CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces.

It is one of the fundamental forms used in metalworking, and can be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Countless everyday objects are constructed of the material. Thicknesses can vary significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate. Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or as a coiled strip. The coils are formed by running a continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter. Sheet metal is produced by a rolling process. If the sheet is thin, it is generally coiled after rolling; if thick, it is available as flat sheets or plates, which may have been recoiled and flattened. Before a part is formed, a blank of suitable dimensions is first cut or removed from a large sheet. Removal is usually done by a shearing process; however, there are several other methods for cutting sheet and plates. The thickness of the sheet metal is called its gauge. Commonly used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauges to about 8 gauges. Metals used in the sheet metal industry include cold rolled steel, mild steel, tin, nickel, titanium, aluminium, brass, and copper. Sheet metals come in flat pieces or coils and are measured by their thickness or gauge. Sheet metals also used in forming process. Formability is a measure of the amount of deformation a material can with stand prior to fracture or excessive thinning. Sheet metal forming ranges from simple bending, to stretching, to deep drawing of complex part. Therefore, determining the extent to which a material can deform is necessary for designing a
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reproducible forming operation. Because mechanical properties greatly influence formability, and forming properties may vary from coil to coil, it is essential to test incoming sheet material. However; outcome of a forming process depends on both material characteristics and process variable such as strain, strain rate and temperature. In fact, stress and strain fields are so diverse during the forming process that no single test can reliably predict the formability of materials in all situations. Material properties that have a direct or indirect influence on formability and product quality are ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, youngs modulus, ductility, hardness, the strain hardening exponent, and the plastic strain ratio. All of these parameters can be determined by testing a specimen cut from the blank. 1.1 General Characteristics of Sheet Metal Forming Process 1.1.1 Roll forming Long parts with constant complex cross sections; good surface finish; high production rates; high tooling costs. 1.1.2 Stretch forming Large parts with shallow contours; suitable for low quantity production; a high labour cost; tooling and equipments cost depends on part size. 1.1.3 Drawing Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes; high production rates; high labour cost; tooling and equipments costs. 1.1.4 Stamping Includes a variety of operations, such as punching,blanking,embossing, bending, flanging, and coining; simple or complex shaped formed at high production rates;
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tooling and equipments costs can be high, but labour cost are low. 1.1.5 Spinning Small or large axisymmetric parts; good surface finish; low tooling cost, but labour cost can be high unless operation is automated. 1.1.6 Peen Forming Shallow contours or large sheets; flexibility of operation; equipment cost can be high; process is also used for straightening parts. 1.1.7 Explosive forming Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisymmetric; low tooling costs, but high labour costs; suitable for low-quantity production; long cycle times. 1.1.8 Magnetic-pulse forming Shallow forming, bulging and embossing operations on relatively low-strength sheets; most suitable for tubular shapes; high production rates; requires special tooling.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

D.Ravi Kumar (2002) noted that Formability analysis of extra-deep drawing steel. He found that the strain distribution characteristics in critical deepdrawing applications. He examined the combined effects of material strain-rate sensitivity and anisotropy on sheet necking. Strain rate sensitivity was also seen to alter the shapes of forming limit curves. Material strain-rate dependence is seen to have a substantial effect. Ziegelheimova, J, Janovec, J and Cejp, J (2003) noted that strain hardening exponent (n) has very strong sensitivity to structure. Using high strength steel sheets the deformation does not reach such values, so it is essential to establish the strain-hardening exponent using different method. Strain-hardening exponent is related to strain as well as strain-rate. It evaluate the values of strainhardening exponent n and strain-rate hardening exponent m for any strain. Zhenyu Xue, John W. Hutchinson (2005) noted that the study on Neck retardation and enhanced energy absorption in metalelastomer bilayers. The role of the elastomer in retarding necking that emerges from his study is fairly complicated. The mechanism of neck retardation requires the elastomer to remain bonded to the metal. Deboning in the vicinity of the developing neck will cause load to be shed to the neck in the metal layer and retardation will be lost. He concluded from the study that the metal is sufficiently ductile that pronounced necking occurs prior to material damage in the form of void nucleation and growth or micro-cracking. Even if material damage contributes to localization, an elastomeric layer may still be useful in retarding the localization

Wiesaw Frcz, Felix Stachowicz(2007) noted that the experimental investigation of the aluminium alloy, brass and drawing quality steel sheet metal bending under both the V-die air bending, flanging and stretch-bending tests. He found that the value of spring-back coefficient is in linear relationship with the value of strain hardening exponent. Significant anisotropy in the sheet materials led to different spring-back behaviours for different sheet orientation. The enclaves of the plastic region, deformed geometry of specimen and springback characteristics were well predicted according to finite element model. Jos A. Rodrguez-Martnez, Alexis Rusinek and Angel Arias (2009) noted that numerical study on the influence of strain hardening on the Critical Impact Velocity (CIV) in tension by using ABAQUS analysis. The analysis allows for a better understanding of the causes responsible of the CIV appearance. CIV phenomenon is founded on the trapping of plastic waves, the CIV value seems to be ruled by the condition of instability. The analytical approach developed by Klepaczko allows for defining such behavior and provides results according to numerical simulations.

CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION Mechanical properties are sensitive to strain rate. Springback is major causes of strain hardening coefficient while forming operation.

Formation of crack at bending areas.

CHAPTER 4 OBJECTIVES The overall objectives of this project are: To determine various material property and to create the data base creation. To analyzing the strain hardening coefficient of cold rolled sheet metals, Different grades like IS 1079,IS 2062,IS 513,BSK 46etc will be studied at different strain rates by using the ASTM E8 machine. To find the suitable material from above grades given.

CHAPTER 5 COLD ROLLED PROCESS 5.1 Cold rolled steel Cold rolled steels provide excellent press formability, surface finish, and thickness and flatness tolerances. Steel companies manufacture three groups of low- or ultra-low-carbon grades to meet a variety of customer formability requirements: CS Type B, DS Type B, EDDS, and EDDS+. They also produce HSLA steels and structural steel grades for those applications that require specified strength levels. Cold rolled steels can also be specified as dent resistant or bake hardenable for applications that require dent resistance after forming and painting. Each grade can be processed with several surface finishes depending on customer requirements. Lubricants can be applied to enhance formability and to avoid atpress lubrication. 5.1.1 Cold rolled steels have the following features:

Excellent Surface Appearance. Cold Rolled Steels have manufacturing controls in place assuring consistent surface quality to satisfy customer requirements.

Formability. Cold Rolled Steels can be used to produce parts containing simple bends to parts with extreme deep drawing requirements.

Paintability. Due to stringent surface roughness controls, Cold Rolled Steels are readily paintable using essentially any paint system.

Weldability. Cold Rolled Steels can be joined using virtually any accepted welding practice.
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5.2 Standard grades for cold rolled steels are:

Commercial Steel (CS Type B). May be moderately formed; a specimen cut in any direction can be bent flat on itself without cracking.

Drawing Steel (DS Type B). DS Type B is made by adding aluminum to the mol steel and may be used in drawing applications.

Extra Deep Drawing Steel (EDDS). Interstitial Free (I-F) steels are made Drawing Steel by adding titanium and/or niobium to the molten steel after vacuum degassing and offer excellent drawability.

Extra Deep Drawing Steel Plus (EDDS+). Interstitial Free (I-F) steels are made by adding titanium and/or niobium to the molten steel after vacuum degassing and offer excellent drawability.

5.2.1 Surface Finish Cold rolled steels are manufactured with a matte finish obtained by rolling with specially roughened rolls on the cold mill and the temper mill. This finish helps to maintain effective lubrication during metal forming and improves the appearance of painted surfaces. Non-standard matte finishes can be provided that optimize the opposing effects of surface roughness on painted part appearance and lubrication during press forming. 5.2.2 Surface Protection and Lubrication To prevent rusting in transit and storage, cold rolled steels can be supplied with a rust protective oil film or press forming lubricants. A pre-applied press forming lubricant provides uniform lubrication and eliminates the housekeeping problems.

A dry film (acrylic/polymer) lubricant can also be supplied by further processing the cold rolled product through a coil coating facility. These specialty organic coatings are easily removed with a mild alkaline cleaner. 5.2.3 Formability and Mechanical Properties The formability of all steel products is a result of the interaction of many variables, the main ones being the mechanical properties of the steel, the forming system (tooling) used to manufacture parts, and the lubrication used during forming. Tight control over chemical composition, hot rolling parameters, amount of cold reduction, annealing time and temperature, and the amount of temper rolling allow the production of high-quality cold rolled steel products to meet customers requirements. Commercial Steel (CS Type B) should be used for moderate forming or bending applications. CS Type B products are produced from aluminum-killed continuously cast slabs and, unless otherwise specified, have a carbon content of less than 0.15%. To prevent the occurrence of fluting or stretcher strains during forming, CS products are tempered as a normal step in the mill processing. For more severe forming applications, Drawing Steel Type B (DS Type B) should be used. DS Type B has a controlled carbon content (<0.06%) and is produced in such a manner that parts formed from DS Type B Steel should not exhibit stretcher strain. Extra Deep Drawing Steel (EDDS) or Extra Deep Drawing Steel plus (EDDS+) should be used for the most demanding forming applications. These
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steels (also known as Interstitial Free or I-F steels) are produced from a vacuum degassed, titanium stabilized grade. EDDS and EDDS+ have the lowest carbon content available (<0,010%) and have been specially formulated to be most ductile products. For high strength or structural applications, cold rolled steels are also available in yield strengths up to 50 ksi. 5.2.4 Paintability Cold rolled steels can be easily painted using a variety of paint systems provided proper care is taken in preparing the material. Prior to painting, the surface should be carefully cleaned with either a solvent or alkaline cleaner. Cleaning should be followed by a pre-treatment prior to painting. Zinc or iron phosphates give good results on cold rolled steels. Mild abrasion prior to pretreating may also be used to enhance mechanical bonding of the paint. Cold rolled steels can be in general supplied as pre-painted or pre-primed.

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CHAPTER 6 EFFECTS OF ELEMENTS ON STEEL 6.1 ELEMENTS ON STEEL Steels are among the most commonly used alloys. The complexity of steel alloys is fairly significant. Not all effects of the varying elements are included. The following text gives an overview of some of the effects of various alloying elements. Additional research should be performed prior to making any design or engineering conclusions. 6.2 EFFECT OF PHOSPHORUS IN SHEET METAL: Phosphorus in steel can have beneficial as well as harmful effects. Phosphorus is one of the most potent solid-solution strengtheners of ferrite. The addition of only 0.17% phosphorus increases both the yield and tensile strength of low-carbon sheet steel by about 62 MPa (9 ksi) while also improving the bake hardening response and deep drawability. Because of these properties, rephosphorized high-strength steels are widely used for cold-forming applications. Phosphorus is also used as an additive in steels to improve machining characteristics and atmospheric corrosion resistance. 6.2.1 Very low Phosphorus The P requirement for this category ranges up to about 0.02%. Steels with very low maximum phosphorus requirements include those that are particularly susceptible to embrittlement. These are mainly high-strength, low-alloy steels containing, for example: Mn, Si, Ti, Nb, V, Mo, Cr, etc.

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While most attention seems to have been focused on residual sulfur reduction, the trend now is to reduce the levels of all residuals including phosphorus. Line pipe steels are among the most demanding as regards low phosphorus content. For the transmission of corrosive gases maximum content of phosphorus P=max 0.02% will be necessary and P=max 0.01% is desirable. The phosphorus content less than 0.01% will be indispensable for low temperature service. Demand for higher formability has increased the use of stabilized, ultra-low carbon steels. As mentioned previously, these steels are susceptible to secondarywork embrittlement in deeply drawn parts. Although boron additions alleviate this problem, boron exerts a negative impact on formability, Lower phosphorus levels, below 0.01 percent, represent a potential alternative solution to the secondary work embrittlement problem. 6.2.2 Moderately Low Phosphorus Products for which roughly 0.02% to 0.03% phosphorus is tolerable include most low-strength grades and high-strength steels that are not subject to hostile environments. Whenever high ductility is required, phosphorus should be kept as low as possible, while keeping in mind the increased cost of reducing the phosphorus level. For commercial quality, plain-carbon steels where formability requirements are minimal, the upper limit of range can be somewhat relaxed. From a product consistency standpoint, tight control of phosphorus is more important than reducing its level below about 0.02% for steels that fall into this category.

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6.2.3 High Phosphorus Phosphorus is commonly used as a strengthening agent in amounts up to about 0.1%. Also, as much as 0.155% P is added to cold rolled, motor lamination steels to reduce AC core loss. As discussed previously, many properties are sensitive to the phosphorus content and the effect of phosphorus depends on the processing method. In addition, processes such as galvanneling are sensitive to the phosphorus content of the base steel. Therefore, tight control of the phosphorus level and choosing the proper process route are important if consistent properties are to be obtained and embrittlement problems avoided. 6.3 Manganese Manganese increases hardenability and tensile strength of steel, but to a lesser extent than carbon. It is also able to decrease the critical cooling rate during hardening, thus increasing the steels hardenability much more efficient than any other alloying elements. Manganese also tends to increase the rate of carbon penetration during carburizing and acts as a mild deoxidizing agent. However when too high carbon and too high manganese accompany each other, embrittlement sets in. Manganese is capable to form Manganese Sulphide (MnS) with sulphur, which is beneficial to machining. At the same time, it counters the brittleness from sulphur and is beneficial to the surface finish of carbon steel.

For welding purposes, the ratio of manganese to sulphur should be at least 10 to 1. Manganese content of less than 0.30% may promote internal porosity and cracking in the weld bead, cracking can also result if the content is over 0.80%. Steel with low Manganese Sulphide ratio may contain sulphur in the form of iron Sulphide
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(FeS), which can cause cracking (a hot-short condition) in the weld

Phosphorus increases strength and hardness, but at the expense of ductility and impact to toughness, especially in higher carbon steels that are quenched and tempered. As such its content in most steel is limited to a maximum of 0.05%. Phosphorus prevents the sticking of light-gage sheets when it is used as an alloy in steel. It strengthens low carbon steel to a degree, increases resistance to corrosion and improves machinability in free-cutting steels. In terms of welding, phosphorus content of over 0.04% makes weld brittle and increases the tendency to crack. The surface tension of the molten weld metal is lowered, making it difficult to control.

6.4 Sulphur Sulphur improves machinability but lowers transverse ductility and notched impact toughness and has little effects on the longitudinal mechanical properties. Its content is limited to 0.05% in steels but is added to freecutting steels in amount up to 0.35% with the manganese content increased to counter any detrimental effects since sulphur is beneficial to machining. For welding, weldability decreases with increasing sulphur content. Sulphur is detrimental to surface quality in low carbon and low manganese steels and it promotes hot shortness in welding with the tendency increasing with increased sulphur.

6.5 Silicon Silicon increases strength and hardness but to a lesser extent than manganese. It is one of the principal deoxidizers used in the making of steels to improve soundness, i.e. to be free from defects, decays or damages. Silicon is present in all steels to a certain extent. Its content can be up to 4% for electric sheets that are widely used in alternating current magnetic circuits.
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In welding, silicon is detrimental to surface quality, especially in the low carbon, resulphurized grades. It aggravates cracking tendencies when the carbon content is fairly high. For best welding condition, silicon content should not exceed 0.10%. However, amounts up to 0.30% are not as serious as high sulphur or phosphorus content. For galvanizing purposes, steels containing more than 0.04% silicon can greatly affect the thickness and appearance of the galvanized coating. This will result in thick coatings consisting mainly zinc-iron alloys and the surface has a dark and dull finish. But it provides as much corrosion protection as a shiny galvanized coating where the outer layer is pure zinc.

6.6 EFFECTS OF OTHER ELEMENTS ON STEEL Copper in significant amounts is detrimental to hot-working steels. Copper negatively affects forge welding, but does not seriously affect arc or oxyacetylene welding. Copper can be detrimental to surface quality. Copper is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion resistance when present in amounts exceeding 0.20%. Weathering steels are sold having greater than 0.20% Copper. Lead is virtually insoluble in liquid or solid steel. However, lead is sometimes added to carbon and alloy steels by means of mechanical dispersion during pouring to improve the machinability. Boron is added to fully killed steel to improve hardenability. Boron-treated steels are produced to a range of 0.0005 to 0.003%. Whenever boron is substituted in part for other alloys, it should be done only with hardenability in mind because the lowered alloy content may be harmful for some applications.

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Boron is a potent alloying element in steel. A very small amount of boron (about 0.001%) has a strong effect on hardenability. Boron steels are generally produced within a range of 0.0005 to 0.003%. Boron is most effective in lower carbon steels. Chromium is commonly added to steel to increase corrosion resistance and oxidation resistance, to increase hardenability, or to improve high-temperature strength. As a hardening element, Chromium is frequently used with a toughening element such as nickel to produce superior mechanical properties. At higher temperatures, chromium contributes increased strength. Chromium is a strong carbide former. Complex chromium-iron carbides go into solution in austenite slowly; therefore, sufficient heating time must be allowed for prior to quenching. Nickel is a ferrite strengthener. Nickel does not form carbides in steel. It remains in solution in ferrite, strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase. Nickel increases the hardenability and impact strength of steels. Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel. Molybdenum may produce secondary hardening during the tempering of quenched steels. It enhances the creep strength of low-alloy steels at elevated temperatures. Aluminum is widely used as a deoxidizer. Aluminum can control austenite grain growth in reheated steels and is therefore added to control grain size. Aluminum is the most effective alloy in controlling grain growth prior to quenching. Titanium, zirconium, and vanadium are also valuable grain growth inhibitors, but there carbides are difficult to dissolve into solution in austenite. Zirconium can be added to killed high-strength low-alloy steels to achieve improvements in inclusion characteristics. Zirconium causes sulfide inclusions to
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be globular rather than elongated thus improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending. Niobium (Columbium) increases the yield strength and, to a lesser degree, the tensile strength of carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of Niobium can significantly increase the yield strength of steels. Niobium can also have a moderate precipitation strengthening effect. Its main contributions are to form precipitates above the transformation temperature, and to retard the

recrystallization of austenite, thus promoting a fine-grain microstructure having improved strength and toughness. Titanium is used to retard grain growth and thus improve toughness. Titanium is also used to achieve improvements in inclusion characteristics. Titanium causes sulfide inclusions to be globular rather than elongated thus improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending. Vanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile strength of carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of Vanadium can significantly increase the strength of steels. Vanadium is one of the primary contributors to precipitation strengthening in microalloyed steels. When thermomechanical processing is

properly controlled the ferrite grain size is refined and there is a corresponding increase in toughness. The impact transition temperature also increases when vanadium is added. All microalloy steels contain small concentrations of one or more strong carbide and nitride forming elements. Vanadium, niobium, and titanium combine preferentially with carbon and/or nitrogen to form a fine dispersion of precipitated particles in the steel matrix.
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CHAPTER 7 TENSILE TEST 7.1 Descriptions A graphical description of the amount of deflection under load for a given material is the stress strain curve. The stress strain curve is generated by pulling a metal specimen in uniaxial tension to failure.ASTM E8/E8M Standard test methods for tension testing metallic materials governs the methods for the determination of yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, percentage elongation at fracture, and reduction of area, the latter two being measures of ductility. Engineering stress S is found by dividing the load P at any given time by the original cross section area Ao of the specimen. S=P/AO Engineering strain e is calculated by dividing the elongation of the gauge length of the specimen L by the original gauge length LO. E=L/LO= (L-LO)/LO

Fig 7.1 stress-strain curve showing total elongation

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Fig7.1 depicts a typical stress-strain curve. The shape and magnitude of the curve depend on the type of metal.pointA repents the proportional limit of the material. A material load intension beyond the point A, when unloaded will exhibit permanent or plastic deformation. The proportional limit is often difficult to calculate; therefore, two practical measurements, offset yield strength and yield by extension under load (EUL), were developed to approximate the proportional limit. The initial portion of the curve below point A represents the elastic region and is approximated by a straight line. The slope of the curve in the elastic region is defined as the youngs modulus of elasticity, and is a measure a material stiffness. E=S/e= (S1-S2)/ (e1-e2) Point B represents the offset yield strength, and is found by constructing a line X-B parallel to the curve in the elastic region.lineX-B is offset a strain amount O-X that is typically 0.2%of the gauge length. Point C yield strength by extension under load (EUL) and it is found by constructing a vertical line Y-C. This line is offset a strain amount O-Y that is typically 0.5% of the gauge length. The ultimate tensile strength or peak stress is represented by point D in fig7.1. Necking begins (dP=0) at the peak point D, on the stress-strain curve. Yield strength and ultimate tensile strength are not directly related to

formability.however, the closer the magnitude of the stresses, the more work hardened is the metal. A work hardened metal exhibits the lower ductility, which reduces ability to stretch. Both elastic and plastic deformation develops during the forming process. Upon removal of the external forces, the internal elastic stresses relax. However, if the forming process is not designed properly, the stress
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relaxation or spring back will cause the part to change shape. A material with lower value of youngs modulus E, and/or higher value of for yield strength, will exhibit greater spring back or shape distortion. 7.2 Elongation Sheet forming operations rarely involve simple uniaxial stretching; the observation made in regard to simple tensile testing can be useful in understanding the behaviour of sheet metals in forming operations. A specimen subjected to tension first undergoes uniform elongations; this elongation is then followed by additional non uniform elongation until fracture occurs. Because the material is being stretched during forming, high uniform elongation is off course, desirable for good formability.

For a material that has a true stress true strain curve that can be represented by the equation =Kn The strain at which necking begins is given by =n. Thus, the true uniform strain in a simple stretching operation is numerically equal to the strain hardening exponent. A large value of n indicates large uniform elongation, and, thus, it is desirable for sheet forming.

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Fig7.1 localized necking in a sheet metal stretched in tension. Whether necking is localised or diffuse depends on the strain rate sensitivity of the material, as given by the equation =Cm Higher the values of m, the neck more diffuse. The fig1.1 shows the localized necking on the steel strip in tension importance of elongation is Determines the capability of the sheet metal to stretch without necking and failure; high strain-hardening exponent (n) and strain-rate sensitivity exponent (m) desirable Note that total elongation is the sum of uniform elongation and post uniform elongation. As stated previously, uniform elongation is governed by the strain hardening exponent, whereas post uniform elongation is governed by strain rate sensitivity index. The higher m value, the more diffuse the neck is, and hence the greater the post uniform elongation becomes before fracture, thus, the total elongation of the material increases with increasing values of both n and m. 7.2.1 Yield point elongation Low carbon steel exhibits a behaviour called yield-point elongation, exhibiting upper and lower yield points as shown in fig1.2; yield point elongation is usually on the order of few percent. This behaviour indicates that, after the material yields,
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it stretches further in certain regions along the specimen, with no increase in the lower yield point, while other regions have not yet yielded. When the overall elongation reaches the yield-point elongation, the entire specimen has been deformed uniformly. The magnitude of the yield point elongation depends on the strain rate and the grain size of the sheet metal. As grain size decrease, yield point elongation increase.

Fig 7.2 Yield-point elongation in a sheet-metal specimen.

7.2.2Anisotropy Another important factor influencing sheet metal forming is anisotropy or Directionality, of sheet metal.anistropy is acquired during the thermo mechanical Processing history of the sheet.anistropy (planar) exhibits difference behavior in Different planar directions; present in cold rolled sheets because of preferred Orientation or mechanical fibrin; causes earring in drawing; can be reduced or eliminated by annealing but at lower strength. Anisotropy (normal) Characteristic determines thinning behavior of sheet metals during Strengthing; important in deep-drawing operations.

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7.2.3 Residual stress Residual stresses can be developing in sheet metal parts because of the non uniform deformation that the sheet metal undergoes during forming. When disturbed, such as by removing a portion of it, the part may distort. Tensile residual stress on surfaces can also lead to stress- corrosion cracking of the part unless it is properly stress relieved. 7.2.4 Spring back Because they generally are thin and are subjected to relatively small strains during forming, sheet metal parts are likely to experience considered spring back. This effect is particularly significant in bending and other forming operations where the bend radius to thickness ratio is high, such is high, such as in automotive body parts.

7.3 True stress and true strain Stress is defined as the ratio of force to area, true stress is defined as =

Where A is the actual (hence true) or instantaneous area supporting the load. Likewise, the complete tension test may be regarded as a series of incremental tension tests where, for each succeeding increment, the original specimen is a little longer than the previous one. Thus, true strain (or logarithmic strain), , can be defined as = = ( )

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Note that, for small values of engineering strain, e= , since ln (1+e)= . For the larger strains, however, the values diverge rapidly. The volume of a metal specimen in the plastic region of the test remains constant. Hence, the true stress within the uniform elongation range can be expressed as

Ao Do Do = ln ( ) = ln ( ) = ln ( ) = 2 ( ) A D D

Once necking begins, the true stress at any point in the specimen can be calculated from the change in the cross sectional area at that point: thus , by definition, the largest strain is at narrowest region of the neck. We have seen that, for small strains, the engineering and true strains are very close, and therefore either one can used in the calculations. However, for the large strains encountered in the metalworking, the true strain should be used. This value is the true measure of the strain.

7.4 Strain hardening The ability to form sheet metal by stretching depends on strain hardening. At the onset of necking, the material is thinned and weakened. Therefore, the strain at the onset of necking should be maximum allowable.

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Fig 7.3 movement of edge dislocation across the crystal lattice Under a shear stress Although the presence of a dislocation lower the shear stress required to cause slip, dislocations can become entangled and interface with each other, and be impeded by barriers, such as grain boundaries and impurities and inclusions in the materials. Entanglement and impediments increase the shear stress required for slip. Yield strength and hardness are increasing as a result of strain hardening but ductility is decreasing (material becomes more brittle). The increase in the shear stress required, and hence the increase in the overall strength of the metal, is known as strain hardening, or work hardening. The greater the deformation, the more the entanglements, which increase the metals strength.

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Fig7.4 Strain Hardening

Work hardening is used extensively to strengthen metals in metalworking processes at ambient temperature. Typical examples are strengthing wire by drawing it through a die to reduce its cross-section, producing the head on a bolt by forging it, and producing sheet metal for automobile bodies and aircraft fuselages by rolling. The degree of strain hardening is indicated by the strain hardening exponent, n.

Fig7.5 loading and unloading of a tensile test

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The new yield strength, yi, is higher than the initial yield strength yo. The reason for this effect - strain hardening. 7.5 Strain hardening exponent The strain hardening exponent is a measure of how rapidly a metal becomes stronger and harder .the deformation remaining after an applied load is removed is called plastic deformation.ASTM E646 standard test method for tensile strain hardening exponents of metallic sheet materials governs the determination of the strain hardening exponent.ASTM E646 is a tensile test that measures the stressstrain response in the plastic region prior to necking. It has been experimentally proved that strain hardening exponent (n) has very strong sensitivity to structure. In deep-drawing materials is possible to state strain-hardening exponent from 10 to 20 % of deformation. Using high strength steel sheets the deformation does not reach such values, so it is essential to establish the strain-hardening exponent using different method. Strain-hardening exponent is related to strain as well as strain-rate. 7.6 Plastic strain ratio The plastic strain ratio r is a parameter that indicates the ability of a sheet metal to resist thinning or thickening when subjected to either tensile or compressive forces in the plane of the sheet. 7.6.1 Significance and Use It is a measure of plastic anisotropy and is related to the preferred crystallographic orientations within a polycrystalline metal. This resistance to thinning or thickening contributes to the forming of shapes, such as cylindrical flatbottom cups, by the deep-drawing process. The r value, therefore, is considered a measure of sheet metal draw ability. It is particularly useful for evaluating
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materials intended for parts where a substantial portion of the blank must be drawn from beneath the blank holder into the die opening. For many materials this ratio remains essentially constant over a range of plastic strains up to maximum applied force in a tension test. For materials that give different r values at various strain levels, a superscript is used to designate the percent strain at which the r value was measured. For example, if a 20 % elongation is used, the report would show r20. Materials usually have different r values when tested in different orientations relative to the rolling direction. The angle of sampling of the individual test coupon is noted by a subscript. Thus, for a test specimen whose length is aligned parallel to the rolling direction, the r value would be reported as r0. If, in addition, the measurement was made at 20 % elongation and it was deemed necessary to note the percent strain at which the value was measured, the value would be reported as r020. A material that has a yield point followed by discontinuous yielding stretches unevenly while this yielding is taking place. In steels, this is associated with the propagation of Lauders' bands on the surface. The accuracy and reproducibility of the determination of r will be reduced unless the test is continued beyond this yield-point elongation. Similarly, the discontinuous yielding associated with large grain size in a material decreases the accuracy and reproducibility of determinations of r made at low strains.

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CHAPTER 8 ASTM E8 MACHINE TECHNICAL DATA 8.1 Machine specifications: Type: ASTM E8 machine. Load frame: Test load in tension: 100KN. Height: Height of frame: 2169mm. With support profiles: 2284mm to 3094mm. Width: Width of load frame: 960mm. With support profiles: 1136mm. With electronics: 1329mm. Depth: Depth of load frame: 584mm. With support profiles: 781mm. With support profiles and electronics: 781mm. Height of test area without accessories: Lower test area: 1934mm. Upper test area: 1755mm.

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Fig 8.1 materials testing machine Weight: With electronics, approx: 470Kg. Pair of optional support profiles, approx: 34Kg. With typical accessories, approx: 570Kg.

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Space requirements: Actual foot print: 0.01m2. Load frame base area: 0.887m2. Others: Drive system: cross head speed: 0.0001 to 1500mm/min. Maximum return speed: 2500mm/min. Accuracy of the set speed: 0.05% of Vnom. Travel resolution of drive system: 0.0052m. Controller: adaptive. Cycle time: 1000Hz. 8.2 Procedure: Initially select the specimen and suitable grips After selecting the specimen grips, we must adjust the limit switch stops for the limit switches. First grip the specimen at the upper specimen grips. Now check the force display. The display should be round about the zeropoint if not the force must be zeroed. . Finally we can close the second specimen grips. The displayed force must not be zeroed again. Always grip the specimen centrally

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Fig 8.2 material testing Use at least of the jaw length as the clamping length. Any manual sensor must now be attached. Then we can start the test. Finally repeated the procedure at various grade sheet metal specimens.

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CHAPTER 10 OBSERVATIONS Angang SPCD: Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 X E (GPa) 115 142 117 98.6 99.3 85.8 73.9 145 90.5 107 YS (MPa) 162 144 166 168 178 186 176 178 187 172 TS (MPa) 298 282 302 313 332 343 331 329 344 319 1.7 1.867 1.189 1.638 1.168 1.612 1.853 1.197 1.503 0.23 0.234 0.229 0.226 0.227 0.224 0.228 0.230 0.222 0.228 r n K (MPa) 530 506 537 555 586 606 586 585 606 566 At
%

43.6 43.1 43.3 36.5 44.6 39.3 46.4 44.7 39.3 42.3

34

Angang D grade : Sample No: 1 2 3 4 X E (GPa) 215 209 202 199 206 YS (MPa) 225 216 233 219 223 TS (MPa) 326 321 328 325 325 0.828 0.777 0.821 0.804 0.808 0.226 0.197 0.185 0.190 0.200 r n K (MPa) 582 542 539 543 552 At
%

40.7 38.5 32.8 40.1 38.0

SGCD 3: Sample No: 1 2 3 x E (GPa) 121 106 127 118 YS (MPa) 153 153 151 152 TS (MPa) 288 287 287 287 1.896 1.725 1.793 1.805 0.248 0.248 0.249 0.248 r n K (MPa) 529 527 528 528 At
%

45.4 46.0 45.1 45.5

35

SGCHS 45R: Sample No: 1 2 3 x E (GPa) 221 154 158 178 YS (MPa) 420 294 294 336 TS (MPa) 524 367 367 419 0.682 0.685 0.717 0.695 0.222 0.219 0.222 0.221 r n K (MPa) 943 657 652 754 At
%

31.5 30.3 30.4 30.7

SPHC 1079: Sample No: 1 2 3 x E (GPa) 208 207 204 206 YS (MPa) 295 318 285 299 LYS (MPa) 290 284 287 TS (MPa) 382 389 380 384 0.776 0.822 0.830 0.816 0.145 0.102 0.145 0.131 r n K (MPa) 586 545 582 571 At
%

33.5 29.7 32.4 31.8

36

Angang A grade 7.8*1350mm; Sample No: 1 2 3 4 X E (GPa) 201 196 209 199 204 YS (MPa) 296 276 277 270 273 TS (MPa) 425 423 422 423 423 0.210 0.232 0.214 0.209 0.216 r n K (MPa) 740 776 741 736 748 At
%

39.5 37.5 35.7 41.3 38.5

EDD grade Essar: Sample No: 1 2 3 4 5 6 E (GPa) 156 141 139 186 109 186 YS (MPa) 167 164 176 168 162 175 TS (MPa) 297 303 316 296 291 314 2.422 2.160 1.335 2.514 1.998 1.285 0.218 0.224 0.217 0.216 0.219 0.218 r n K (MPa) 516 532 552 512 506 551 At
%

46.2 48.2 38.9 47.8 49.1 40.3

37

152.8

169

302.83 1.944

0.218

528.16 45.083

D grade JSW 1.5*1500mm Sample No: 1 2 3 4 5 6 X E (GPa) 171 186 121 109 136 156 146.5 UYS (MPa) LYS (MPa) TS (MPa) 318 340 329 339 320 324 1.745 1.122 1.762 1.115 1.998 2.066 0.227 0.221 0.223 0.220 0.222 0.222 0.225 r n K (MPa) 563 599 578 597 564 570 578.5 At
%

45.1 39.5 45.2 36.9 42.0 43.6 42.05

328.33 1.634

38

CHAPTER 11 METHODOLOGY

Selection of the materials

Study of properties influenced in sheet metal formability

Study of chemical composition

Experimentation

Data base creation

Compare the results for n values

Select the suitable material

Figure 11.1: Methodology

39