The Pyramidal Electric Transducer:

A DC to RF Converter for the Capture of Atmospheric Electrostatic Energy

Peter Grandics *
Abstract

It is difficult to estimate the We have found that the dimensional ratios of the Great electric power of thunderPyramid of Giza (GPG) express the key ratios of an AC storms, as they typically voltmaintain a steady-state age sine wave as well as ratios of the Fibonacci number. electrical As structure during their pyramidal horn antennas are suitable for the detection lifespan4 despite charge losses of from short-pulse waveforms, we reasoned that the shape of lightning, corona discharges, GPG precipitation, and turbulence. could embody a time domain, wideband antenna for Even with this gap in our atmosunderstanding of pheric electrostatic discharge (ESD) impulses. This thunderstorm hypotheelectrification processes, a sis has subsequently been confirmed. We have further rough estimate of the found magnitude that the pyramidal antenna, modeled on the GPG, can of power generated by couthunderstorms can be derived ple into the atmosphere and transfer the power of ESD as folimpulses into a novel lumped-element resonant circuit lows: Thunderstorms can be that traced by monitoring converts the random impulses into regular series of lightning expoactivity, more than 90% of nentially decaying sinusoidal wave trains. Thus, ESD which occurs over impulslandmasses, es can be transformed into an alternating current of pre- primarily in Central Africa, dictable frequency. This system could become a source of the South Central United renewable electric power by utilizing the electrical States, activity of and the Amazon Basin.5 A the atmosphere. medium-sized thunderstorm (about 200 km diameter) with intra-cloud voltages of about Introduction 100 MV6 and a precipitation Atmospheric electricity manifests as a buildup of current of about 20 nA/m2 can electrostatgenerate7,8 at least 6.28x1010 ic energy, a phenomenon that continuously electrifies W. Assuming 2,300 active our thunderstorms at any given environment.1 In the global atmospheric-electrical moment,9 the estimated circuit, average the Earths surface is negatively charged while the atmos- total power output of phere is positively charged.2 The voltage gradient thunderstorm activity is between approximatethe Earths surface and the ionosphere is believed to be ly 1.44x1014 W. A hurricanes maintained by the electrical activity of the troposphere power generation is estimated as well as the solar wind-coupled magnetospheric dynamo.3

at about 1014 W;10 in comparison, the total power generation capacity of the world is only 3.625x1012 W,11 a fraction of the power generated in the troposphere by thunderstorm activity. This suggests that the density of atmospheric electrical activity may be high enough to tap, and indicates that atmospheric electricity, if harnessed, could meet all the energy needs of mankind. Atmospheric electrostatic discharge (ESD) impulses are random and of short duration (nanosecond range) as well as of wide frequency of occurrence. Antennas capable of handling similar short-pulse waveforms can be found in radar systems, where they are called the pyramidal horn antennas. Intriguingly, popular scientific literature describes inexplicable electromagnetic phenomena under scaleddown replicas of the Great Pyramid of Giza.12 These phenomena showed a variability that made its interpretation difficult. We hypothesized that these findings were possibly due to natural fluctuations in the atmospheric electrostatic field detected by the GPG as a time domain, wideband antenna. Therefore, we have

investigated whether an antenna modeled on the GPG would capture ESD impulses and if these random impulses could subsequently be converted into an AC voltage sine waveform of predictable frequency. This would allow a direct conversion of the potential energy of an electrostatic field into an alternating current, making atmospheric electrostatic charges a possible source of commercial power generation.

sigused to generate an nal that can be detected in an atmospheric electrostatic insulated coil placed in prox- field, and imity of the capacitor plate.13 Tektronix TPS2024 as well as Such structure is similar to a TDS3054 digital oscilloscopes transverse electromagnetic were used for signal antenna (TEM)14 as well as the acquisition and analysis. pyramidal horn antenna Swept signal suitable for the detection of analyses were performed by impulse events of short using Wavetek 185 and 187 duration. sigHere, we report on further nal generators. developments with this sys- We first analyzed the tem15 including tracing energy dimensional ratios of the GPG an Methods and Results transfer across system comPreviously, we reported that a charged pyramidal-shaped ponents. A laboratory van der capacitor converts ESD impulses into a high-frequency Graaf generator (VDG) was d ISSUE nfinite cylindrical metallic emitter of the pyramid (52 cm diameter, 26 cm high near its apex. with 0.3 mm wall thickness) The coil is to account for the fact that connected in atmospheric ESD impulses are parallel with received omni-directionally. an external capacitor Experimental setup: to provide a The 50 output of the signal specific generator is connected to the resonant cylindrical emitter. frequency. Channel 1 is the signal A secondary measurement (pyramid). coil of Figure Channel 4 is the sweep signal smaller control voltage (ramp wavediameter found that it incorporates form of 10ms period). (coil 2) of a key ratios of an AC voltage geometrical universal The oscilloscope trace shows sine greater form and antenna waveform as well as three a wide bandwidth response length and electrical design. Fibonacci number ratios demonstrating that the 1 foot larger number properties. As To (Table 1). base length pyramid indeed of turns is our pyramidal investigate We note that the functions as a wideband positioned electric this pyramidal unit cell antenna. coaxially transducer possibility, constants are a funcwithin the first modeled on a For the power transmission coil and serves tion of and . Key sine the GPG may logarithmic wave parameters are as a resonant function as a sweep was studies, we used the same step-up transresonant with time domain, performed on pyramidal antenna/charge the base length and height former wideband a 1 foot base accumulation element of the GPG, suggesting winding antenna, it is length modeled that the inductively 1. The possible that pyramid from on the GPG.13 The pyramid may scale up coupled with the ratios 500 Hz to electrostatic field in air volumetrically as an coil 1 (Figure displayed in 5 MHz at 10 produces ESD antenna/electric 2). the GPG are msec sweep impulses on the conductive transducer. The Fibonacci sufficient for speed by using pyramids external surface. A number appears in the design of a Wavetek 185 coil wound with insulated association these sigwire on a conductive with side dimensions types of nal generator cylindrical (shape factor). The antennas. (Figure 1). substrate (coilform) is mathematical relaTherefore, the The pyramid attached electrically and tionship between and GPG may was placed mechanicalmay indicate a coupling demonstrate a inside a ly to the conducting surface between

Table 1. The summary of the main mean dimensions of the Great Pyramid of Giza16 and an analysis of its ratios.
Dimension meter royal cubit L (base) ratios Key sine

/4=1/

After charging the pyramid

capacitor, the signal

measured on coil 2 leads is an exponentially damped sinusoidal waveform at regular periodic intervals (Figure 3). The pyramidal electric transducer is capable of absorbing ESD impulses from an electrostatic field generated by a laboratory VDG (Figure 4). Periodic discharge events were detected at a distance of 1 m between the pyramid and the Placement of colVDG. The electrostatic field strength was measured by using a lector with Monroe 244 electrostatic resonance voltmeter and found to be capacitor about 3 kV/m, much less than the field strength observed during thunderstorms at ground level (10 kV/m or more).17 A load may be connected to coil 2 to draw power from the system. The load may be a resistor, a rectifier or storage coils inside the
Figure 2. pyramidal charge

spectral response of

230.35 440 height 146.71 280 slope 186.52 356 edge 219.21 418 D (base diagonal) 325.76 622.25 280/440=0.636 3=2/ AVE/PEAK=0.6 363=2/ 440/622.25=0. 707 RMS/PEAK=0.7 GPG 07 280x622.25/44 0x440=0.9 AVE/RMS=0.9 280/D/2=0.9 AVE/RMS=0.9 Fibonacci number ratios in GPG dimensional 356/L/2=1.618 356/418=0.809 05 /2 356/280=1.271 wave ratios

the 1 foot base length

pyramidal antenna.

ISSUE 7 3, 200 7 I

nfinite Energy

Figure 3. The pyramid coil 2 oscilloscope. signal measured by

capacitor

powering a DC The element to a load, or simply a pyramid (Figure 6), rectifluorescent tube s body is is fierserving attached capable of capacitor as an AC load electrical charging as -load with threshold ly and well as resistanc nonlinearity mechani periodic e. (Figure 5). The cally to resonant The circuit a lumped- discharging. energy diagram of transfer The L2 the pyramidal element between resonant secondary electric coil (coil 2) the LEC transducer is circuit and coil (LEC) that wound on a shown 2 was nonconductistudied, in Figure 5. The converts ESD ve coilform a pyramidal impulsserves charge es into an as a step-up accumulation RF signal transformer element (P), (Figures 3 and forms a placed on an insulating and 6). The resonant circuit with base, couples to LEC, a combinatio the C2 the atmosphere n of capacitance. and serves as an The antenna for ESD three impulses. It also capacitive secondary forms a capacitor elements coil output and one can be with the Earth inductive connected ground. to coil 2 signal output control wires. voltage Channel 3 (ramp is the wavefo sweep rm of frequency 100 ms marker of period) the . Wavetek With a resona 178 nce signal generator. capacit Channel 4or (290 pF) is the across sweep coil 1, the resonanc

Figure 4. Pulse train of discharge events.

shown in scope trace (Figure Figure 6. 7) indicates setup: The coils approximately 1 Channel were 1 is the activated octave per horiwith a zontal division, signal logarithm from left (50 kHz) measure ic to right (50 MHz). ment sweep (coil 1). from 50 The signal, a sine wave with 5 V Channel kHz to 50 peak amplitude, is 2 is a MHz at delivered across a 1 second 100 kilo-ohm probe milliseco resistor to the unit (100 nd sweep under test. Mohm, speed. 10x) The Experimental attached

of the coil second peak is detected at 8).2By optimally coil 2 from tuning the coil sweep pyramid 1 peak generator. 2 and attached and coil probe the 2 to the middle 2 is response connected trace is 25 resonant the MHz. with coil (Figure 1. 10). We have tive also coilform h about 9.5 MHz. The peak second peak We togethcarried out differential coilformto and measurements thethe other. difference signal The resonance generator to probe between 2 signal Subsequently, The thedifferential sides is subtracted of coil weinvestigated coupled 2 (Figure one 9). output effect lead inof the coil sp voltage across coil 1 also appears at response seen in er, the output investigate can bethe optimized, eneroutput connected from the An probe to the energy 6.55 1 pyramid. sigtransfer MHz,to higher, then from thezero, coilcoilthen 1 to a coil geometry cascade 2 wasof shown other about at this frequency (Figure coil power transferred gy transfer tofrom coil Probe 1 to 1 is nal coil connected to 2 reveal with in the the to what spectral resonances one isside happening of form enhanced up coil toand across about thus energy coil to winding 2; the transfer pyramid body to make it
electric er circuit Figure 6. The transduc model. lumped- resonant model element circuit .

Figure 5. The pyramidal

ISSU E

output (Figure 8). coil 1 For this, a windi new ng coilform and was made coilfo that covered rm over twomay thirds of have coil 2 in length, with allow a 1.3 mm ed a highe thick, dielectric- r Q filled space and left between less the coilform coupli and coil 1. ng to Repeating coilfo the swept rm. signal Su analysis of bse Figure 8, que we see that ntl coil 2 y, draws we power from dev coil 1 at a elo frequency ped of about 4.8 ano MHz; some the absorption r at a lower con frequency duc peak is also tive seen coil (Figure 11). for The m modified that geometry co and the mp extra lete spacing ly between the enc

to subt ract cha nnel 4 fro m cha nnel 3 (Fig ure 14). T o c al los in place with power id, a c ed tabs leaving transf 10 coil a 1 mm wide er resisto ul at 2. air-gap. Coil across r was A 1 was wound the placed e p Tef on the syste in o lon acrylic tube m. series w hea (27 turns) Channwith er t- using el 1 the in shri 20 AWG showe wavef to nk enameld orm sle coated damp genera th e eve magnet wire. ed tor. 0.4 Repeating sinuso Voltag p y mm the swept idal es ra thick signal pulse were was analysis of trains measu m id place Figure 8 startin red at , d overproduced g chann v the very high Q about el 3 ol entire peaks from 1 V p- (input ta length both p. drive g of the coils that Chann from e coilfo were well el 2 gener a rm. tuned showe ator) cr An together d and o acryli (Figure 12). damp chann ss c tube We ed el th was subsequen sinu- 4 e then tly set a soids (after 1 place signal about the 0 d over generator 10 V 10 the (Wavetek p-p resisto re coilfo 185) (Figur r). si rm producing e 13). The st (3.1 asymmetri To math o mm cally measu functi r wall squarere on of was thickn shaped power the ess) waves into scope mult and (5V) to the was iplie held measure pyram used d by curr

ent r throu e t gh the r T same h o resist p or (calcu lated from voltag e and resist ance). To calcul ate the power out of coil 2, the voltag e across coil 2 was multi plied by the curre nt throu gh the 100k load resist or (calcu lable from voltag e). Power transf er efficie ncy calcul ations are show n in Table 2. We hav e als o

Electro and magneti the c modelin indiv g of the idual power wind transfer ings element of is shown wire in arou Figure 15. nd it, The separ conductive ated pyramid is by electrically the coupled to thick the con- ness ductive of coilform the for coil 1. diele The coil of ctric. conductive Anot wire her surrounde impo d by rdielectric tant insulation facto is coupled r in to the the coilform, mode mainly by ling capacitive is the coupling coil between interthe wind coilform

ing the wound the The F capa coil, but it entire coil is i citan interacts coil then g ce, with the as a repre u deter coil-to-core series sente r incremental of d as a e mine capacitance singl series 6 d by and econne ) the the inter- turn cted i avera winding coils, set of n ge capacitance each single d wire . with -turn i diam Althoug its eleme eter h the coil own nts. cate and is a resist Th s dista continuo ance, e the nce us perent tota betw system, turn ire l een and an induc coi inte cond exact tance l- rwi uctiv model , cor ndi e would inter- e- ng turns. be windi res cap Like represented ng on acit wise, by a capac anc anc the complex itanc e e, coil integral e, sys as resist calculus and te wel ance expression, coilm l as is the a simpler to(re the total discrete core pre tota resist model can capac sen l ance be created itanc ted coil of by treating e. in -to-

core a capa n c citan o i ce n i and t c the h r total e indu ctanc e. An exter nal reson ance capa citor (a discr ete exter nal com pone nt) is conn ected acros s the coil to provi de a reson

Figure 7. Swept signal analysis setup.

Figure 9. Differ ential meas ureme nt on coil 2

Swep signal

of coil

and

Figure 8.

analysis resonances

ener-

gy transfer.

Fig Figure 10. ure Differential a wideband replicas periodic, of can have orms a that 11. measureme 12 antenna. exponentially significant typiSw nt on coil 2the GPG. ept with one As vertical decaying bearing on sig lead of possibility atmospheric sinusoidal wave the ability nal coil 1 potential trains by a novel of the an output aly subsequentl follows lumped-element a system to connected sis y been diurnal resonant and circuit, attract electo the of pyramid confirmed comprisingtrostatic an coil res body. insulated cycle, coil energy. on measuring wound on a anc the spectral conductive the optimizatio es prising result ofexplains an response variable ofcylindrical n of the coil d a pyramiresults substrate that system, is en dal antenna reported. electricallypower erour analysis of gy modeled Further on coupled transfer tra the GPG. analysis to the of pyramid efficiencies nsf Our resultsbody and is should be in the dimensional er phenomeno parallel to a excess of wit provide n will resonance likely 90%, as RF h advance capacitor. our ratios of the the explanation understandi Connecting former one mo Great Pyramid difi theng oflead the of coildesign 1 to is a of Giza, which ed inexplicabl physical the pyramid body raises the coil basesincreasof established possibility that for electromag electromag es energy transfer field of RF its m. 18

l l s i c h y

mai

ntai

na

stea

dy-

state

elect

phenetism. as the charge engineering. builders were nomena ESD accumulation Estimatin trying to observed impulses element (pyrag the construct a under aremid) resonates electric at structure that scaled- converte the frequencypower of of could act as down d into the LEC. Thisthunderst e

cal

rical

portion of ion We Holtzwort ng wea the of als h reported capac ther charges tero that a ity of con present rest pro large the ditio inside the rial pos fraction pyra ns. thunderclo thu e of the mid is This ud. The nde that ground- direct acti actual rsto the ionospheri ly vity magnitude rm gen c potential propo wou of acti erat difference rtiona ld electric vity ion of 450 kV l to its be power wo of can surfac facil generated uld ele be bridged e itate by faci ctri at a low area, d by thundersto litat city altitude of a an rm e wo 1500 m;19 suffic obse activity effo uld at this iently rvati may rts be elevation large on exceed to comm he pyra repo global tap erciall measured mid rted power into y a short could fro generator this practi circuit potent m capacity larg cal current of ially Rus by as e even 30-50 gener sia. much as poo in the A20 using ate R three l of absen a short mega a orders of atm ce of wire mesh watts d magnitude osp thund charge of ar . The heri ercollector. power te geographi c storm As the even st cal ene gener chargeunder in concentrat rgy. ators. accumulati fair g
ying sinusoidal wav ms ted in coil 1 asymm squa wav pulsi efor genera and coil 2 by etrical re- e ng

o f t h e s p a c e o v e r a 4 4 m t a ll fi b e r g l a s s p

yr amid locat ed near Mos cow2

1

reve aled a large ioniz ed colu mn of air over the area of the verti cal axis of the pyra mid. Th

Figure 12. ent of ance ng with the redesigned coil Measurem reson coupli .

form. F i

ISSUE rgy

column altit had a ude width of 2 of km. about 500 m It is rem and reached ark an abl
.

e induced surf sign at that by a ace, ifi- m this noncond demcant os effe uctive onst deg ph ct pyramid rati ree er was al ng a of ic

ion izat ion eve n un

c vatio likely by ion o id. e ns of be enha - the T relat ampli ncin izattro h ivefied g the ion po e ly by attra of sp R cond coupl ctionthe her u uctiv ing of at e s e the char mo wit s atmo first ges sph h a i sphe resonant to ere ful a ric circuit the , ln dom to the pyra cousca s ains. charge mida ld le t T accumul l rea po u hi ation elect ch we d s element ric a r y ed pat ef pyratrans ma ge a pyramid h fe mid duce tter ner l may to ct body. r by of ato s open a hig mil r o low her w Thus, its a ouRF simil es pyr n impedan ele ld output, ar int am o now or me increasi cy rrica ng of nes emissio driv en nta ing vir l frequen hu and ns is maj on ch ue es. ic conseq nc
22,23

t e d a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e

ramid. fThis is reasy to einterpre q t in the u context eof our n observa -tions. cy As of electrifi lig cahtn tion of ing thunder in clouds the drive vic severe Figu ini weather re ty includin 14. Mea of g light- sure the men t of py

po wer tran sfer acr oss sys tem

ning ng fro rclouds bot tnin vi we a pheno cha m would h g ty ll t mena, rge thu reduce ligh acti as as u depleti s nde other we er enome inst tio of op y alla n pr erl severe ath ph na, , sized cle ne- nclu rst y n ve r pyram s fits sion or andg nti a idal , ms cont ng electri of by po sa poss . A - h its c transd we vin ibly pyr str is di ucers r g thou am uct el ssi in ge bot sandida ion e pa hurric s of l , ct tio ane- ner h prone ati liv tera str can ri n. heavil on: es watt uct act c A y the an s of ure as p popul y d pow , a o p ated co pr er wit sui w o areas uld op are h tab e w could ha ert genera its le r e beco ve y. ted in opt cha a r me ad Ithe im rge n more dit n tropos al sin d g than ion phere ge k, p e just al cby om cap r n vehi- be o thunde etr turi e e
.

an thr n set our wit en cat h ges ea to ecosyst h tia ast tha te up em pot lly rop t el ectricit y m is a renew a b le
cess es in Atm osp her es, H

Atmos ph eri c G l o b a l w a r m i n g cl e ea n n h en o er g u y s so e ur ce th g at a co s ul d gi ve h u m an it y an o p

ce gr d er fair geo area, a ou by weathe gra height nd inte r phi of 100 su rnal conditi cal m, and rf resoons. area a con- ac nan Group s, ductiv e. t s of thus e C circ several co surfaceha uits pyrami mbi would rg to dal nin provid e incr electri g e a far ca eas c thei more pt e transd r effecti ur ope ucers cha ve e r- could rge charge w atio be coll sink ou nal placed ecti than ld effi with- on the be cienin cap surrou ai cy specifi acit nding de und c y.
In er RMS; R

b y a n t h r o p o g e n i c

c a u s g e r d e

poself- ha rt destru rm un i- ctive . ty ecoto logicalA be trend, ck gi as n well n re as ve protec o rsi t import ng w a ant da weath le ng erer threatou ened d s areas an from ge d physic al
70 s e .9 c I = V/ 10

mBe e dy lg ef
ige m . I ea am Te su als n ch re o no m in t lo en de gy ts bte I Co an d th rp d to an or hisMi k ati M on pa ke ik for rti Be e his ci ige B w pa l ei or tio an ge n d l k in Gr fr wi thi eg o th s or

th stu y a su

el

M u g .a es er V b ti o lo en g e ns e o ce lc n o th s f m e 1. o m m An der r e a son n n , ttusR. h s cr V. 19 e ip 77. ia t. In r n Ele R ctri d cal v Pro

51 3x 10
2

Table sys 2. tem Calcula . tion of power In transfer efficien pu t cy across po the

w l 0.965V er RMS; M R= at 10 h Frame Ch time: 4 an sec ne

I= =

= = 0. 96 O C 5x h 2 9. 6 F 65 r x1 I P 0-2 =

0.9 9.6 A 65/ 5x 10 10

-

P = V x I

Table 3. Calculat ion of power transfer efficienc y with VDG driver.

7 51 6.7 72 t 2x 5 = 10 p Mat 0. W Frame h 2/1 A p ut 6 Ch time: P O 7 p ann 100 0= o = sec 2 o el ut Vx = 0.6 w 6.7 I= I= w 4. pu 2V 6.

er

2 (Coil Fr a 2

C output m h ) e a 70.9V ti n RMS; n R= m e: el 100k 20

= 0x 6x . 1 10 V 90- x1 5 3 x x 0k 09 I7= W = . 5. x5 7. 5A 00 = 92 2. P 7 = 0-

fi c % ci y ) e ( n E E = 2. 51 3x

W Ef

102

5= 55 102

0.5

/4.51 0.

6x x100= 5%

15.Elem inc men model and for ents for re tal of coils coil m

IS S UE 7 3, 20 0
em nts in Ma 475 r an, the rsh 7- b M. Stratifo all, 476 o G., rm T.C8. r Ru Region . 7. n st, of Two and Chr e W. Mesosc Sto isti a D., ale lze an, n Sm Convec nbuH., d ull, tive rg, Hol G B. System M. me r F., s, J. 200s, o an Geophy 1. C.R u d s. Res., V ., n Ma 100, oltaBul d rsh D8, ges loc B all, 16341- Insik, a T. 16356. de J.W s C. 5. and ., e 19 Miller, Jus Gas d 95. T.L. t kell S Pr Global Ab , t eci lightni ove W., u pit ng Th Illi d ati activity un ng ie on , online der wo s Ch at sto rth, o arg http:// rm A.J f e www.g s, ., T an hcc.ms J. and h d fc.nasa.Geo Lat u Siz gov/rot phy ha n e ating/ots. m, d Me d_oval Res J. e asu _full.ht ., 198 rs re ml. 106 0. t me 6. , Ai o

7
rm a s r P in r th e Vi ci nit y of La ng m uir La bo rat or y, Q. J. R. M ete or ol. So c., 10 6, 15 917 5. 8. M 6 at Me commu Hi 17. a asur nicatio gh Krehbi Di eme n. Inte el, P.R. sta nt 21. ran 1986. nc of http:// nual In The e, Lo www.p Vari Earths wer yramid abili Electric Inf At oflife.c ty al ini mos om/engof Environ te phe /tests_e Sea ment: En ric xperim Ice Studies er Ver ents.ht Thi in gy, tical ml ckn Geophy 12 Pot 22. ess sics, , enti Kerr, in Nation 71 al R.A. the al , Diff 1999. Arct Acade 13 eren Will ic my - ces, the Reg Press, 24 Arctic ion, Washin . Geo Ocean gton 19 phys Lose Nat D.C., . . All Its ure, pp. H Res. Ice? 425, 206- olt Lett Science, pp. 231. z ers, 286, 947 18. w 8, pp. Grandi ort 783 1828. 950. cs, P. h, 23. 2007. R. 786. Laxon, A The 19 20. S., Genesi 81 Hol Peacoc bo s of . tzw k, N., Funda orth and mental Di , R. Smith, ut Forces re Pers D. Acting ct onal 2003.

Holeza s lek and Ele R. Reiter, ctri eds., cal Steink opff, En Darms vir tadt, pp. 87- on me 99. 2. nt: Feynm Stu an, die R.P. s in 1964. Ge Lecture op s on hys Physics ics, , Na Addiso tio n nal Wesle Ac y, Inc., ade Palo my Alto, Pre Califor ss, nia, Wa Vol. 2, shi Chapte ngt r 9. on, 3. D. Roble, C., R.G. pp. and 20 Tzur, 6I. 23 1986. 1. In The 4. Earth Bat

S t i n c h h e e m i c A a l u e n t g i n h e e o ri n g r a P n et d er a G P ra h n . di D c . s i h n a b s i a o n c Mh

e m ic al e n gi n e er in g. H e h a s w o r k e d in th e fi el d s o f bi o m e di

c a l r e s e a r c h a n d r e c e n tl y i n p h y s i c s f o c u s i

di n o g help cs o find @ n answ ea n ers rt hli e to w our nk curre .n e e nt n glob e al r ener g gy y chall t enge e s. c h *P.O. n o Box l o 1309 g i 12, e s Carls . H bad, e i CA n t 9201 e n 3 d Es mail: t pgran

t ISSUE