Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics: Second Edition

Liquid Pipeline

Hydraulics

Second Edition

E. SHASHI MENON, PH.D., P.E

PRAMILA S. MENON, M.B.A.

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Copyright 2013 E. Shashi Menon, Ph.D., P.E & Pramila S. Menon, M.B.A.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written prior permission of the author.

ISBN: 978-1-4669-7739-6 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-4669-7741-9 (hc)

ISBN: 978-1-4669-7740-2 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013901598

Trafford rev. 04/11/2013

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Contents

Preface

1 Introduction

2 Properties Of Liquids

3 Pressure Drop Due To Friction

4 Pipe Analysis

5 Pressure And Hp Required

6 Multi-Pump Station Pipelines

7 Pump Analysis

8 Pump Station Design

9 Thermal Hydraulics

10 Flow Measurement

11 Unsteady Flow In Pipelines

12 Pipeline Economics

Appendix A Tables And Charts

Appendix B Answers To Selected Problems

Appendix C Summary Of Formulas

References

Preface

This book covers liquid pipeline hydraulics as it applies to transportation of liquids through pipelines in a single phase steady state environment. It will serve as a practical handbook for engineers, technicians and others involved in design and operation of pipelines transporting liquids. Currently, existing books on the subject are mathematically rigorous, theoretical and lack practical applications. Using this book, engineers can better understand and apply the principles of hydraulics to their daily work in the pipeline industry without resorting to complicated formulas and theorems. Numerous examples from the author’s real life experience are included to illustrate application of pipeline hydraulics.

The application of hydraulics to liquid pipelines involve understanding of various properties of liquids, concept of pressure, friction and calculation of the energy required to transport liquid from point A to point B through a pipeline. You will not find rigorous mathematical derivation of formulas in this book. The formulas necessary for calculations are presented and described without using calculus or complex mathematical methods. If the reader is interested in how the formulas and equations are derived he should refer to any of the books and publications listed under the Reference section toward the end of this book.

This book covers liquid properties that affect flow through pipelines, calculation of pressure drop due to friction, horsepower required and the number of pump stations required for transporting a liquid through a pipeline. Topics covered include - basic equations necessary for pipeline design, commonly used formulas to calculate frictional pressure drop and necessary horsepower, the feasibility of improving an existing pipeline performance using drag reduction additives and power optimization studies. The use of pumps and valves in pipelines are addressed along with modifications necessary to improve pipeline throughput. Economic analysis and transportation tariff calculations are also included.

This book can be used for the analysis of both liquid pipeline gathering systems, plant or terminal piping as well as long distance trunk lines. The primary audience for the book is engineers and technicians working in the petroleum, water and process industry. This book could also be used as a text book for a college level course in liquid pipeline hydraulics.

Finally, I would like to dedicate this book to my father, who always believed I could write a technical book, but unfortunately did not live long enough to see it completed.

1

Introduction

Pipeline Hydraulics deals with the flow of fluids in pipelines. Fluids are defined as liquids and gases. Specifically, this book deals with liquid flow in pipelines. Liquids are considered to be incompressible for most purposes. Today, several thousand miles of pipelines are used to transport crude oil and petroleum products such as gasoline and diesel from the refineries to storage tanks and delivery terminals. Similarly, thousands of miles of concrete and steel pipelines are used to transport water from reservoir to distribution locations throughout the country. Engineers are interested in the effect of pipe size, liquid properties, pipe length, etc. in determining the pressure required and horsepower necessary for transporting a liquid from point A to point B in a pipeline. It is clear that heavier liquids will require more pressure and hence more horsepower to transport a given quantity of liquid for a specified distance compared to a lighter liquid. In all these cases we are interested in determining the optimum pipe size required to transport given volumes of liquids economically and safely through these pipelines.

This book consists of 12 chapters that cover the practical aspects of liquid pipeline hydraulic and economics of pipelines used to transport liquids under steady state conditions, except Chapter 10, which introduces the reader to unsteady flow. For a more detailed analysis and study of Unsteady Flow and Transients, the reader should consult one of the books listed under the Reference section.

A Reference section, Appendices containing Tables and Charts and answers to selected problems are also included at the end of this book.

Chapter 2 covers units of measurements, properties of liquids such as density, gravity and viscosity that are important in liquid pipeline hydraulics. Chapter 3 discusses pressure, velocity, Reynold’s number, friction factor and pressure drop calculations using various formulas. Several example problems are discussed and solved to illustrate the various methods currently used in pipeline engineering.

Chapter 4 is devoted to the strength analysis of pipes. It addresses allowable internal working pressures and hydrostatic test pressures and how they are calculated.

Chapter 5 extends the concepts developed in Chapter 3 by analyzing the total pressure and horsepower required to pump a liquid through long distance pipelines with multiple pump stations, including the transportation of high vapor pressure liquids, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Injection and delivery along a long pipeline and branch pipe analysis are also covered. The use of pipe loops to reduce friction and increase throughput is also analyzed.

Chapter 6 deals with optimizing pump station locations in a trunk line, minimizing pipe wall thickness using telescoping and pipe grade tapering. Open channel flow, slack line operation in hilly terrain and batching different products are also addressed in this Chapter.

Chapter 7 covers centrifugal pumps and positive displacement pumps applied to pipeline transportation. Centrifugal pump performance curves, Affinity laws

And the effect of viscosity are discussed as well as the importance of net positive suction head (NPSH). Operation of pumps in series and parallel and modification needed to operate pumps effectively are also discussed in this chapter

Chapter 8 discusses pump station design, minimizing energy loss due to pump throttling with constant speed motor driven pumps. The advantages of using variable speed drive (VSD) pumps are also explained and illustrated with examples.

Chapter 9 introduces the reader to thermal hydraulics, pressure drop calculations and temperature profiles in a buried heated liquid pipeline. The importance of thermal conductivity, overall heat transfer coefficient and how they effect heat loss to the surrounding are covered.

Chapter 10 introduces flow measurement devices used in measuring liquid flow rate in pipelines. Several of the more common instruments such as the venturi meter, flow nozzle and orifice meter are discussed and calculation methods explained.

Chapter 11 gives a basic introduction to unsteady flow and transient hydraulic analysis. This is an advanced concept that requires a separate book to cover fully the subject. Therefore, this chapter will serve as a starting point in understanding transient pipeline hydraulics. The reader should consult one of the publications listed in the Reference section for a more detailed study of unsteady flow and pipeline transients

Chapter 12 addresses economic aspects related to pipeline feasibility studies. In addition, the pipeline and pump station capital cost, annual operating cost and calculation of transportation tariff are discussed. Also covered in this chapter is the analysis of the optimum pipe size and pumping equipment required that produces the least cost. A discounted cash flow approach using the Present Value (PV) of investment is employed in determining the optimum pipe size for a particular application.

In each chapter, example problems are used to illustrate the concepts introduced. Problems for practice are also included at the end of each chapter. Answers to selected problems may be found in the Appendix B.

Appendix A consists of tables and charts containing Units and Conversions, Common Properties of Petroleum Fluids, etc.

In addition, for quick reference, formulas used in all chapters have been assembled and summarized in Appendix C.

2

Properties of Liquids

In this chapter we will discuss the various units of measurement employed in Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics and proceed to cover the more important properties of liquids that affect hydraulic calculations. The importance of specific gravity, viscosity of pure liquids and mixtures will be analyzed and the concepts will be illustrated with sample problems. This chapter forms the foundation for all calculations involving pipeline pressure drops and horsepower requirements in subsequent chapters. In the Appendix, you will find tables listing properties of commonly used liquids such as water and petroleum products.

2.1   Units of Measurement

Before we discuss liquid properties it would be appropriate to identify the different units of measurement used in pipeline hydraulics calculations.

Over the years the English speaking world adopted so called English Units of measurement, while most other European and Asian countries adopted the Metric System of Units.

The English system of units (referred to in USA as Customary US units) derives from the old Foot-Pound-Second (FPS) and Foot-Slug-Second (FSS) system that originated in England. The basic units are foot for length, slug for mass and second for measurement of time. In the past, the FPS system used pound for mass. Since Force, a derived unit, was also measured in pounds, there was evidently some confusion. To clarify the term pound-mass (lbm) and pound-force (lbf) were introduced. Numerically, the weight (which is a force due to gravity) of one pound mass was equal to one pound force. However, the introduction of slug for unit of mass resulted in the adoption of pound exclusively for unit of force. Thus, in the FSS system which is now used in the USA, the unit of mass is slug. The relationship between a slug, lbf and lbm will be explained later in this chapter.

In the Metric system, originally known as Centimeter-Gram-

Second (CGS) system, the corresponding units for length, mass and time were centimeter, gram and second respectively. In later years, a modified metric units called Meter-Kilogram-Second (MKS) system emerged. In MKS units, the meter was used for the measurement of length and kilogram for the measurement of mass. The measurement for time remained the second for all systems of units.

The scientific and engineering communities, during the last four decades have attempted to standardize on a universal system of units worldwide. Through the International Standards Organization (ISO), a policy for an International System of Units (SI) was formulated. The SI units are also known as Systeme Internationale units.

The conversion from the older system of units to SI units has advanced at different rates in different countries. Most countries of Western Europe and all of Eastern Europe, Russia, India, China, Japan, Australia and South America have adopted the SI units completely. In North America, Canada and Mexico have adopted the SI units almost completely. However, engineers and scientists in these countries use both SI units and English units due to their business dealings with the United States. In the United States, SI units is used increasingly in colleges and the scientific community. However, the majority of work is still done using the English units referred to some times as Customary US units.

The Metric Conversion Act of 1975 accelerated the adoption of the SI system of units in the USA. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and other Professional Societies and Organizations have assisted in the process of conversion from English to SI units using the respective Institutions publications. For example, ASME through the ASME Metric Study Committee published a series of articles in the Mechanical Engineering magazine to help engineers master the SI system of units.

In the USA, the complete changeover to SI has not materialized fast enough. Therefore in this transition phase, engineering students, practicing engineers, technicians and scientists must be familiar with the different systems of units such as English, Metric CGS, Metric MKS and the SI units. In this book we will use both English units (Customary US) as well as the SI system of units.

Units of measurement are generally divided into three classes as follows:

Base units

Supplementary units

Derived units

By definition, Base units are dimensionally independent. These are units of length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance and luminous intensity.

Supplementary units are those used to measure plain angles and solid angles. Examples include radian and steradian.

Derived units are those that are formed by combination of base units, supplementary units and other derived units. Examples of derived units are those of force, pressure and energy.

2.1.1   Base Units

In the English (Customary US) system of units, the following base units are used

In SI units, the following base units are defined

2.1.2    Supplementary Units

Supplementary Units in both English and SI system of units are

Plain angle   - radian (rad)

Solid angle   - steradian (sr)

The radian is defined as the plain angle between two radii of a circle with an arc length equal to the radius. Thus, it represents the angle of a sector of a circle with the arc length the same as its radius.

The steradian is the solid angle having its apex at the center of a sphere such that the area of the surface of the sphere that it cuts out is equal to that of a square with sides equal to the radius of this sphere.

2.1.3    Derived Units

Derived units are generated from a combination of base units, supplementary units and other derived units. Examples of derived units include those of area, volume, etc.

In English units the following derived units are used:

In SI units the following derived units are used:

Many other derived units are used in both English and SI units. A list of the more commonly used units in Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics and their conversions are listed in Appendix A.1.

2.2   Mass, Volume, Density and Specific Weight

Several properties of liquids that affect liquid pipeline hydraulics will be discussed here. In steady state hydraulics of liquid pipelines, the following properties are important:

2.2.1    Mass

Mass is defined as the quantity of matter. It is independent of temperature and pressure. Mass is measured in slugs (slugs) in English units or kilograms (kg) in SI units. In the past mass was used synonymously with weight. Strictly speaking weight depends upon the acceleration due to gravity at a certain geographic location and therefore is considered to be a force. Numerically mass and weight are interchangeable in the older FPS system of units. For example, a mass of 10 lbm is equivalent to a weight of 10 pound force (lbf). To avoid this confusion, in English units, the slug has been adopted for unit of mass. One slug is equal to 32.17 lb. Therefore, if a drum contains 55 gal of crude oil and weighs 410 lb, the mass of oil will be the same at any temperature and pressure. Hence the statement conservation of mass.

2.2.2   Volume

Volume is defined as the space occupied by a given mass. In the case of the 55 gallon drum above, 410 lb of crude oil occupies the volume of the drum. Therefore the crude oil volume is 55 gal. Consider a solid block of ice measuring 12 in on each side. The volume of this block of ice is 12 x 12 x 12 or 1 728 cubic inches or one cubic foot. The volume of a certain petroleum product contained in a circular storage tank 100 ft in diameter and 50 ft high, may be calculated as follows, assuming the liquid depth is 40 ft:

Liquid volumes = (π / 4) x 100 x 100 x 40 = 314 160 ft³

Liquids are practically incompressible, take the shape of their container and have a free surface. Volume of a liquid varies with temperature and pressure. However for liquids, being practically incompressible, pressure has negligible effect on volume. Thus, if the liquid volume measured at 50 psi is 1 000 gal, its volume at a 1 000 psi will not be appreciably different, provided the liquid temperature remained constant. Temperature, however, has a more significant effect on volume. For example, the 55 gal volume of liquid in a drum at a temperature of 60oF will increase to a slightly higher value (such as 56 gal) when the liquid temperature increases to 100oF. The amount of increase in volume per unit temperature rise depends on the coefficient of expansion of the liquid. When measuring petroleum liquids, for the purpose of custody transfer, it is customary to correct volumes to a fixed temperature such as 60 oF. Volume correction factors from American Petroleum Institute (API) publications are commonly used in the petroleum industry.

In the petroleum industry, it is customary to measure volume in gallons or barrels. One barrel is equal to 42 U.S. gallons. The Imperial gallon as used in UK is a larger unit, approximately 20% larger than the US gallon. In SI units volume is generally measured in cubic meters (m³) or liters (L).

In a pipeline transporting crude oil or refined petroleum products, it is customary to talk about the line fill volume of the pipeline. The volume of liquid contained between two valves in a pipeline can be calculated simply by knowing the internal diameter of the pipe and the length of pipe between the two valves. By extension, the total volume or the line fill volume of the pipeline can be easily calculated.

As an example, if a 16 in pipeline, 0.250 in wall thickness is 5 000 ft long from one valve to another, the line fill for this section of pipeline is

Line fill volume = (π / 4) x (16 - 2 x 0.250)² x 5 000

                             = 943 461.75 ft³ or 168 038 bbl

Above calculation is based on conversion factors of:

         1 728 in³ per ft³

         231 in³ per gallon

and    42 gallons per barrel.

In a later chapter we will discuss a simple formula for determining the line fill volume of a pipeline.

The volume flow rate in a pipeline is generally expressed in terms of cubic feet per second (ft³/s), gallons per minute (gal/min), barrels per hour (bbl/hr) and barrels per day (bbl/day) in Customary English Units. In the SI Units, volume flow rate is referred to in cubic meters per hour (m³/hr) and liters per second (L/s).

It must be noted that since the volume of a liquid varies with temperature, the inlet flow rate and the outlet volume flow rate may be different in a long distance pipeline, even with no intermediate injections or deliveries. This is due to the fact that the inlet flow rate may be measured at an inlet temperature of 70oF to be 5 000 bbl/hr and the corresponding flow rate at the pipeline terminus, 100 miles away may be measured at an outlet temperature different than the inlet temperature. The temperature difference is due to heat loss or gain between the pipeline liquid and the surrounding soil or ambient conditions. Generally, significant variation in temperature is observed when pumping crude oils or other products that are heated at the pipeline inlet. In refined petroleum products and other pipelines that are not heated, temperature variations along the pipeline are insignificant. In any case if the volume measured at the pipeline inlet is corrected to a standard temperature such as 60oF, the corresponding outlet volume can also be corrected to the same standard temperature. With temperature correction it can be assumed that the same flow rate exists throughout the pipeline from inlet to outlet provided of course there are no intermediate injections or deliveries along the pipeline.

By the principle of conservation of mass, the mass flow rate at inlet will equal that at the pipeline outlet since the mass of liquid does not change with temperature or pressure.

2.2.3   Density

Density of a liquid is defined as the mass per unit volume. Customary units for density are slugs/ft³ in the English Units. The corresponding units of