International Journal of Scientific Research in Environmental Sciences (IJSRES), 1(7), pp. 144-151, 2013 Available online at http://www.ijsrpub.

com/ijsres ISSN: 2322-4983; 2013 IJSRPUB http://dx.doi.org/10.12983/ijsres-2013-p144-151

Full Length Research Paper Combustion Characteristics of Traditional Energy Sources and Water Hyacinth Briquettes
Rotimi Moses Davies*1, Onome Augustina Davies2, Usman Shehu Mohammed3
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State, Nigeria 2 Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Environment, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria 3 Department of Agricultural, Ahmadu Bello University, Samaru, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria *Correspondence: rotimidavies@yahoo.com
Received 30 March 2013; Accepted 15 May 2013
1

Abstract. The study was undertaken to assess the combustion characteristic of briquettes produced from mixed water hyacinth and plantain peels as binder, mangrove wood, charcoal and Anthronotha macrophylla (firewood). Combustion characteristics investigated were calorific values, ignition time, burning rate, specific fuel consumption, fuel efficiency and water boiling time. Thermal fuel efficiency of the briquettes produced from this densification variables competed favorably with charcoal, firewood and red mangrove wood. Furthermore, the fuel efficiency of charcoal (31.290.19%) was the highest, followed closely by fuel briquettes (28.170.88%). The calorific values of the energy sources ranged from 4166.674.33 kcal/kg (firewood) to 6552.004.73 kcal/kg (charcoal). The variation of the caloric values of the fuel types was significantly different (P<0.05). The recorded boiling time values were 11.430.43 min (briquettes), 14.940.22min (charcoal), 9.250.42 min (firewood) and 8.990.22 min (mangrove). The values of the water boiling time of the energy sources were significantly different (P<0.05). There was significant difference in variation of the ignition time of the energy sources The variation of the burning rate values of fuel types was significantly different (P<0.05). The results confirm the possibility of utilizing water hyacinth as fuel briquettes of good source that support combustion. The water hyacinth briquettes possess the high material strength as well as high value combustible fuel, which qualify them as alternative to firewood for domestic and industrial energy. Key words: Burning properties, biomass, solid fuel and binder.

1. INTRODUCTION Energy is a necessary requirement for everyday life. It application ranges from domestic cooking, local industrial and food processes, warming of the body and other complex industrial, and commercial applications. Hydroelectric power is used in the industry primarily and non-renewable fossil fuels are used in commercial transportation and domestic sectors of the economy (Olorunnisola, 2004; Sotannde et al., 2010). Energy is the mainstay of Nigeria economic growth and development. It plays a major role in the nations international diplomacy and it also serves as a tradable commodity for earning the national income, which is used to support government development programmes. Energy, and specifically, oil and gas, has contributed over 70% of Nigeria federal government revenue (Sambo, 2009). The situation in the rural areas of the country is that most end users depend on fuelwood. Fuel is used by over 60% of Nigeria living in the rural areas. Nigeria consumes over 50 million metric tons of fuelwood annually.

Traditionally, wood in form of fuelwood, twigs and charcoal are predominantly sources of renewable energy in Nigeria, accounting for about 51% of the total annual energy consumption. Other sources of energy as reported by Akinbami (2001) include natural gas (5.2%), hydroelectricity (3.1%), and petroleum products (41.3%). The need for renewable and sustainable alternative energy sources are growing due to the rapid depletion of the non-renewable fossil energy resources and the negative impacts fossil fuel shortage, fuel increasing price, global warming including other environmental problems are critical issues. In this respect, biomass is of great interest because of its miscellaneous advantages such as readily available, low price, carbon dioxide neutral feature, and very high worldwide potential (Adegoke and Lawal, 1997; Adegbulugbe, 1994; Sambo, 2009; Emerhi, 2011). Increasing pressure on forest resources for energy has led to what is termed Other Energy Crisis of Wood Fuel (Adegbulugbe, 1994; ECN 1998; Akinbami, 2001). This has led to environmental degradation, deforestation and misuse of soil forests

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and water resources. The uncontrolled level of cutting of wood for firewood and charcoal for combustion, and for other domestic and industrial uses, is now a serious problem in Nigeria. NEST (2001) estimated the total annual consumption of wood in Nigeria at about 50-55 million cubic meters of which 90% is firewood, while estimated shortfall of fuelwood in the Northern parts of the country is about 5-8 million cubic meters. While the annual deforestation of the wood lands in the Northern part of Nigeria run to about 92,000 hectare a year. The fuel wood extraction rate in the country is estimated to be about 3.85times the rate of re-growth or afforestation. Water hyacinth is an aquatic weed that grows at an extremely rapid pace and its production is about 2 tonnes of biomass per acre and population doubled every 5-15 days (Olal et al., 2001). The harvest frequency for aquatic plants tends to be in the order of days, whereas the frequency for trees and crops are the order of years and months. The abundance, availability, low cost, and rapid growth of water hyacinth make them an ideal candidate for biofuel, particularly in the developing countries (Davies and Mohammed, 2011). Plantain has been reported as a major starch staple food grown in tropics, constitute a major source of carbohydrate in Africa, Caribbean, Latin America, Asia and Pacific (Adeniji et al., 2007). It contains 35% carbohydrate, 0.2-0.3% fat, 1.2% protein, 6.0 -7.0% fibre and 0.8% ash. The use of plantain peels in biogas (methane) production and soap manufacturing has been reported by Adeniji et al. (2007), indicating waste prospect in plantain production. Much work has been reported on the use of banana charcoal (fuel briquettes), an alternative source of fuel in Kampal but plantain has not received the desire attention. In spite of its potential in bioenergy production that could constitute a generic recipe for production of bio-fuel (fuel briquettes) its potential in production of fuel briquettes is yet to be fully explored. The study investigated the combustion characteristics of the commonly used traditional energy sources in fish smoking process in Niger Delta of Nigeria and compared with briquettes fuel produced from water hyacinth and plantain peels as binder.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Preparation of briquettes The pre-treatment processing of briquette sample for this study comprised of drying, size reduction and compaction operations. The raw materials were sun dried for 5-7days. The dried raw materials were chopped using chopper (knives) and ground using hammer mill. The particle size distribution was achieved by using Particle Size Analysis Equipment consisting of sieve shaker and Tylers sieves of various diameter or particles size openings. This equipment vibrated and forced the material through the screens with mesh. For this experiment, sieve size corresponding to 0.5 mm was chosen. Each of the aggregate was subdivided into three equal parts, while binder (ground plantain peels) in the ratio of 50% by weight of the residue stock was added to each of the subdivided residue rations. The agitating process was done in an electric mixer to enhance proper blending prior compaction. The blends were briquetted under ambient condition in a manually operated hydraulic powered press having capacity of 20 ton. Compaction tests on the blend samples were carried out using hydraulic press machine. A steel cylindrical die of dimension 14.3cm height and 4.7cm in diameter was used for this study. The die was freely filled with known amount of weight (charge) of each sample mixture and be positioned in the hydraulic powered press machine for compression into briquettes. The piston was actuated through hydraulic pump at the speed of 30mm/min of piston movement to compress the sample. Compacted pressure was 9.0MPa.A known pressure was applied at a time to the material in the die and was allowed to stay for45 seconds (dwell time) before released and the briquette formed was then extruded. Stop watch was used for purpose of timing. The moisture content of the ground material before and after compaction was determined using ASABE (2003) involving the use of oven drying methods. The initial weight of the sample was determined (W1), and placed in an oven set at 1053C for 24hours.The samples was removed and cooled in a desiccator, reweighed (W2). Moisture content of the sample was calculated from the following expression,

MC = W1- W2 x100 W1 Where, W1= weight of sample before drying, (gram); W2= weight of bone dried sample, (gram) Briquettes burning rate was determined according to the method used by Onuegbu et al. (2011). The

(1)

insulator, Bunsen burner, tripod stand and wire gauze were arranged on the balance and their weights were recorded. Briquettes sample of known weight was placed on wire gauze and the burner ignited. This was

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positioned on top of a mass balance and was monitored to record instantaneous measurements of the mass every 10 seconds throughout the combustion process using stop watch. Until the briquettes were Burning rate =

completely burnt and constant weight was obtained. The weight loss at specific time was computed from this expression:

Total weight of the burnt briquette Total time taken

(2)

Calorific value of the sample was determined using Gallenkamp Ballistic Bomb Calorimeter according to ASTM. E711-87 (2004). Ignition time was determined according to Onuegbu et al., 2011. Each briquette was ignited by placing a Bunsen burner on a platform 4cm directly beneath. Bunsen burner was used to ensure the whole of the bottom surface of the briquette was ignited simultaneously after adjusting it to blue flame.

Caution was taken to avoiding flame spread in the transverse directions. The burner was left in until the briquette was well ignited and had entered into its steady state burn phase. Specific fuel consumption used in the experiment was estimated from the ratio of mass of fuel consumed (in grams) to the quantity of boiling water (in litre) (Onuegbu et al., 2011). Mass of fuel consumed Total mass of boiling water

Specific fuel consumption, SFC =

Thermal fuel efficiency of the energy was calculated according to Oladeji (2011) T = MwCp(Tb To) + McL 100% (3) MfEf The numerator gives the net heat supplied to the Multiply Range Tests (DMRT). Appropriate graphs water while the denominator gives the net heat were plotted to show the trend of behaviour of the liberated by the fuel. samples under different conditions of treatment for the Where, T = Thermal fuel efficiency of the energy; various parameters investigated. P = Power Output; Mw = Mass of water in the pot (kg); Cp = Specific heat of water (kJ/kgK); To = Initial 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION temperature of water (K); Tb = Boiling temperature of the water (K); Mc = Mass of water evaporated (kg); L The thermal fuel efficiencies of the studied fuel = Latent heat of evaporation (kg); Mf = mass of fuel sources were water hyacinth briquettes (28.170.88%), burnt (kg); Ef = Calorific value of the fuel (kJ/kg); charcoal (43.29 0.19%), red mangrove wood Mw = mass of water (kg). (23.550.56%) and firewood (21.310.28%) Water boiling test is an important test required to (Fig.1).The observed values differed significantly determine thermal fuel efficiency of any energy (P<0.001). Thermal fuel efficiency of the briquettes source. Each of the biofuel (i.e briquettes, bituminousproduced competed favorably with charcoal, firewood charcoal, red mangrove wood and Anthronotha and red mangrove wood. Furthermore, the thermal macrophylla firewood) was used to boil one litre of fuel efficiency of charcoal (43.29 0.19%) was the water using biomass stove under similar conditions. highest, followed closely by fuel briquette Water boiling time taken to boil equal volume of (28.170.88%). Sengar et al. (2012) reported thermal water was recorded using stop watch (Sengar et al., fuel efficiency of cashew shell briquettes of 15.5%. 2012). This value is lower than the obtained values in this study. The corresponding thermal fuel efficiencies for sawdust and rice husk ranged between 19.97 and 2.2. Statistical analyses 21.64%, and 26.20 and 27.27% respectively (Prasad The obtained values were statistically analysed using and Verhaart, 1983). means, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Duncan

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The calorific values of the energy sources ranged from 4166.674.33 kcal/kg (firewood) to 6552.004.73 kcal/kg (charcoal) (Fig. 2). The variation of the caloric values of the fuel types was significantly different (P<0.001). The calorific value of water hyacinth briquettes was higher than calorific values of firewood and mangrove but lower than charcoal. This is an indication that more heat during combustion might be generated from briquettes than firewood and mangrove but lesser than charcoal. Significant differences of the gross calorific value were found between charcoals. Briquette produced from sample of Afzelia africana and Terminalia superba combination bonded with starch had the highest calorific value of 33116kcal/kg while briquette produced from sample of Afzelia Africana

and Terminalia superba bonded with ash had the least calorific value of 23991kcal/kg (Emerhi, 2011). Calorific value of raw cashew shell was 4683.59 kcal/kg, cashew shell briquetted fuel recorded 5154.58 kcal/kg, 3108.52 kcal/kg for grass residue and 3267.03 kcal/kg was found in rice husk residue (Sengar et al., 2012). Briquette charcoal had higher gross calorific value compared to the charcoal produced from Pinusmerkusii charcoal with calorific value of 8,246 cal/g. The gross calorific value of charcoal made from Dimorphandra (Dakama) was 7,165 cal/g while charcoal from Licaniamajuscula (Kautaballi) was 7,743 cal/g but charcoal from Eperuacalcata (Wallaba) had the highest calorific value of 8,500 cal/g (FAO, 1985; Vongsaysana and Achara, 2009).

The recorded boiling time values were 11.430.43min (briquettes), 14.940.22 min (charcoal), 9.250.42min (firewood) and 8.990.2 min (mangrove) (Fig. 3). The values of the boiling time of the energy sources were significantly different

(P<0.001). Among the energy sources mangrove had the shortest boiling time while charcoal had the longest duration of water boiling time. It could be inferred that biomass having highest calorific value does not guarantee shortest water boiling time.

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The ignition time of the studied fuel types varied between 84.330.28 sec (firewood) and 138.290.19 sec (charcoal) (Table 1). There was significant difference in variation of the ignition time of the energy sources. The observed values on ignition time showed that charcoal took a longest time for it to start burning and stress as compared to other energy sources. This could be adduced its low volatile matter as compared to other biomass and high ash content.

Dermirbas and Sahin (1998) recommended that briquettes for domestic use must be easily ignitable, but with low porosity index, low volatile content and low ash content. Onuegbu et al. (2011) improved the suitability of charcoal for domestic use by blending the elephant and spear grass at different concentration of 10-50% with coal thereby reduced ignition time from 186seconds to 33seconds.

Table 1: Combustion characteristics of traditional and water hyacinth fuel energy Energy source Ignition time (sec) Specific fuel consumption (g) Burning rate (min) Water hyacinth briquettes 1.250.016c 115.000.88b 217.000.58d Charcoal 0.970.016d 138.000.19a 228.002.52c Anthronotha macrophylla 83.340.28d 2.490.016a 264.002.08a (firewood) Red mangrove wood 2.050.016b 92.67 0.56c 253.331.86b Means with same letter are not significantly different (P>0.05) The burning rate values of the energy sources ranged between 0.970.01 g/min (charcoal) and 2.490.01 g/min Anthronotha macrophylla (firewood) (Table 1). The variation of the burning rate values of fuel types was significantly different (P<0.001). Charcoal recorded the lowest burning rate than other energy sources. This observation could be due adduced to porosity exhibited between inter and intra particles which enable easy infiltration of oxygen and out flow of combustion briquettes. Onuegbu et al. (2011) reported factors that could be responsible for burning rate of biomass (briquettes) such as chemical composition, volatile matter content and geometry (bulk and packing orientation) of the biomass. The specific fuel consumption of the four fuel sources were 217.000.58 g (briquettes), 228.002.52 g (charcoal), 264.002.08 g (firewood) and 253.331.86 g (red mangrove) (Table 1). The variation of the specific fuel consumption values of the studied energy sources was significantly different (P<0.001). Hence, biomass of higher ash content tends to consume more fuel for cooking than biomass of lower ash content. According to Onuegbu et al. (2011), percentage ash content is one of the factors that affect specific fuel consumption of fuel briquettes negatively. The percentage ash content as reported by Onuegbu et al. (2011) for coal was 18.23% while the present result recorded ash content ranged from 5.3 to 6.7 % for mixture of water hyacinth with binder. Jekayinfa and Omisakin (2005) reported the ash content values for some agricultural wastes as follows: palm oil effluent (10.97%), corn cob (4.85%), yam peels (4.56%), mango peels (4.33%), black walnut hull (4.10%), cherry (3.80%), coconut shell (3.47%)

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and orange peels (2.66%). The present study ash content values were within the range of these values for these agricultural wastes. 4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION This study demonstrated that briquettes can be utilized instead of other traditional fuel energy for domestic and industrial application. The results confirm the possibility of utilizing water hyacinth as fuel briquette of good source that support combustion. The water hyacinth briquettes possess the high material strength as well as high value combustible fuel, which qualify them as alternative to firewood and charcoal for domestic and industrial energy. The fuel efficiency of the briquettes produced from this densification variables competed favourably with charcoal, firewood and red mangrove wood. Furthermore, the fuel efficiency of charcoal was the highest, followed closely by fuel briquette. Among the energy sources mangrove had the shortest boiling time while charcoal had the longest duration of water boiling time. It could be inferred that biomass having highest calorific value does not guarantee shortest water boiling time. Charcoal recorded the lowest burning rate than other energy sources. The variation of the specific fuel consumption values of the studied energy sources was significantly different (P<0.001). The observed values on ignition time showed that charcoal took a longest time for it to start burning and stress as compared to other energy sources. The result compared favorably with fuelwood. Thus, densification process had enhanced combustion and handling characteristics of briquettes. The fuel briquettes produced are environmental friendly, reduce desertification and its environmental implication and reduce health hazard associated with the use of fuelwood and charcoal. Therefore, combination of water hyacinth and plantain peels are very suitable for briquette production for domestic and industrial uses. REFERENCES Adegbulugbe AO (1994). Energy-environmental issues in Nigeria. International Journal of Global Energy, 6 (12):7-18. Adegoke CO, Lawal GT (1997). Preliminary investigation of sawdust as high grade solid fuel. Journal of Renewal Energy, 1& 2: 102-107. Adeniji TA, Sanni LO, Barimalaa IS, Hart AD (2007). Nutritional and anti-nutritional composition of flour made from plantain and banana hybrid pulp and peel mixture. Nigerian Food Journal, 25(2): 1-7.

Akinbami JFK (2001). Renewable energy resources and technologies in Nigeria: present situation, future prospects and policy framework. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 6:155-181. American Society of Agricultural Engineers ASABE (2003). Moisture content measurement. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 2 950 Niles Road, St. Joseph MI 49085-9659, Michigan, United States of America. ASTM standard E711-87 (2004).Standard test method for gross calorific value of refuse-derived fuel by the bomb calorimeter. Annual book of ASTM standard, 11.04.ASTM International, http//www.astm.info/standard/E711.htm. Demirbas A, Sahin A (1998). Evaluation of biomass residue briquetting waste paper and wheat straw mixtures. Fuel Processing Technology, 55: 175183. Emerhi EA (2011). Physical and combustion properties of briquettes produced from sawdust of three hardwood species and different organic binders. Advances in Applied Science Research, 2(6): 236-246. Energy National Commission of Nigeria (ENC) (1998). Project of Government of Nigeria. Project Document ECN, Abuja. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (1985). Industrial charcoal making. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Jekayinfa SO, Omisakin OS (2005). The energy production of some agricultural wastes as local fuel materials in Nigeria. Agricultural Engineering International the CIGR E-Journal of Scientific Research and Development Vol. VII, Manuscript EE 05 003: 10pp. Nigeria Environmental Action Team (NEST) (2001). Nigeria Threatened Environment. A Natural Profile Atmosphere NEST, Ibadan, Nigeria. pp116-117. Olal MA, Muchilwa, MN, Woomer PL (2001).Water Hyacinth, Utilizations and the use of waste material for Handicraft production in Kenya. In: Nightingale D.L.M. (Ed) micro and small Enterprises and Natural Resource Use. MicroEnterprises Support programme UNRP, Nairobi pp119-127. Oladeji JT (2011). The Effects of some processing parameters on physical and combustion characteristics of corncob briquettes. An Unpublished Ph.D Thesis of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Olorunnisola AO (2004). Briquetting rattan furniture waste for domestic and agro-industrial fuel

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applications. Nigeria Journal of Renewable Energy, 11(1&2): 130-135. Onuegbu TU, Ekpunobi UE, Ogbu IM, Ekeoma MO, Obumselu FO (2011). Comparative studies of ignition time and water boiling test of coal and biomass briquettes blend. IJRRAS 7(2):153-159. Prasad KK, Verhaart P (1983). Wood Heat for Cooking, Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore, Macmillan India Press. Sambo AS (2009). Strategic development in renewable energy in Nigeria. A report of interministerial committee on combating deforestation and desertification.

Sengar SH, Mohod AG, Khandetod YP, Patil SS, Chendake AD (2012). Performance of Briquetting Machine for Briquette Fuel. International Journal of Energy Engineering, 2(1): 28-34 . Sotannde OA, Oluyege AO, Abah GB (2010). Physical and combustion properties of charcoal briquettes from neem wood residues. Int. Agrophysics, 24:189-194. Vongsaysanaand S, Achara U (2009). Comparison of the physical and chemical properties of briquette and wood charcoal in Khammouane Province, Lao PDR. Environment and Natural Resources Journal, 1(7): 1-13.

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Dr. Rotimi Davies is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, Niger Delta University (NDU), Wilberforce Island, Amassoma, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. He is a certified Engineer, a registered member of the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN). Dr. Rotimi Davies bagged his B.Sc. (Hons) and masters degrees in Agricultural Engineering from the premier University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria in 1991 and 1994 respectively. He later obtained his doctorate degree in Agricultural Engineering from the renowned Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. His areas of specialization are Bio-energy, Crop Processing and Storage Engineering. Dr. Rotimi Davies is a dynamic and an outstanding Engineer who has published many research articles in international journals. Dr. Rotimi Davies had held quite a number of administrative positions but presently, he is the Staff and Undergraduate Students Seminars and Projects Coordinator of the Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering at NDU.

Dr. Davies, Onome Augustina is a visible Senior Lecturer (Associate Professor, assessed) in the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Environment, Rivers State University of Science and Technology (RSUST), Port Harcourt, Nigeria. She has been a lecturer in that University for over seventeen years. Dr. Davies obtained her first degree from the premier University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria in Zoology in 1991. She later bagged her masters and doctorate d egrees in Hydrobiology and Fisheries from the same University in 1994 and 2008 respectively. She is a Post-Doctorate 2009 fellow of the prestigious African Women in Agricultural Research & Development (AWARD) Fellowship. She won the highly competitive research attachment of AWARD and undertook a PostDoc research and training on domestication of Black Tiger Shrimp, Penaeus monodon with Shrimp Genetic Improvement Centre, Phumriang, Chaiya, Surat Thani, Thailand in 2011. Also, she is 2010 Fellow of Netherlands Fellowship Programme (NFP) for Competing Claims on Natural Resources Course. Dr. Davies has 60 refereed journal articles (local & international) and 4 conference proceedings papers. She has presented 13 conference papers and 3 posters at local and international conferences. Her life purpose goal is to fight poverty, hunger and unemployment in Nigeria and Africa by boosting fish production through sustainable aquaculture and capture fisheries. Dr. Daviess areas of specialization are Hydrobiology, Fisheries, Aquaculture, Biotechnology and Environmental Science. Presently, she is Faculty of Agriculture Representative at Senate of RSUST, Chairman of Departmental Postgraduate Board of her Department, Departmental Academic Adviser, Chairman of Aquaculture Centre in RSUST and Editor-in-Chief, Journal of Aquatic Sciences (published by Association for Aquatic Sciences of Nigeria).

Dr. Usman Shehu Mohammed is an Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. He is a certified Engineer, a registered member of the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN). He obtained his first, masters and doctorate degrees in Agricultural Engineering from the prestigious ABU in 1984, 1999 and 2001 respectively. Dr. Mohammed specializes on Farm Power and Machinery. He is an astute lecturer and researcher who has published numerous referred articles in local and international journals. His hobbies are basketball, squash and athletics. , Dr. Mohammed had held several administrative positions at ABU but presently he is the Departmental Postgraduate Coordinator of Agricultural Engineering.

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