Epithelial Tissues

Structure| Sqaumous Epithelium| Cubiodal Epithelium| Columnar Epithelium| Stratified Epithelium| Functions of Epithelium|

Structure Epithelial tissue covers the whole surface of the body. It is made up of cells closely packed and ranged in one or more layers. This tissue is specialised to form the covering or lining of all internal and external body surfaces. Epithelial tissue that occurs on surfaces on the interior of the body is known as endothelium. Epithelial cells are packed tightly together, with almost no intercellular spaces and only a small amount of intercellular substance. Epithelial tissue, regardless of the type, is usually separated from the underlying tissue by a thin sheet of connective tissue; basement membrane. The basement membrane provides structural support for the epithelium and also binds it to neighbouring structures. Types of Epithelial Tissue Epithelial tissue can be divided into two groups depending on the number of layers of which it is composes. Epithelial tissue which is only one cell thick is known as simple epithelium. If it is two or more cells thick such as the skin, it is known as stratified epithelium. Simple epithelium Simple epithelium can be subdivided according to the shape and function of its cells.

Squamous (pavement) epithelium. Squamous cells have the appearance of thin, flat plates. The shape of the nucleus usually corresponds to the cell form and help to identify the type of epithelium. Squamous cells, for example, tend to have horizontall flattened, elliptical nuclei because of the thin flattened form of the cell. They form the lining of cavities such as the mouth, blood vessels, heart and lungs and make up the outer layers of the skin.

Simple sqaumous epithelium

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium.

As their name implies, cuboidal cells are roughly square or cuboidal in shape. Each cell has a spherical nucleus in the centre. Cuboidal epithelium is found in glands and in the lining of the kidney tubules as well as in the ducts of the glands. They also constitute the germinal epithelium which produces the egg cells in the female ovary and the sperm cells in the male testes.

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Simple Columnar Epithelium Columnar epithelial cells occur in one or more layers. The cells are elongated and column-shaped. The nuclei are elongated and are usually located near the base of the cells. Columnar epithelium forms the lining of the stomach and intestines. Some columnar cells are specialised for sensory reception such as in the nose, ears and the taste buds of the tongue. Goblet cells (unicellular glands) are found between the columnar epithelial cells of the duodenum. They secrete mucus or slime, a lubricating substance which keeps the surface smooth.

Simple columnar epithelium

Ciliated Columnar Epithelium These are simple columnar epithelial cells, but in addition, they posses fine hair-like outgrowths, cilia on their free surfaces. These cilia are capable of rapid, rhythmic, wavelike beatings in a certain direction. This movement of the cilia in a certain direction causes the mucus, which is secreted by the goblet cells, to move (flow or stream) in that direction. Ciliated epithelium is usually found in the air passages like the nose. It is also

found in the uterus and Fallopian tubes of females. The movement of the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.

Ciliated columnar epithelium

Glandular Epithelium Columnar epithelium with goblet cells is called glandular epithelium. Some parts of the glandular epithelium consist of such a large number of goblet cells that there are only a few normal epithelial cells left. Columnar and cuboidal epithelial cells often become specialised as gland cells which are capable of synthesising and secreting certain substances such as enzymes, hormones, milk, mucus, sweat, wax and saliva. Unicellular glands consist of single, isolated glandular cells such as the goblet cells. Sometimes a portion of the epithelial tissue becomes invaginated and a multicellular gland is formed. Multicellular glands are composed of clusters of cells. Most glands are multicellular including the the salivary glands.

Glandular epithelium

Stratified Epithelium. Where body linings have to withstand wear and tear, the epithelia are composed of several layers of cells and are then called compound or stratified epithelium. The top cells are flat and scaly and it may or may not be keratinised (i.e. containing a tough, resistant protein called keratin). The mammalian skin is an example of dry, keratinised, stratified epithelium. The lining of the mouth cavity is an example of an unkeratinisied, stratified epithelium.

Stratified epithelium Functions of Epithelial Tissue

Protection Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive loss of water.

Sensation Sensory stimuli penetrate specialised epithelial cells. Specialised epithelial tissue containing sensory nerve endings is found in the skin, eyes, ears, nose and on the tongue.

Secretion In glands, epithelial tissue is specialised to secrete specific chemical substances such as enzymes, hormones and lubricating fluids.

Absorption Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients from the digestion of food.

Excretion Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste products from the body and reabsorb needed materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat glands.

Diffusion

Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases, liquids and nutrients. Because they form such a thin lining, they are ideal for the diffusion of gases (eg. walls of capillaries and lungs).

Cleaning Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign bodies which have entered the air passages.

Reduces Friction The smooth, tightly-interlocking, epithelial cells that line the entire circulatory system reduce friction between the blood and the walls of the blood vessels.

Connective tissue
Structure Connective tissues function primarily to support the body and to bind or connect together all types of tissue. This tissue also provide a mechanical framework (the skeleton) which plays an important role in locomotion. Unlike epithelial tissue, connective tissue is characterised by the large amounts of intercellular substance (also called ground substance or the matrix) that it contains. Connective tissue are relatively few cells which are widely seperated from each other. These living cells are responsible for secreting the large amounts of intercellular ground substance (matrix). The matrix is a non-living material which may be liquid (eg. blood), semi-solid (eg. connective tissue) or solid (eg. bone). Embedded in the matrix are a variety of connecting and supporting fibres, eg. collagen fibres and elastic fibres. Classification of the basic connective tissue depends on the predominant fibre type present in each. Connective tissue can be divided into four main types.

Cartilage
| Hyaline cartilage| White fibrocartilage| Elastic cartilage|

Cartilage is usually found in close association with bone in the body. It is a type of connective tissue which is tough, semi-transparent, elastic and flexible. The matrix or ground substance of cartilage consists mainly of glyco-protein material, chondroitin. The cartilage cells (chondrocytes) lie scattered in the matrix. Cartilage is covered by a dense fibrous membrane, the perichondrium. No nerves or blood vessels occur in cartilage. In some vertebrates, such as sharks, the entire skeleton is made up of cartilage. In mammal embryos, the skeleton first forms as cartilage tissue. Cartilage acts as a model and is gradually replaced by bone as the embryo grows. Such cartilage is known as temporary cartilage. The

process by which bone tissue follows the cartilage model and slowly replaces it is known as ossification. Permanent cartilage (cartilage which does not become ossified) is found in the tip of the nose, in the external ear and in the walls of the trachea (windpipe) and the larynx (voice-box). Hyaline cartilage. Hyaline cartilage is semi-transparent and appears bluish-white in colour. It is extremely strong, but very flexible and elastic. Hyaline cartilage consists of living cells, chondrocytes, which are situated far apart in fluid-filled spaces, the lacunae. There is an extensive amount of rubbery matrix between the cells and the matrix contains a number of collagenous fibres. Hyaline cartilage occurs in trachea, the larynx, the tip of the nose, in the connection between the ribs and the breastbone and also the ends of bone where they form joints. Temporary cartilage in mammalian embryos also consists of hyaline cartilage. Functions

Reduces friction at joints. By virtue of the smooth surface of hyaline cartilage, it provides a sliding area which reduces friction, thus facilitating bone movement.

Movement Hyaline cartilage joins bones firmly together in such a way that a certain amount of movement is still possible between them.

Support The c-shaped cartilagenous rings in the windpipes (trachea and bronchi) assist in keeping those tubes open.

Growth Hyaline cartilage is responsible for the longitudinal growth of bone in the neck regions of the long bones.

White Fibrocartilage. White fibrocartilage is an extremely tough tissue. The orientation of the bundles depends upon the stresses acting on the cartilage. The collagenous bundles take up a direction parallel to the cartilage. Fibrocartilage is found as discs between the vertebrae between the pubic bones in front of the pelvic girdle and around the edges of the articular cavities such as the glenoid cavity in the shoulder joint. Functions

Shock absorbers. The cartilage between the adjacent vertebrae absorbs the shocks that will otherwise damage and jar the bones while we run or walk.

Provides sturdiness without impeding movement. The white fibrocartilage forms a firm joint between bones but still allows for a reasonable degree of movement.

Deepens sockets. In articular cavities (such as the ball-and-socket joints in the hip and shoulder regions) white fibrocartilage deepens the sockets to make dislocation less possible.

Elastic cartilage. Basically elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage, but in addition to the collagenous fibres, the matrix of the elastic also contains an abundant network of branched yellow elastic fibres. They run through the matrix in all directions. This type of cartilage is found in the lobe of the ear, the epiglottis and in parts of the larynx. Functions

Maintain shape. In the ear, for example, elastic cartilage helps to maintain the shape and flexibility of the organ.

Support Elastic cartilage also strengthens and supports these structures.

Types of Cartilage.

Bone
Bone tissue occurs in the different bones of the skeleton. Bone is a hard and rigid tissue. Like cartilage, bone consists of living cells with large amounts of ground substance or matrix. It is impregnated with organic salts such as calcium carbonate (7%) and calcium phosphate (85%). Small amounts of sodium and magnesium is also present. In addition to this, the matrix contains numerous collagenous fibres and a large amount of water. Collagen fibres together with the bone cells constitute the organic (living) matter in bone tissue. There are different groups of bone in the skeleton, inter alia long bones such as the humerus and femur.
Structure of a Bone

A long bone such as the femur, consists of a centre piece, the shaft (diaphysis) and a thickened head (epiphysis) at each end. The heads articulate with other bones in the joints and are covered with a thin layer of hyaline cartilage. The remainder of the bone is covered with a tough, strong membrane, the periosteum which is richly supplied with blood vessels. There is a small artery which penetrates the shaft near the centre to supply the bone tissue with blood. Beneath the periosteum is a layer of compact bone which is thicker in the shaft than in the two heads. The shaft encloses a hollow, the marrow cavity, which is lined with a thin soft membrane known as the endosteum. The marrow cavity contains a soft tissue richly supplied with fat cells and blood corpuscles, the yellow marrow. The epiphysis of a long bone consist of spongy (or cancellous) bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone. This is made up of bony bars (or trabeculae) arranged in such a way that they are able to resist any force which a applied upon the bone. Between the bars are many tiny cavities filled with a red marrow which contains numerous red blood corpuscles in different stages of development.
Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone

Under the microscope dense, compact bone shows a definite and a characteristic pattern of arrangement. The ground substance of bone is arranged in concentrated layers (lamellae) round the small canals which run parallel to the long axis (shaft) of the bone. These canals, called Haversian canals, are interconnected with one another via Volkmann's canals and contain a blood vessel, a nerve and a lymph vessel. Each Haversian canal is surrounded by concentric layers of bone matrix (called lamallae) and concentric rings of bone forming cells (osteoblasts). Bone cells remain alive and once they have completely surrounded by the hard bone matrix, they are called osteocytes. The osteocytes are embedded in fluid-filled cavities within the concentric lamellae. These cavities are known as lacunae and occur at regular intervals in these concentric layers of bone tissue. The lacunae are connected to one another and to the Haversian canals by a system of interconnecting canals known as canaliculi. Each Haversian canal, its concentric lamellae, lacunae with osteocytes and canaliculi forms a long cylinder and is called a Haversian system. Separate Haversian systems are joined to each other by means of interstitial lamellae.
Growth of Bone Tissue

In a child a long bone has a layer of cartilage between the head (epiphysis) and the shaft (diaphysis). The cartilage grows actively which causes an increase in the length of the bone. The layer does not thicken since the edges (on both sides) are constantly replaced by bone (become ossified). The bone grows in the length until the child reaches its adult size. The cartilage then also ossifies and disappears. At the same time the bone increases in thickness as a result of the formation of bone tissue immediately beneath the periosteum. The innermost layer, nearest to the marrow cavity, are constantly absorbed, which enlarges the size of the marrow cavity.
Functions of Bone Tissue

Support.

The skeleton, which consists mainly of bone tissue, forms a supportive framework, giving shape and rigidity to the body.

Locomotion.

The bone tissue forms a system of levers to which the voluntary muscles are attached.

Protection.

It serves to protect the soft and delicate organs of the body such as the skull protects the brain.

Manufacturing of Blood Cells.

Red blood cells are manufactured in the red bone marrow, which is situated in the spongy tissue at the ends of long bones.

Homeostasis.

Bone plays a part in homeostasis because it helps to maintain a constant level of calcium in the blood.

Structure of long bone with enlargement of a section of compact bone. | connective tissue index | cartilage | bone | blood |

Blood
Although blood is a fluid it must be seen as a connective tissue which consists of a ground substance, blood plasma, and cell elements, blood corpuscles. The only difference with the other connective tissues is that it does not contain fibre elements .

Blood is a sticky fluid with a slightly salty taste. It has a bright red or scarlet colour when it flows from the arteries but a dark red or purple colour when it flows from the veins. It is slightly alkaline (pH 7.4).
Blood Plasma.

Plasma is a yellowish, straw-coloured liquid which consists mainly of water (>90%). The other 10% of the blood plasma consists of dissolved substances of which the following are the most important: Organic constituents (2%) which include nutrients such as glucose, fats, amino acids and vitamins. Inorganic salts and ions which include ions such as bicarbonates, phosphates, sulphates, chlorides, calcium potassium, sodium and magnesium. Secretions such as enzymes and hormones. Dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide, i.e. gases involved with respiration. Antibodies which are protective protein compounds. Plasma proteins (7%), the most important of which are fibrinogen, albumen and globulin.
Functions

Plasma transport the various blood types throughout the body. It transports food and nutrients from the digestive system to the various tissues in the body. It transports waste products from the tissues to the excretory organs. Fibrinogen plays an important role in the clotting of blood. Blood plasma plays an important role in regulating the body temperature. Hormones are transported by the plasma to their target organs where they bring about a specific function. Albumen and globulin regulate the water content of cells and extracellular body fluids . Globulin also gives rise to antibodies that provide immunity against various diseases. The proper balance of ions allows for the normal functioning of nerves, muscles, etc.

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Corpuscles).

In humans there are about 5 million erythrocytes per cubic millimetre of blood. Erythrocytes are small, round, bi-concave discs which float in the blood plasma. They are actually yellowish in colour but when present in large numbers they are red. Each adult red blood cell represents a cell without a nucleus, which is surrounded by a thin, elastic membrane. They are soft, flexible and elastic and therefore move easily through the narrow blood capillaries. Approximately 90% of the content of each erythrocyte is haemoglobin which supplies the characteristic colour of the red corpuscles. Red blood cells are formed in the red marrow of long and flat bones, especially in the spongy regions in the heads of the long bones. The life span of an erythrocyte is approximately 4 months.
Functions

The erythrocytes transport oxygen in the blood from the lungs to all the cells and tissues of the body. Red blood corpuscles also assist with the transport of carbon (IV) oxide from the tissues to the lungs.

They play an important role in regulating the acid-base balance of the blood, thus preventing large changes in pH. Erythrocytes also assist when a blood clot is formed.

Leucocytes (White Blood Cells).

Leucocytes are far less numerous than red blood corpuscles. Leucocytes are larger than red blood corpuscles and have a definite nucleus. They are irregular in shape, slightly translucent and nearly colourless.They are able to change their shape because of the fact that they move by means of pseudopodia (false feet). Many are phagocytic, i.e. they are able to engulf microorganisms and foreign intruders into their cytoplasm by flowing around them. There are five types of leucocytes which can be divided into two groups, namely granular white blood cells where the cytoplasm is granular, and non-granular white cells where the cytoplasm does not contain granules. The two principal types of white blood cells are neutrophils and lymphocytes. Neutrophils are the most abundant and are produced in the red bone marrow. Their nuclei are divided to form 3 to 5 lobes, connected by thin threads of nuclear material. They all have conspicuous granules in their cytoplasm. Eosinophils and basophils also have granules in their cytoplasm and irregular-shaped nuclei. Lymphocytes are produced in the spleen, tonsils and lymph nodes and are the smallest of the white blood cells. There are no granules in the cytoplasm but a large spherical nucleus is present.
Functions

Neutrophils are active in phagocytosis and defend us against harmful viruses, bacteria and other foreign intruders. Neutrophils also play a role in the healing of wounds and repairing worn out and damaged tissues. Neutrophils prevent infections from spreading to other tissues of the body. Lymphocytes are involved in the synthesis and distribution of antibodies in the blood. The B-cells are responsible for humoral or antibody immunity. The T-cells are responsible for cellular immunity.

Blood Platelets.

These are small, colourless, plate-like discs. No nucleus is visible. They are not true cells but are cytoplasmic fragments of large cells found in red bone marrow. When tissue is damaged and the platelets leave the blood vessels, they release a substance which transforms soluble fibrinogen in the plasma to a network of fibrin threads.
Functions

Blood platelets play an important role in initiating the process of blood-clotting and in the plugging up and sealing of damaged blood vessels and form tissues.

Composition of Blood

Muscle tissues
| Structure | Smooth Muscle Tissue | Skeletal Muscle Tissue | Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue |

Structure We know that living organisms can move on their own or can perform other types of movement. Muscle tissue has a ability to relax and contrast and so bring about movement and mechanical work in various parts of the body. There are other movements in the body too which are necessary for the survival of the organism such as the heart beat and the movements of the alimentary canal. Muscles can be divided into three main groups according to their structure, e.g.:

Smooth muscle tissue. Skeletal muscle tissue. Cardiac (heart) muscle tissue.

A whole muscle with many fasciculi

Types of Muscle Tissue

Smooth Muscle Tissue.

Smooth muscle tissue is made up of thin-elongated muscle cells, fibres. These fibres are pointed at their ends and each has a single, large, oval nucleus. Each cell is filled with a specialised cytoplasm, the sarcoplasm and is surrounded by a thin cell membrane, the sarcolemma. Each cell has many myofibrils which lie parallel to one another in the direction of the long axis of the cell. They are not arranged in a definite striped (striated) pattern, as in skeletal muscles - hence the name smooth muscle . Smooth muscle fibres interlace to form sheets or layers of muscle tissue rather than bundles. Smooth muscle is involuntary tissue, i.e. it is not controlled by the brain. Smooth muscle forms the muscle layers in the walls of hollow organs such as the digestive tract (lower part of the oesophagus, stomach and intestines), the walls of the bladder, the uterus, various ducts of glands and the walls of blood vessels .
Functions of Smooth Muscle Tissue
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Smooth muscle controls slow, involuntary movements such as the contraction of the smooth muscle tissue in the walls of the stomach and intestines. The muscle of the arteries contracts and relaxes to regulate the blood pressure and the flow of blood.

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Skeletal Muscle Tissue.

Skeletal muscle is the most abundant tissue in the vertebrate body. These muscles are attached to and bring about the movement of the various bones of the skeleton, hence the name skeletal muscles. The whole muscle, such as the biceps, is enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue, the epimysium. This sheath folds inwards into the substance of the muscle to surround a large number of smaller bundles, the fasciculi. These fasciculi consist of still smaller bundles of elongated, cylindrical muscle cells, the fibres. Each fibre is a syncytium, i.e. a cell that have many nuclei. The nuclei are oval in shaped and are found at the periphery of the cell, just beneath the thin, elastic membrane (sarcolemma). The sarcoplasm also has many alternating light and dark bands, giving the fibre a striped or striated appearance (hence the name striated muscle). With the aid of an electron microscope it can be seen that each muscle fibre is made up of many smaller units, the myofibrils. Each myofibril consists of small protein filaments, known as actin and myosin filaments. The myosin filaments are slightly thicker and make up the dark band (or A-band). The actin filaments make up the light bands (I-bands) which are situated on either side of the dark band. The actin filaments are attached to the Z-line. This arrangement of actin and myosin filaments is known as a sacromere.

A myofibril with actin and myosin filaments

During the contraction of skeletal muscle tissue, the actin filaments slide inwards between the myosin filaments. Mitochondria provide the energy for this to take place. This action causes a shortening of the sacromeres (Z-lines move closer together), which in turn causes the whole muscle fibre to contract. This can bring about a shortening of the entire muscle such as the biceps, depending on the number of muscles fibres that were stimulated. The contraction of skeletal muscle tissue is very quick and forceful.
Functions of Skeletal Muscle Tissue
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Skeletal muscles function in pairs to bring about the co-ordinated movements of the limbs, trunk, jaws, eyeballs, etc. Skeletal muscles are directly involved in the breathing process.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue.

This is a unique tissue found only in the walls of the heart. Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue shows some of the characteristics of smooth muscle and some of skeletal muscle tissue. Its fibres , like those of skeletal muscle, have cross-striations and contain numerous nuclei. However, like smooth muscle tissue, it is involuntary. Cardiac muscle differ from striated muscle in the following aspects: they are shorter, the striations are not so obvious, the sarcolemma is thinner and not clearly discernible, there is only one nucleus present in the centre of each cardiac fibre and adjacent fibres branch but are linked to each other by so-called muscle bridges. The spaces between different fibres are filled with areolar connective tissue which contains blood capillaries to supply the tissue with the oxygen and nutrients.
Functions of Cardiac (Heart) Muscle Tissue
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Cardiac muscle tissue plays the most important role in the contraction of the atria and ventricles of the heart. It causes the rhythmical beating of the heart, circulating the blood and its contents throughout the body as a consequence.

Cardiac Muscle Tissue