Distribution System Design A PRESENTATION

OF DR. TOMAS U. GANIRON JR

Introduction to the Distribution System

The diagram below shows a typical distribution system. The water flows from the treatment plant into a storage reservoir. Although not every system will have a storage reservoir, it is advisable to separate stored water and source water in order to have better hydraulic flows and a more dependable system.

From the storage reservoir, water flows as needed out into the mains which carry large quantities of water toward the customer. Some water is diverted to feed fire hydrants. Other water flows from the mains into the service lines which carry the water to the customers. Booster stations are used to pump water where the water pressure is lower than in the rest of the system. Meters measure the flow of water through the system.

The distribution system is installed for two definite functions. First, the system must deliver an adequate quantity of water to the customers. Second, the distribution system must deliver high quantities of water to fire hydrants when needed for fire protection. When designing systems to provide fire protection, the requirements of the American Insurance Association should be used along with the considerations of domestic requirements. Both of these purposes must be taken into account when planning a distribution system.

z There

are many factors which must be considered when designing a distribution system: type of pipe material, size of mains, sizing and placement of storage reservoirs, inclusion of fire protection, location of valves, and so forth. This lesson will provide an overview of these topics as well as information on the maintenance of existing distribution systems.

Long-term Planning Distribution systems carry water from the treatment plant to the consumers. As a community grows and changes, the distribution system must change with it. In far too many cases, the distribution system developes in a more or less haphazard manner. Service lines are added as new houses and businesses spring up. This sort of haphazard growth of the distribution system is the result of improper planning and can result in mains having to be reinforced or replaced in order to access new areas to be served.

Instead, the author recommend planning at least twenty or thirty years in the future when designing water works facilities. It is difficult to predict the demand for water so far in the future, but engineers can estimate the expected growth of the community and use the expected population to extrapolate the demand for water in the future. When estimating growth of a community, engineers consider the change in population over the last 15 years of a similar community

z Based

on the projected future growth of the community, engineers will plan a current distribution system and expected future expansions. Over time, this plan will be updated and used to add extensions to the distribution system. An engineer should be employed for planning, even for a minor main extension. Careful planning can save considerable money by avoiding duplication of water lines.

z Consider

the community shown above. The distribution system was constructed without planning for future growth of the community

z Over

time, two new housing developments created a much greater demand for water on the right side of the community. The mains serving these areas had to be replaced (shown in red) since they were too small to carry adequate water. A wellplanned distribution system would have included larger mains in these areas initially to prepare for future growth

Pressure
z

Water pressure is an important factor to consider when planning a distribution system. As a rule of thumb, the water pressure throughout the distribution system should be no less than 17 PSI. In many high value districts, distribution lines are designed for a normal pressure of between 60 and 70 PSI. Low pressure in the mains can be a health hazard since the pressure in the pipes keeps contaminated water from entering the mains. If the pressure in a pipe is too low or is negative, contaminants from nearby ditches, cross-connections, and poor quality house plumbing can be drawn into the water system.

z Investigations

have proven that most water-borne disease outbreaks are the result of contamination of water after it is pumped into the distribution system. To prevent contamination, an adequate chlorine residual must be maintained and the residual pressure should never be allowed to fall below 20 PSI. The Virginia Department of Health issues an advisory for extra-precautionary measures during periods of low pressure or vacuum.

So how is the pressure in the distribution system's pipes produced? Most of the pressure is a result of static pressure built up in the storage reservoir. As you will remember from the last lesson, static pressure is a weight per unit area. If water is pumped into the top of a storage tank, the weight of the water will build up a certain pressure on the bottom of the tank. Then when water is allowed to flow out of the bottom of the tank and into the distribution system, the static pressure results in water pressure in the pipes.

z The

height, or elevation, of the tank will determine the amount of static pressure on the water at the bottom of the tank. To determine the static pressure, measure the elevation of the water surface at the top of the tank (E1) and the elevation of the pipe into which the water is flowing (E2).

Then use the following equation: Static Pressure = (E1 - E2) 0.43 PSI/ft
z

Consider a tank which is sitting on the ground with the water flowing out of the tank into a main at ground level (an elevation of 0 feet). The surface of the water in the tank is 100 feet above the ground (an elevation of 100 feet). The static pressure would be: Static Pressure = (100ft - 0ft) 0.43 PSI/ft Static Pressure = 100ft 0.43 PSI/ft Static Pressure = 43 PSI

The water flowing out of the storage tank in the example above has a pressure of 43 PSI. As you will remember, once the water begins moving, the pressure becomes a dynamic pressure, also known as a residual pressure. Dynamic pressure is equal to static pressure just as the water leaves the tank, but as the water moves through the pipe energy is lost and the residual pressure decreases.

The energy loss in the pipe is proportional to the square of the velocity of the water, so the faster the water moves through the pipe the more pressure it loses The roughness of the inside of the pipe also influences the residual pressure in the pipe. Rougher pipes have higher resistance factors (also known as roughness coefficients), which means that the water flowing through the rough pipes loses energy more quickly than it would if flowing through a smooth pipe.

Quantity
z When

planning the sizes of lines to be used in a distribution system, the amount of water that will be needed and the pressure desired at the end of the line are both critical factors. This section will consider the quantity of water which a distribution system must carry.

z The

average per capita demand for water is 100 gallons per day, which means that an average person uses 100 gallons of water every day. However, distribution systems must be prepared to accommodate customers on days when much more water is used - for example, on a hot summer day when everyone decides to water his or her lawn.

z The

distribution system should be able to deliver 150% of the average per capita demand (150 gallons per person) for an ordinary maximum day. z If you consider your daily water use, you will realize that you use water in large amounts at some times of the day, such as when you shower or run the washing machine. A single house can use between 16 and 20 gallons per minute during these peak times.

z Then

you probably spend several hours at night without using any water. The distribution system must take this pattern into account and be prepared to deliver water at what is known as the peak hour rate . The peak hour rate is 150% of the maximum rate, or about 225 gallons of water per day for domestic service.

z The

Health Department has developed a graph of instantaneous flow versus the number of customers. (The instantaneous flow is the amount of water which can flow through the line at an instant in time.) As the number of customers being served by a water line increases, the instantaneous flow will decrease since the existing water must be split between more people. The graph, called the "Instantaneous Flow Curve" is used in the design of distribution systems and is the only approved design criteria.

Pipe Diameter
z The

carrying capacity of a pipe is the amount of water which the pipe will deliver in a certain amount of time. The carrying capacity of a new main is largely determined by the size of the pipe. For two pipes of the same roughness coefficient, a 6-inch pipe will deliver two and one-fourths times as much water as a 4-inch pipe.

The carrying capacity of the distribution system is most important when planning for fire prevention. Let's consider two scenarios: A storage tank providing a static pressure of 50 PSI is connected to a fireplug by a main which is 4,000 feet long and 6 inches in diameter. The same storage tank and static pressure, but with the 4,000 feet long main being 4 inches in diameter.

In Scenario (1), the main will deliver 350 gallons per minute at a residual pressure of 20 PSI. In Scenario (2), the main will only deliver 100 gallons per minute at a residual pressure of 20 PSI. When using the fireplug in Scenario (2) to put out a fire, the volume of water may not be sufficient. As a result, four inch pipes are not recommended for systems which are designed to provide fire protection. The National Board of Fire Underwriters will not recognize fireplugs served by 4 inch mains.

z In

addition, 4 inch mains are likely to become inadequate even for serving domestic uses in the future. 4 inch or smaller mains should be installed only when use is confined to domestic purposes with no fire protection and even then only after careful planning.

Some other factors must be considered when determining the size of pipes to be installed: Whether there is or will be an elevated storage tank in the vicinity of the new extension Whether the new area is for residential or commercial development Whether the natural topography will permit future expansion in the area Present population trends regarding the area Fire protection demand

Pipe Materials
z

Types of Pipe Material In the past, many types of material have been used in conveying water from one point to another. Masonry and wood were probably the first materials used. Plastics are the newest, and are now being used quite extensively. At present, water mains are made of a variety of materials, summarized in the chart below

Material Advantages Disadvan Primary Coated? Use tages

cast iron no longer manufactured; deteriorates in some soils strong, ductile deteriorates in some soils wall thickness must be carefully considered large, old systems yes

ductile iron

large systems raw water mains

yes

steel

inexpensive

yes

concrete

inexpensive

raw water mains and industrial systems

no

Material Advantages Disadvan Primary Coated? tages Use

raw water mains and industrial systems brittle; no longer manufactured gasoline from soil can pass into pipe replaced cast iron; in old systems < 10 inch pipes

pre-stressed concrete asbestos cement

inexpensive

no

no

PVC

inexpensive

no

Material Advanta Disadvanta ges ges

non-rigid plastic requires special heat fusion joining tools; inorganic chemicals in soil weaken pipe

Primary Use
service lines in water systems and main lines in gas systems

Coated?

no

copper corrodes; produces discolored water; has a short life; deteriorates in some soils no

service lines

no

galvanized iron

no

Large Pipes
z

Cast iron has a long history of satisfactory service. Pipes were made exclusively of cast iron in many larger systems until manufacture of cast iron pipes was discontinued in the early 1980s. Since this pipe can no longer be manufactured, little will be used in the future. The systems which formerly used cast iron pipes are now converting to ductile iron pipe and AWWA C-900 PVC pipe. Some smaller systems are converting to slip joint PVC pipe except in specialty areas such as creek crossings and when pipes must be laid extremely deep in the ground.

Ductile iron is now used in many systems where cast iron pipe was formerly used. Ductile iron pipes have certain advantages over other pipe materials. The pipes are strong and ductile (able to be drawn out and formed into a certain shape.) The third type of metal pipe used in distribution systems is steel. Steel piping may be used in water transmission mains due to the cheap initial construction cost of the system. However, care must be taken in the design of the wall thickness of the steel pipe for the particular systems that exist. Steel pipes are more commonly used for raw water mains.

Even though most public water supplies are treated where necessary for corrosion control, all three types of metal pipes described above can be corroded by acidic water. For this reason, these pipes are usually lined to protect the metal against corrosion. Steel pipes are asphalt coated while cast and ductile iron pipes are lined with either enamel or cement. The cement lining, which is usually a one to three Portland cement mortar, is applied to the pipe by centrifugal action. The thickness of the cement lining depends on the diameter of the pipe and varies from 1/8 of an inch thick in a 2 inch pipe to of an inch thick in a 48 inch pipe.

The lining in all three types of pipe enhances the ability of the pipe to retain good flow characteristics for many years since corroded pipes are rough and offer more resistance to flowing water. In contrast to the metal pipes mentioned above, concrete and pre-stressed concrete pipes are used mainly in very large diameter pipes such as those found in raw water lines and industrial systems. The concrete pipes are relatively inexpensive to build, which makes them attractive when large quantities of water must be moved from place to place.

z Asbestos

cement pipe is composed of a mixture of Portland cement and asbestos fibers. Asbestos cement is lighter in weight than cast iron and more brittle, so extra care must be taken when installing the asbestos cement pipe. If the trench is not properly bedded then the pipe will not be well cushioned in the ground and may break. Asbestos cement pipes have been used in some cases to replace cast iron pipes, but like cast iron, asbestos cement pipes are no longer being manufactured

Small Pipes
z

Plastic pipe is commonly used for pipes which are 10 inches or less in diameter. Rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes are often chosen, especially when initial cost is an important factor. There are several factors to consider when choosing a PVC pipe for use. Any PVC pipe used for water transmission must have a National Sanitation Foundation seal which certifies that the pipe contains no toxic materials and is suitable for potable water transport. It is inadvisable to use a very cheap plastic pipe since it will cause problems in the future. The same manufacturer should supply the couplings, fittings, and pipes so that all of the components will work well together

The same manufacturer should supply the couplings, fittings, and pipes so that all of the components will work well together The PVC pipes which are commonly used have a pressure class of 160 or 200. Since the cost difference between class 160 and 200 pipe is only about $0.25 per foot, many systems install the heavier duty pipe. When very high pressures are anticipated, class 250 pipe may be used. Pipes with a higher pressure class have thicker walls to withstand the water's pressure as it moves through the pipe.

PVC pipe has a safety factor of 2:1, compared to the 4:1 safety factor of ductile iron pipe, so you can't directly compare the pressure class ratings of the two types of pipes. In addition, the pressure class ratings of PVC pipes do not include surge pressure - extra pressure when the water moves much faster than usual. For both of these reasons, it is recommended that the static pressure of the water in a PVC pipe not exceed 70% of the class rating. So, if you anticipate a static pressure above 112 PSI (70% of 160 PSI), then you will need to use class 200 pipe.

z PVC

pipes are not the only types of plastic pipes used in water ystems. Polyethylene and other non-rigid plastic pipes are used as service lines in water systems and as main lines in gas systems. However, polyethylene pipes have a high molecular weight, so special heat fusion joining tools are required when working with the pipes. For this reason, polyethylene pipes are limited to special installations.

Copper pipes have been used in some situations as service pipes. However, copper pipe is more expensive than plastic pipe. Copper pipe used in water systems must have a National Sanitation Foundation Seal. Galvanized iron is the final type of pipe which will be considered here. In almost every case, it has been found to be more desirable to use plastic pipe rather than galvanized iron. Galvanized iron corrodes easily, produces problems with discolored water, and has a relatively short life. For these reasons, galvanized iron is seldom used in the distribution system.

Pipe Deterioration
z

Even when water mains are properly installed, the pipes will deteriorate over time. This deterioration can be slowed by matching the pipe material to the soil or by wrapping the pipe. Cast iron, ductile iron, and galvanized iron pipes can all be weakened in just a few years when laid in aggressive soil. To prevent this type of damage, the soil should be tested before laying the pipes in the ground. If necessary, the pipes can be wrapped in plastic during installation to protect the metal from the soil. The Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association can provide detailed information on the wrapping procedure

z The

type of soil is also an important consideration when installing plastic pipes. Organic chemicals, especially solvents and gasoline, will weaken PVC pipes, causing the pipe to expand and rupture. The operator in charge of ditching should be alert for any unusual odor when removing soil during the construction of the distribution system. The odor may be a sign of a chemical spill, which may remain in the soil for many years and weaken PVC pipes.

z Gasoline

and diesel can pass through the walls of polyethylene pipes even when the water inside is under high pressure. For this reason, plastic pipes should never be installed in the vicinity of gas stations. Instead, ductile iron and copper pipes are recommended for service lines in the vicinity of gas stations

Construction of Main Extensions

z

Financing As the demand for water in a community changes, new mains will have to be added to the existing distribution system. In many cases, water main extensions are the consequence of political rather than economic factors. Extensions should instead be based on business principles. Extensions spurred by politics will probably result in increased rates for all consumers

z The

policies concerning water main extensions should not differ appreciably whether the water works system is publicly or privately owned. Mains extensions should be constructed so that sufficient water can be delivered to customers at an acceptable price for the water works. The water works should consider the amount of revenue it expects to obtain when deciding on the amount of money to invest in water mains to new customers.

In 1949, the American Water Works Association conducted a study concerning main extensions and agreed on the following principles: *Extension policies should be non-discriminatory. *Extension policies should be based upon business principles. *Extension policies should ensure that the main extensions will be self-supporting. *Extensions should provide for customer participation in the financing of extensions in areas where service is needed but anticipated revenue is insufficient to warrant the utility making the extension unassisted. *Comprehensive rules should govern main extensions. *Extension rules should be reviewed periodically.

Field Sketch The first step in building a main extension is to produce a field sketch showing the location of the new main. An engineer should be employed to plan all main extensions so that minor main extensions fit into the overall plan. A good water works operator should, prior to actually installing the main, make a field survey of each block. If possible, a block section map should be prepared indicating the property lines and the correct length of main to be laid.

The map should also reflect information concerning obstructions to be encountered on the route of the proposed main. The field sketch should include the location of trees, shrubbery, embankments, fills, bridges, railroads, and other obstructions. The high and low points should be included as well as the approximate location for valves and hydrants

z When

the data has been obtained, the operator should visit other utility companies and secure the location of their underground structures for the field sketch. The construction foreman or inspector can more easily install the main if all needed information is available. A small job should not preclude necessary pre-field work prior to beginning the job.

Pipe Bed
z Once

the location of the new main has been determined, the next step in construction is to excavate the ditch. This ditch, also known as a pipe bed, will vary depending on the type of soil.

z The

primary concern when excavating the pipe bed is that the pipe be well cushioned by soft, loose dirt. Otherwise, the flow of water through the pipe will cause vibrations within the pipe which will in turn lead to leaking and pipe failure. In addition, surge pressure in the form of shock waves can cause the pipe to move in its bed. Any sharp, hard object next to the pipe will eventually cause a break or hole to occur.

Clay or sandy soils cause little concern since the trenching equipment will normally leave enough loose dirt in the ditch to cushion the pipe. If a pipe bed is being built in shale or rock, 4 to 6 inches of soft dirt should be spread in the bottom of the ditch. Cinders will cause problems if allowed to come in contact with the pipe. If a main is being laid through a cinder fill, the cinder material should be removed and fresh earth should be used to fill in around the pipe so that no cinders will come in contact with the pipe. In some cases, the pipe should be wrapped in polyethylene for additional protection

Cleaning While laying new pipe, extreme care should be taken to prevent any dirt or other foreign matter from entering the pipe. The pipe can be cleaned before installation using a circular bristle brush attached to a 1 inch pipe for a handle. The brush should be slightly larger than the diameter of the inside of the pipe. The brush is passed through the pipe several times before lowering the pipe into the ditch in order to clean out any foreign matter which might be stuck to the inside of the pipe.

Fire Hydrants and Bends

z

In most extensions, there are fire hydrants to be installed. Loose, crushed rock or gravel should be placed around the shoe of the hydrant for drainage purposes Both fire hydrants and bends in mains are subject to movement in the ground. Fire hydrants should be strapped securely and all pipes prone to wiggling should be thoroughly braced with rock or concrete blocking. This blocking should be designed to withstand the calculated thrust (movement) of the pipe. The size of the blocking should also depend on the type of soil through which the main is being laid.

Sanitation
z Cross-connections

Sanitation is an important factor to consider when constructing and maintaining a distribution system. Unsanitary water can result from cross-connections, from placing water and sewage lines in the same ditch, and from new extensions which were not properly cleaned and disinfected before use

Cross-connections are connections which join or link a potable water source with a source of questionable or unsafe water. The connections allow the unsafe water to mix with the potable water and can be a serious health hazard. Cross-connections should be prevented wherever possible and eliminated when found

Cross-connections can be divided into two types: direct cross-connections and conditions allowing back-siphonage. A direct cross-connection occurs when water from a high pressure source forces its way directly into the public supply mains. This type of cross-connection may occur when a large main breaks and water from the surrounding soil forces its way into the pipe.

Direct cross-connections also occur when a large amount of water is used for fire fighting or some other purpose. When so much water is used, the pressure of the water in the pipes drops and water outside the pipe may force its way in. The illustration in the section on Pressure is an example of a direct cross-connection.

Back-siphonage is the other type of crossconnection which can contaminate distribution systems. In every water system, the distribution system connects into houses' plumbing systems, tanks, and other fixtures. The private plumbing systems may contain contaminated water. If these connections are not made properly, negative pressures in the water lines may suck contaminated water from the private plumbing systems back into the public water lines. All community systems are required to adopt a cross-connection control policy to prevent contamination in this manner

Liquid Chlorine Disinfection

z

The disinfecting of newly laid mains is probably the most poorly practiced water works operation. Too many times the operator installs from 500 to 1,000 feet of various size pipe and places it into service without obtaining a satisfactory laboratory report. According to accepted procedure by the American Water Works Association, there are several methods of disinfecting newly laid mains. The ideal method is the application of a liquid (gas) chlorine and water mixture. When disinfecting a pipe using chlorine, the pipe is first flushed with water at a velocity of at least 2.5 feet per second. This will remove any foreign material in the pipe.

Once the pipe has been flushed clean, chlorine is fed at the beginning of the water filled main. A portable chlorinator, hypochlorinator, or water jet is necessary to inject the chlorine solution into the main. As chlorine is injected into one end of the main, water is slowly withdrawn and sampled from the other end of the pipe. Once the chlorine residual dose at the far end of the pipe reaches at least 50 parts per million, chlorine feed can be stopped. The chlorine in the pipe has reached a high enough concentration to kill any diseasecausing organisms.

z After

stopping the chlorine feed, the main should be allowed to stand for at least 24 hours to give the chlorine time to act. Then the main is thoroughly flushed out and a water sample is collected from the pipe. This sample is sent to the nearest state laboratory for bacteriological examination. If the water does not meet the accepted standard, then the procedure must be repeated until the desired potable

HTH Tablets
z Calcium

hypochlorite (HTH) tablets can also be used to disinfect mains. This type of disinfection is most convenient for small jobs. The manufacturer of the tablets will furnish, upon request, the size and number of tablets to use for various sizes and lengths of pipe.

When sterilizing a new main using HTH tablets, the tablets are fastened to the top of the inside of every length of pipe as it is laid. First the area of attachment on the pipe is wiped to remove any trace of dust, then an adhesive is used to glue the tablets to the pipe. Hot tar is the most frequently used adhesive, but permatex can be used when hot tar is not available. When adhering the tablet to the pipe, care should be taken to see that the adhesive does not cover the edges or exposed face of the tablet to ensure that the water can come in contact with as much of the tablet as possible.

As the main is filled with water, the tablets remain stuck to the surface of the pipe. The HTH tablets dissolve slowly over time, releasing an even distribution of the chlorine material into the water. The chlorine disinfects the water just as it would have if fed into the pipe as a liquid Fairly good disinfection can be achieved by the much simpler method of simply throwing a handful of granular HTH into each joint of pipe as it is installed. If the main is filled with water relatively slowly after being completed, the crystals will dissolve in the water. However, when using this method, the water carries the HTH crystals along with the flow of the water.

z The

end of the main ends up with a high concentration of HTH while the beginning has a relatively small dosage. But new mains cleaned using this method will often meet the required health standards and the main can be placed into service

Leakage
z

Initial Testing Once a new main is laid in the ground, it should be adequately tested before being covered. The pipe is filled with high pressure water to determine whether there are any leaks in the pipe. When testing the pipe, the new main is first filled slowly with water. Open fire hydrants and air relief valves at high points along the main allow air to escape from the pipe as the pipe fills with water.

Once air stops escaping from the main, the pipe is full of water. Now the valve or valves between the new main and the old system are closed. The next step is to build up pressure in the new main. This pressure should be at least 50 pounds greater than the normal operating pressure of the pipe. In small mains or small sections of large mains, an auxiliary pump is used to build up pressure. In large, long mains, a fire pump can be used to build up pressure. The pressure on the pipe will cause water to leak out of any weak spots in the pipe.

The amount of leakage from the pipe can be measured by calculating the amount of water used to fill the pipe and the amount of water left in the pipe after the main is put under pressure. The difference in these two values is the amount of water which leaked out of the pipe. When pipes are laid in 12 foot lengths, leakage in new mains should be less than 25 gallons per inch of nominal diameter each 24 hours for every mile of pipe. So, if a 6 inch main is 1 mile long, it should leak less than 150 gallons per day.

Pipes which are laid in 16 foot lengths are expected to leak even less, only 10 gallons per inch of nominal diameter per 24 hours per mile.

Unaccounted For Water

z

Practically all distribution systems have some leakage, also known as "unaccounted for water." Low percentages of unaccounted for water are to be expected, but percentages in excess of 15% should be considered unacceptable. When the operator is able to account for 90% of the water pumped into the system, it is considered a tight system.

z The

percentage of unaccounted for water should be monitored. If the percentage is too high, or if there is a sudden increase in the percentage, then leaks should be found and repaired. There are organizations which can be hired to perform leak survey studies. The savings resulting from the stoppage of leaks as a result of such a survey are often high enough to pay for the cost of the survey.

Common Causes of Leakage

z z

Leaks in the distribution system are often the result of deteriorating fittings or frozen pipes. A new service line may be built using an existing meter. The service line is often attached to the meter using fittings such as 90-degree elbows. The fittings may either be compression fittings or glued fittings. In either case, leaks can develop.

z Grit

may get under the neoprene ring of the compression coupling or the glue may not have reached full strength before it is stressed. The small leak caused by either of these situations allows water to flow out into the surrounding soil, making the soil saturated and soft. As the water flows through the leak, the pipe wall is slowly eroded away. Leaking fittings can be prevented by building service lines in straight lines or by installing thrust blocks around the elbows

z Freezing

can also cause leaks in pipes. Pipes can freeze if they are placed in the ground under two feet or less of soil or under five feet or less of rock. If pipes have to be installed where freezing is possible, a 12 inch sleeve should be placed on top of the footer to prevent differential cracking. Styrofoam and fiberglass insulation are often placed on top of water lines to keep the lines from freezing.

Valves, Joints, Hydrants, and Meters

z

Valves Valve is a device attached to a pipe which allows the flow of water to be turned off or on. When a sufficient number of valves are properly located within a distribution system, they ensure that no single break or repair, except in the main arteries, will necessitate shutting off more than 500 feet of main in high value areas or 800 to 1,000 feet in other sections.

The valves in a distribution system should be properly referenced so that they can be quickly located when needed. In order to keep them in working order, all valves should be inspected yearly and large ones should be inspected even more frequently

Joints Joints are used to attach pipes together as well as to attach pipes to other devices. There are two types of joints in current use - the slip on joint and the mechanical joint. Older joints, such as leaded joints and braided hemp joints, are no longer used. The most commonly used type of joint is the "slip on" joint which speeds installation time, reduces costs, and results in fewer leaks than do older joints. Mechanical joints are often used in connecting pipes to fire hydrants or valves, in bridge crossings, and sometimes in distribution piping.

Fire Hydrants When a distribution system includes fire hydrants, the spacing of the hydrants is dictated by the American Insurance Association. As with valves, records should be kept of each fire hydrant's location, make, and size. In addition, records should include information on the number of turns required to close the hydrant and whether the thread is right- or lefthanded. Fire hydrants should be inspected at least twice per year and a complete record should be kept of all maintenance.

In some cities, it is the responsibility of the fire department to check, test, maintain, and paint the fire hydrants. Fire hydrants must be well painted both to present a good appearance and for protection. The color of each hydrant corresponds to the flow rate as follows:

light blue green orange red

> 1,500 gpm 1,000 - 1,499 gpm 500 - 999 gpm 500 gpm

Flow rates can also be determined by removing the cap and feeling inside the orifice for specific shapes. These shapes indicate the roughness factor and can be used to derive the flow rates. It is important to use the shapes to double check the flow rate since fire hydrants can be painted incorrectly. In addition to their use for fire control, hydrants can be used to flush water out of stagnant portions of the distribution system. This maintains good circulation and can eliminate discolored water problems.

Water Meters The operation of a public water supply is a large, important business. Water meters are essential in order to determine how much water is produced by the treatment plant and how much water is consumed by each customer. By using meters to record the demand for water, a public water supply can produce the appropriate amount of water and operate efficiently. Meters can also help determine when there is a leak or break in the distribution system.

Since meters record the amount of water each customer uses, the water works can bill according to usage. In addition, the meter makes the customer water conscious and acts as a deterrent against unnecessary waste. When a system is operated without meters, about twice as much water will be used by the customers

Water meters in the distribution system can be divided into two categories - main line meters and customer meters. The main line meters monitor the amount of water flowing through the mains while customer meters monitor the amount of water used by each customer. There are four types of main line meters: venturi, orifice, velocity, and plot tube. For this class, you will not need to differentiate between the types of main line meters

There are three types of customer meters: positive displacement, compound, and fire line. Positive displacement meters are capable of measuring small flows of water with high accuracy. The positive displacement meter works by counting the number of times a chamber is filled and emptied as water flows through the meter. Though accurate, positive displacement meters will fail if there are sediments or loose scale in the water. When compared with a compound meter, a relatively small percentage increase above the rated flow of water will ruin a positive displacement meter

Compound meters are a combination of the displacement meter and the current meter. At low flow rates, compound meters work like a displacement meter, filling a chamber with water and then emptying it out. When the flow rate reaches a predetermined point, the compound meter changes and begins to operate like a current meter. A current meter measures the velocity with which water passes through a known area.

By acting as a displacement meter at low flows and as a current meter at high flows, the compound meter is very accurate but is not broken by large quantities of water. The third type of meter, the fire line meter, is a special kind of compound meter.

Purpose of Storage Facilities

z

Storage facilities in a water supply distribution system are required primarily to deal with fluctuating demands of water usage. Water is pumped into the storage tank during periods of low demand, such as at night. During the daily peak of water usage, which usually occurs during short periods of the late afternoon or early evening, water is pumped out of the storage tank and into the mains to maintain water pressure.

A full storage reservoir can be depended upon to furnish part of the peak demand, when it occurs, by automatically feeding some of the stored surplus water into the main when the main pressure begins to drop

A water system should be able to store at least one day's demand of water. It is best to determine the average daily demand during a high demand month such as July or August. The monthly demand can then be divided by 30 or 31 to determine the daily demand. In one water system, the demand was 16,000,000 gallons of water during the month of July. So the system decided on a storage tank with a minimum volume of 516,129 gallons. (That is, 16,000,000 divided by 31.)

Types of Storage Facilities

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The location and type of distribution storage facilities will depend on local conditions. Every community or area to be served will require a different sort of storage facility. Industrial and high value areas will require more elevated storage than low value districts. We will consider three types of elevated storage facilities in this section: standpipes, elevated tanks, and ground level storage at high elevation. Standpipes, like the one shown below, are large vertical pipes which are completely filled with water.

z Standpipes

are essentially very tall ground storage tanks. A standpipe may hold a large volume of water, but unless it is located at a high elevation, only the water at the very top of the standpipe may be used. In a typical standpipe, less than half of the water in the standpipe is usable if the pressure in the system is to be maintained. For this reason, standpipes are the least desirable of the elevated storage facilities.

Elevated tanks are raised above the ground on one or more supporting legs. Elevated tank and ground level storage tanks located at high elevation are recommended over standpipes because all of the water in these tanks can be used. The high elevation of the tank puts the water under pressure. In general, elevated storage tanks are recommended over ground storage tanks. Elevated storage tanks allow a great deal of water to be stored for peak demand periods, reducing the number of wells required to supply an adequate quantity of water.

z Transmission

mains associated with elevated tanks can be smaller and high lift pump equipment can have a smaller capacity. The elevated tank will supply better and more uniform pressure than that supplied by a ground tank. During interruptions of power supply or failure of equipment, water from an elevated storage tank can still be used since only gravity is required to carry the water from the storage tank into the mains.

Location of Elevated Storage Tanks

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storage tanks should be located on the highest ground level available in or near the area to be served. The cost of securing and reaching the various available sites should also be taken into account.

When possible, storage tanks should be located beyond the center of consumption, as shown above. When located in this manner, the piping between the tank and the water source is used both as a transmission line and as part of the distribution system. Mains leading to and from the storage facilities should be large enough to handle the maximum emptying and filling rates of the tank. If the mains are too small, then the value of the storage tank is reduced since it cannot be efficiently filled and the water in it cannot be efficiently moved to the distribution system.

z To

get the most benefit from a storage tank, control mechanisms should be arranged so that the tank is kept as full as possible at all times. The cost of these control mechanisms is relatively low compared to the cost to the water system if the tank is not kept properly full. A level recording device at the storage tank can transmit information to a central point, preferably to the pumping station, so that the level of water in the tank can be monitored.

Tank Maintenance
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As with any other aspect of the distribution system, proper maintenance of storage facilities is essential. Tank maintenance can be expensive and must be properly justified to municipal decisionmakers. When suggested maintenance is not obvious or seems to be too expensive, experts can be consulted for second opinions. An experienced, unbiased inspector can be obtained from a tank construction company. The inspector is needed for only one day, so the cost for his services is a relatively small price to pay to know whether the major work recommended is needed.

SUMMARY
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The distribution system carries water from the treatment plant to the consumers. The system is also used for fire. When designing a distribution system, it is essential to consult an engineer and to consider the future growth of the community to be served. Consideration must be given to the expected water pressure in the pipes, to the quantity of water required, and to the diameter and material of the pipes. Other components of the distribution system include valves, hydrants, meters, joints, and storage tanks.

The first step when constructing all or part of a distribution system is to make a field sketch. Then the pipe bed is made and the pipe is cleaned and laid in place. Before being used, the new pipe line must be sanitized and checked for leaks. Once in place, the distribution system requires continual maintenance. Potential problems include: pipe deterioration; leaks and breaks in the pipes; contamination of the water due to low pressure causing direct cross-connections, to back-siphonage, and to gasoline passing through the walls of polyethylene pipes.

z The

distribution system is a business venture and economics must be considered when planning water main extensions and other expensive changes.

END OF PRESENTATION

Copyright by Dr. Tomas U. Ganiron Jr 2007