diplexer (or a triplexer if three antennas are combined together). (Diplexers should also be of high quality with F-connectors.)
Fig 7.17: Diplexer used to combine a VHF and UHF antenna.
Diplexers filter the desired channels before joining them together at the output. There are different models available depending upon the channels that are received at the location and the choice of band antenna used. If you have a complex antenna installation (such as in rural and regional areas) then you are advised to contact the technical support staff at your antenna distributor for advice regarding the appropriate selection.
It is common for separate VHF and UHF antennas to be installed at a location. In this case a diplexer is used that has an input for channels 0-12 and a separate input for channels 28-69.
Example of a diplexer used in a domestic application.
Some models of masthead amplifier have the diplexer integrated into the design. This will be covered in more detail in the Learning O b j e c t Ma s t e r D i s t r i b u t i o nS y s t e ms . Task 7.5 Ask your Workplace Trainer to show you the range of diplexers commonly used in your region of installations and operation.
Antenna Separation
When you are mounting multiple antennas there needs to be some physical separation between them so as to avoid having the metalwork of one antenna electrically interact with another. When mounting multiple antennas, the UHF antenna should be mounted at the top of the mast. The minimum distance to keep antennas separated is 600mm, however the greater the distance that can be achieved the better.
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Example of a correctly mounted VHF vertical polarised phased array mounted above a UHF vertical polarised phased array.
Another example of a correctly stacked mast, with a UHF vertical polarised Yagi mounted above a VHF vertical polarised phased array.
Incorrect example. The UHF antenna is lower than the VHF antenna. (This may be
acceptable if you are receiving a local UHF and distant VHF signal.)
NSW DET 2006
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A poor installation, where the antennas are far too close
together, causing interaction, loss of signal strength, and ghosting
Increasing Gain
(due to poor front-to-back ratio).
To achieve the required separation you might
prefer to use separate masts.
It is possible to increase the signal strength by combining the signals received from two similar antennas. This is beyond the
scope of this learning object, however it is an option worth considering if you are struggling to achieve the required signal strength. The two signals need to be phased together so that the signals add together (out-of-phase signals will actually give you less signal than a single antenna) and this requires careful engineering design.
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Here are examples of yagis phased together to increase the gain Task 7.6 As you move around your area look for masts that have combined antennas, and identify correctly and incorrectly installed systems. Write down the locations and the problems in your notebook.
Site Survey
In order to determine the best location to erect the antenna at the c u s t o me r sp r e mi s e sy o uw i l l l i k e l yn e e dt oc o n d u c t as i t es u r v e y . This will also tell you how much signal is available at the location, and therefore the gain requirements for the antenna you select to use. The signal strength will vary greatly as you move around
different points on the roof, and the site survey will also help determine the optimum location for the antenna. When choosing a final location for the antenna consider: The need to keep 3 metres away from aerial power line feeders. Access for coaxial cable to enter the premises. T h ec o s t o f mo u n t i n gh a r d w a r e .( F o r e x a mp l e , t h e r e s l i t t l ep o i n t struggling for an extra 2dB in a difficult to mount location if an antenna with more gain will do the job.) Reference Antenna The reference antenna you use needs to be appropriate for the TV channel you are interested in. It should be of a manageable size for
you to use safely at heights. You also need to know the gain of the antenna at the required frequency so that you calculate the required gain of the antenna to be installed. The major TV antenna manufacturers can recommend suitable antennas for use as reference antennas. A test reference antenna needs to have broad bandwidth (covering all the required channels) and be physically small enough to use safely when working at heights. The
characteristics of the log periodic tend to make it suitable for this purpose.
Fig 4.18: Log periodic test antenna.
Example: You need to set up an antenna to receive Ch 8 in a rural area of New South Wales. The test antenna you are using has a gain of 5dB on Band III. The highest signal level you measure as you move about the roof is 58dB V. You need 65dB V. Therefore you need an antenna with at least 7dB more than your test antenna, that is, a gain of better than 12dB (5dB + 7dB).
Watch DVD Watch Chapter 2 to see a technician conducting a site survey.
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Task 7.7 Assuming you want 65db V out of the antenna, calculate the gain of antenna required if these are the site survey results you measure: Required Channel: 28
Band IV Test Antenna Gain: 8dB Measured Ch28 Signal Strength out of antenna: 59dB V Required gain of antenna: _____ dB
Task 7.8 Under the supervision of your workplace trainer, conduct a site s u r v e yf o r a na n t e n n ai n s t a l l a t i o na t ac u s t o me r sp r e mi s es, or at any site suitable for this purpose. Recommend a suitable antenna/s to receive the TV channels for your area.
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Conclusion
A well designed and installed antenna system will provide a clean signal of sufficient strength to drive the distribution system for the premises or location you have been contracted to service. The use of quality components will provide trouble free operation for many years. Short-cuts and cheap components may provide some
reduction in initial equipment costs or labour time, however in the longer term it will cause warranty callouts and damage to your reputation as a TV antenna installer.
A very poorly installed antenna system!

SELF ASSESSM ENT

The following set of questions will assist you to determine whether you have learnt and understood the content of this Learning Object. Your
Workplace Assessor may ask questions that are different from those here. Circle the correct answer. 1. The bandwidth of a TV channel is: a) b) c) d) 2. 1MHz 5MHz 7 MHz Varies depending upon the frequency of the transmission.
In an analog system the vision carrier is: a) b) c) d) 0.5 MHz above the bottom lowest frequency of the allocated bandwidth 1.25 MHz above the bottom lowest frequency of the allocated bandwidth in the middle of the allocated bandwidth for the Channel at the uppermost frequency allocated for the Channel bandwidth.
3.
The channel bandwidth for digital television is: a) b) c) greater than for analog television the same as for analog television much more than for analog television
4.
Comparing analog and digital television: (circle all correct answers) a) b) c) d) a digital TV picture will almost always be of higher quality than an analog picture. in areas where ghosting is a problem, digital television provides a good solution. you will always need to install a new TV antenna and distribution system if your customer requires digital television reception. if you can see a good picture on a digital TV receiver you have a good quality TV antenna installation.
5.
What is the upper and lower frequency range of free-to-air television transmissions in Australia?
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6.
What difference would we notice between an antenna designed for Band III and an antenna designed for Band IV?
7.
What are the minimum signal strengths for analog and digital reception that you require at the TV antenna wall plate (in dB V) to ensure good quality pictures?
8.
Ghosting is caused by: a) b) c) d) excessive signal entering the TV tuner. the TV signal bouncing off the ionosphere. faulty components inside the TV receiver multipathing (reflections) of the TV signal off buildings, mountains, and other such structures.
9. 10.
TV signals essentially travel in line-of-sight. True / False I t d o e s n t ma t t e r i f aT Va n t e n n ai si n s t a l l e dw i t hi t se l e me n t sh o r i z o n t a l o r vertical. True / False. Explain why.
11.
The name of the device that combines multiple antennas together is: a) b) c) d) a tap a diplexer a filter a splitter
12. 13.
A balun is only necessary if you are in a fringe area with poor signal strength. True / False? What is the wavelength of Ch 2? (Show your calculations.)
14.
What is the impedance of a folded dipole? How is the antenna impedance matched to the impedance of the coaxial cable in order to minimise signal loss?
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15.
What addition is made to a simple dipole to make a directional antenna with gain?
16.
Name three types of TV antenna design.
17.
When mounting a UHF and VHF antenna on the same mast what is the recommended minimum separation distance, and which antenna should go at the top of the mast?
18.
Calculate the dB gain (or loss) for the following systems:a) b) Vin = 300 V and Vout 2mV Vin = 10mV and Vout 0.5mV
19.
In the following network there is 55dB V into the amplifier. What level of signal will appear o u t o f t h e s p l i t t e r ?. . d B V
Signal In = 55dB V
G = 8dB
Cable loss = 10dB
Splitter loss = 8.5dB
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Answers to Self Assessment Questions

1. 2. 3. 4. (c) (b) (b) (a), (b). You may not need to install a new TV antenna and distribution system for digital television if the previous installation is within specifications. A digital TV picture may be received even with a poor installation, however the problem is that it may be very close to the digital cliff, and any further minor degradation in signal could cause total loss of picture. 5. 6. 45MHz to 820MHz. Band III is VHF, requiring a VHF antenna, recognised by its longer elements. Band IV is UHF, requiring a UHF antenna, recognised by its shorter elements. 7. Analog = 60dB V; Digital = 54dB V. (These are regarded as absolute minimums, and it is recommended that 3 6 dB more should be the adopted practice.) 8. 9. 10. (d) True False. A TV antenna must be installed with the same polarisation as the transmitted signal. 11. 12. 13. 14. (b) False. 300 divided by 64.25 = 4.67 metres wavelength. 300 . Baluns are required to change the 300 impedance of the folded dipole to 75 of the coax cable.
15. 16. 17.
Reflectors are added and a director, making a Yagi antenna. Yagi, Phased Array, Log Periodic. The recommended minimum distance between two antennas is 600mm. The UHF antenna should be mounted above the VHF antenna.
18. 19.
(a) 20 log (2 / 0.3) = 16.5dB
(b) 20 log (0.5 / 10) = -26dB
55dB V + 8dB -10dB -8.5dB = 44.5dB V
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Select and Erect Terrestrial Antennas PDF

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Select and Erect Terrestrial Antennas

7. Select and Erect Terrestrial Antennas

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