EIILM UNIVERSITY, SIKKIM

DIPLOMA CIVIL ENGINEERING, SEMESTER III, YEAR-2nd CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS Duration -3 Hrs Note: 1. Attempt any five questions. 2. All question carry equal marks. 1. What are the ingredients of Varnish? Ans1 Varnish is a transparent, hard, protective finish or film primarily used in wood finishing but also for other materials. Varnish is traditionally a combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent. Varnish finishes are usually glossy but may be designed to produce satin or semi-gloss sheens by the addition of "flatting" agents. Varnish has little or no colour, is transparent, and has no added pigment, as opposed to paints or wood stains, which contain pigment and generally range from opaque to translucent. Varnishes are also applied over wood stains as a final step to achieve a film for gloss and protection. Some products are marketed as a combined stain and varnish. After being applied, the film-forming substances in varnishes either harden directly, as soon as the solvent has fully evaporated, or harden after evaporation of the solvent through certain curing processes, primarily chemical reaction between oils and oxygen from the air (autoxidation) and chemical reactions between components of the varnish. Resin varnishes "dry" by evaporation of the solvent and harden almost immediately upon drying. Acrylic and waterborne varnishes "dry" upon evaporation of the water but experience an extended curing period. Oil, polyurethane, and epoxy varnishes remain liquid even after evaporation of the solvent but quickly begin to cure, undergoing successive stages from liquid or syrupy, to tacky or sticky, to dry gummy, to "dry to the touch", to hard. Environmental factors such as heat and humidity play a very large role in the drying and curing times of varnishes. In classic varnish the cure rate depends on the type of oil used and, to some extent, on the ratio of oil to resin. The drying and curing time of all varnishes may be sped up by exposure to an energy source such as sunlight, ultraviolet light, or heat. Many varnishes rely on organic oils or resins for their binder in combination with organic solvents; these are highly flammable in their liquid state. In addition, all drying oils, certain alkyds, and many single-component polyurethanes produce heat during the curing process. Therefore, oilsoaked rags and paper can smolder and ignite hours after use if they are bunched or piled together, or, for example, placed in a container where the heat cannot dissipate. Components of classic varnish Max Marks: 60

Drying oil
There are many different types of drying oil, including linseed oil, tung oil, and walnut oil. These contain high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Resin
Resins that are used in varnishes include amber, kauri gum, dammar, copal, rosin (pine resin), sandarac, balsam, elemi, mastic, and others. In the 1900s in Canada, resins from local trees were

used to finish pianos. As a result these now antique pianos are considered difficult to refinish. However, shellac can be used over the existing resins provided sufficient time is allowed for thin coats to cure. Thus the original finish can be returned to its original lustre while preserving the colour and age related crackle.

Turpentine or solvent
Traditionally, natural (organic) turpentine was used as the thinner or solvent, but has been replaced by several mineral based turpentine substitutes such as white spirit or "paint thinner", also known as "mineral spirit". Types

Violin
Violin varnishing is a multi-step process involving some or all of the following: primer, sealer, ground, color coats, and clear topcoat. Some systems use a drying oil varnish as described below, while others use spirit (or solvent) varnish. Touchup in repair or restoration is only done with spirit varnish. Drying oil such as walnut oil or linseed oil may be used in combination with amber, copal, rosin or other resins. The oil is prepared by cooking or exposing to air and sunlight. The refined resin is typically available as a translucent solid and is then "run" by cooking or literally melting it in a pot over heat without solvents. The thickened oil and prepared resin are then cooked together and thinned with turpentine (away from open flame) into a brushable solution. Some violin finishing systems use vernice bianca (egg white and gum arabic) as a sealer or ground.

Resin
Most resin or "gum" varnishes consist of a natural, plant- or insect-derived substance dissolved in a solvent, called spirit varnish or solvent varnish. The solvent may be alcohol, turpentine, or petroleum-based. Some resins are soluble in both alcohol and turpentine. Generally, petroleum solvents, i.e. mineral spirits or paint thinner, can substitute for turpentine. The resins include amber, dammar, copal, rosin, sandarac, elemi, benzoin, mastic, balsam, shellac, and a multitude of lacquers. Synthetic resins such as phenolic resin may be employed as a secondary component in certain varnishes and paints. Over centuries, many recipes were developed which involved the combination of resins, oils, and other ingredients such as certain waxes. These were believed to impart special tonal qualities to musical instruments and thus were sometimes carefully guarded secrets. The interaction of different ingredients is difficult to predict or reproduce, so expert finishers were often prized professionals.

Shellac
Main article: shellac Shellac is a very widely used single component resin varnish that is alcohol soluble. It is not used for outdoor surfaces or where it will come into repeated contact with water such as around a sink

or bathtub. The source of shellac resin is a brittle or flaky secretion of the female lac insect, Kerria lacca, found in the forests of Assam and Thailand and harvested from the bark of the trees where she deposits it to provide a sticky hold on the trunk. Shellac is the basis of French polish, which for centuries has been the preferred finish for fine furniture. Specified "dewaxed" shellac has been processed to remove the waxy substances from original shellac and can be used as a primer and sanding-sealer substrate for other finishes such as polyurethanes, alkyds, oils, and acrylics. Prepared shellac is typically available in "clear" and "amber" (or "orange") varieties, generally as "three pound cut" or three pounds dry shellac to one US gallon of alcohol. Other natural color shades such as ruby and yellow are available from specialty pigment or woodworker's supply outlets. Dry shellac is available as refined flakes, "sticklac," "button lac," or "seedlac." "White pigmented" shellac primer paint is widely available in retail outlets, billed as a fast-drying interior primer "problem solver", in that it adheres to a variety of surfaces and seals off odors and smoke stains. Shellac clean-up may be done either with pure alcohol or with ammonia cleansers.

Alkyd
Typically, modern commercially produced varnishes employ some form of alkyd for producing a protective film. Alkyds are chemically modified vegetable oils which operate well in a wide range of conditions and can be engineered to speed up the cure rate and thus harden faster. Better (and more expensive) exterior varnishes employ alkyds made from high performance oils and contain UV-absorbers; this improves gloss-retention and extends the lifetime of the finish. Various resins may also be combined with alkyds as part of the formula for typical "oil" varnishes that are commercially available.

Spar varnish
Spar varnish (also called marine varnish) was originally intended for use on ship or boat spars, to protect the timber from the effects of sea and weather. Spars bend under the load of their sails. The primary requirements were water resistance and also elasticity, so as to remain adhering as the spars flexed. Elasticity was a pre-condition for weatherproofing too, as a finish that cracked would then allow water through, even if the remaining film was impermeable. Appearance and gloss was of relatively low value, in comparison. Modified tung oil and phenolic resins are often used. When first developed, no varnishes had good UV-resistance. Even after more modern synthetic resins did become resistant, a true spar varnish maintained its elasticity above other virtues, even if this required a compromise in its uv-resistance. Spar varnishes are thus not necessarily the best choice for outdoor woodwork which does not need to bend in service. Despite this, the widespread perception of "marine products" as "tough" led to domestic outdoor varnishes being branded as "Spar varnish" and sold on the virtue of their weather- and uvresistance. These claims may be more or less realistic, depending on individual products. Only relatively recently have spar varnishes been available that can offer both effective elasticity and uv-resistance.

Drying Oils
By definition, drying oils, such as linseed and tung oil, are not true varnishes though often in modern terms they accomplish the same thing. Drying oils cure through an exothermic reaction between the polyunsaturated portion of the oil and oxygen from the air. Originally, the term

"varnish" referred to finishes that were made entirely of resin dissolved in suitable solvents, either ethanol (alcohol) or turpentine. The advantage to finishers in previous centuries was that resin varnishes had a very rapid cure rate compared to oils; in most cases they are cured practically as soon as the solvent has fully evaporated. By contrast, untreated or "raw" oils may take weeks or months to cure, depending on ambient temperature and other environmental factors. In modern terms, "boiled" or partially polymerized drying oils with added siccatives or dryers (chemical catalysts) have cure times of less than 24 hours. However, certain non-toxic byproducts of the curing process are emitted from the oil film even after it is dry to the touch and over a considerable period of time. It has long been a tradition to combine drying oils with resins to obtain favourable features of both substances.

2. What are the various defects in Timber? Give causes for these defects with Diagram? Ans2 Dry rot refers to wood decay caused by certain species of fungi, also known as True Dry Rot, that digests parts of the wood which give the wood strength and stiffness. It was previously used to describe any decay of cured wood in ships and buildings by a fungus which resulted in a darkly colored deteriorated and cracked condition. In other fields, the term has been applied to the decay of crop plants by fungi and the deterioration of rubber. In addition, the term can be used as a metaphor for grave underlying problems within a large organization (such as political corruption in government or low morale in the armed forces) that show no symptoms until a sudden, catastrophic failure, much as dry rot of wood in ships caused catastrophic failure. Dry rot is the term given to brown rot decay caused by certain fungi that deteriorate timber in buildings and other wooden construction seemingly without an apparent source of moisture. The decayed wood takes on a dark or browner crumbly appearance, with cubical like cracking or checking, that becomes brittle and can eventually crush the wood into powder. Chemically, wood attacked by dry rot fungi is decayed by the same process as other brown rot fungi. An outbreak of dry rot within a building can be perceived to be an extremely serious infestation that is hard to eradicate, requiring drastic remedies to correct. Eventually the decay can cause instability and cause the structure to collapse. The term dry rot, or true dry rot, refers to the decay of timbers from only certain species of fungi that are thought to provide their own source of moisture and nutrients to cause decay in otherwise relatively dry timber. However, there has been no published experimental evidence to support the phenomena.[1] In modern texts, the term 'dry rot' is used in reference to damage inflicted by either: Serpula lacrymans (formerly Merulius lacrymans) predominantly in the United Kingdom and northern Europe; and/or Meruliporia incrassata (which has a number of synonyms, including Poria incrassata and Serpula incrassata) in North America. Both species of fungi cause brown rot decay, preferentially removing cellulose and hemicellulose from the timber leaving a brittle matrix of modified lignin. The term dry rot is somewhat misleading, as both species of fungi Serpula lacrymans and Meruliporia incrassata require an elevated moisture content to initiate an attack on timber (28 30%). Once established, the fungi can remain active in timber with a moisture content of more than 20%. At relative humidities below 86 percent, growth of Serpula lacrymans is inhibited, but

it can stay dormant at relative humidities down to 76 percent.[2] These relative humidities correspond to equilibrium moisture contents of wood of 19 and 15 percent, respectively. Schilling & Jellison[3] note the potential efficiency of these 'dry rot' fungi in growing away from direct moisture sources, although there is no reference for how efficient a brown rot fungus has to be at translocating water in order to be classed as 'dry rot'. Some have suggested the importance of these fungi providing their own source of nutrients as being more significant than providing an adequate source of moisture. Schilling[4] suggests efficient nutrient translocation and utilization, notably nitrogen and iron, may be more distinctive in these species than water translocation. Water translocated in this fashion carries nutrients to the extremities of the organism; not, as is sometimes inferred, to simply render dry timber wet enough to attack. Coggins[5] goes into more detail about water movement in Serpula lacrymans. The perpetual saturation of wood with water also inhibits dry rot, as does perpetual dryness.[6] Dry rot would appear to be a paradoxical term seemingly indicating decay of a substance by a fungus without the presence of water. However, its historical usage dates back to the distinction between decay of cured wood in construction, i.e. dry wood, versus decay of wood in living or newly felled trees, i.e. wet wood.[7] Historical use of the term "dry rot" 'Dry rot' is an eighteenth-century term that generally described what is now called brown rot. The term was used because the damage was present in cured or dried timber of ships and buildings and was thought to be caused by internal fermentations rather than water. The (London) Times on Tuesday 12 March 1793 carried an advertisement that informs the reader that the British Colour Company, No. 32, Walbrook, London continues to use, manufacture and sell paints prepared with the Oil of Coal, which is of a very penetrating nature, and hardens wood in an uncommon degree protecting it from weather, dry rot and ice.[8] In the early nineteenth century the rapid increase in instances of timber decay attributed to dry rot (brown rot) in the British naval fleet brought the term into wider usage. Thomas Wade's 'A Treatise on the Dry Rot in Timber' was published posthumously by the Navy Office in 1815 following his investigation of the matter in ships from various countries.[9] The second HMS Queen Charlotte was launched in 1810 and, when inspected, the timbers of the upper decks were found to be infected with 'the dry rot'. By 1816 the cost of repairs for this vessel had exceeded the ship's original construction cost.[10] Texts published in the nineteenth century and early twentieth centuries also used the term to describe fungi which produced substantial (white colored) mycelium including; Antrodia (Fibroporia) vaillantii. Eventually, the term dry rot came to apply to only one or two fungi[citation needed] the main one being Serpula lacrymans, in the majority of texts dealing with the subject, predominantly from the United Kingdom. This type of fungal decay subsequently also became known as 'true dry rot'. It has even been proposed to use the term water-conducting fungi in the category of brown rot rather than dry rot.[11] However, although the fungi such as these can transport water, it is disputed[1] that it can use this water to increase the moisture content of otherwise dry wood. Treatment of dry rot timber See also: Dry rot treatment

There are epoxy treatments available that kill rot by filling in the channels of the damaged wood, killing the rot and restoring structural integrity. Commercial antifreeze (ethylene glycol) is also very effective at preventing dry rot formation as well as killing the fungus. Certain copper compounds, such as copper naphthenate, are available as a brushable solution and are frequently used when dry-rot damage is repaired by splicing in new wood; after removal of bulk rotten wood the remaining original surface is saturated with such a compound (typically green in color) before application of the new wood. In certain buildings, particularly those with solid 9 inch (or greater) brickwork and those built using lime mortar and flintstone, dry rot has been known to travel through and along the wall surface behind plaster and render. It is therefore recommended, by companies that sell this service, that where dry rot is found, plaster and wall coverings should be stripped back to a metre past the infestation in all directions and the whole area treated. However, given that dry rot attacks only wet timber, common sense should dictate that plaster need not be removed where there is no timber or any timber is dry (outside the zone of wetting that caused the outbreak). Identifying the source of water and allowing the affected timbers to dry will kill dry rot, as it is a fungus and requires water as all fungi do.

3. Explain briefly how lime is prepared? Differentiate between quick lime, hydraulic lime and fat lime. 4. What are the main classifications of rocks? State the characteristics of good building stones? Ans4 Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. The manufacture of building materials is an established industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific specialty trades, such as carpentry, plumbing, roofing and insulation work. They provide the make-up of habitats and structures including homes. Fabric The tent is the home of choice among nomadic groups all over the world. Two well known types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt. It has been revived as a major construction technique with the development of tensile architecture and synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings can be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported by a system of steel cables, rigid or internal (air pressure.) Mud and clay

Sod buildings in Iceland

The amount of each material used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is usually connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of clay usually mean using the cob/adobe style, while low clay soil is usually associated with sod building. The other main ingredients include more or less sand/gravel and straw/grasses. Rammed earth is both an old and newer take on creating walls, once made by compacting clay soils between planks by hand, now forms and mechanical pneumatic compressors are used. Soil and especially clay is good thermal mass; it is very good at keeping temperatures at a constant level. Homes built with earth tend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in cold weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it over a period of time like stone. Earthen walls change temperature slowly, so artificially raising or lowering the temperature can use more resources than in say a wood built house, but the heat/coolness stays longer. Peoples building with mostly dirt and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe, resulted in homes that have been built for centuries in western and northern Europe as well as the rest of the world, and continue to be built, though on a smaller scale. Some of these buildings have remained habitable for hundreds of years. Wood A natural material for building dwellings for thousands of years, wood was also used to make Churches in the past. The main problems with wood structures are fire risk and moisture-related problems. Wood is an aesthetically pleasing material that never goes out of trend completely, though the current popularity of composite and engineered materials are taking its place in many construction sites.[citation needed] Rock

Mont Saint-Michel Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest lasting building material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of rock throughout the world all with differing attributes that make them better or worse for particular uses. Rock is a very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too, its main draw-back as a material is its weight and awkwardness. Its energy density is also considered a big draw-back, as stone is hard to keep warm without using large amounts of heating resources.

Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another. Eventually different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together, cement being the most commonplace now. The granite-strewn uplands of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example, provided ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were constructed from loose granite rocks throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze Age, and the remains of an estimated 5,000 can still be seen today. Granite continued to be used throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoor longhouse) and into modern times. Slate is another stone type, commonly used as roofing material in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world where it is found. Mostly stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, some civilizations built entirely with stone such as the Pyramids in Egypt, the Aztec pyramids and the remains of the Inca civilization. Thatch Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known; grass is a good insulator and easily harvested. Many African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses year round. In Europe, thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the material fell out of favor as industrialization and improved transport increased the availability of other materials. Today, though, the practice is undergoing a revival. In the Netherlands, for instance, many new buildings have thatched roofs with special ridge tiles on top Brush

Toda tribe hut Brush structures are built entirely from plant parts and are generally found in tropical and subtropical areas, such as rainforests, where very large leaves can be used in the building. Native Americanes for resting and living in, too. These are built mostly with branches, twigs and leaves, and bark, similar to a beaver's lodge. These were variously named wikiups, lean-tos, and so forth. Gypcrete Gypcrete is a mixture of gypsum plaster and fibreglass rovings. Although plaster and fibres fiborous plaster have been used for many years especially for ceilings, it was not until the early 1990s that serious studies of the strength and qualities of a walling system Rapidwall, using a mixture of gypsum plaster and 300mm plus fibreglass rovings were investigated. It was discovered, through testing at the University of Adelaide that these walls had significant, load bearing, shear and lateral resistance together with earthquake, fire resistance and thermal properties. With an abundance of gypsum (naturally occurring and by-product chemical FGD and phospho gypsums) available worldwide gypcrete based building products, which are fully recyclable offer significant environmental benefits.

Ice Ice was used by the Inuit for igloos, but has also been used for ice hotels as a tourist attraction in northern areas that might not otherwise see many winter tourists.

5. What is the difference between Bitumen and asphalt and why they are used in civil egg works? 6. Explain the method of determining Initial and final setting of Cement? 7. What are the properties of Asbestos and what are its uses? Ans7 Asbestos (pronounced /sbsts/ or /zbsts/) is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties.[1] They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long (ca. 1:20 aspect ratio), thin fibrous crystals. The prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious illnesses, including malignant lung cancer, mesothelioma (a formerly rare cancer strongly associated with exposure to amphibole asbestos), and asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis).[2] The European Union has banned all use of asbestos[3] and extraction, manufacture and processing of asbestos products.[4] Asbestos became increasingly popular among manufacturers and builders in the late 19th century because of its sound absorption, average tensile strength, its resistance to fire, heat, electrical and chemical damage, and affordability. It was used in such applications as electrical insulation for hotplate wiring and in building insulation. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat, the fibers are often mixed with cement (resulting in fiber cement) or woven into fabric or mats. Asbestos mining began more than 4,000 years ago, but didn't start large-scale until the end of the 19th century. The world's asbestos mining peaked around 1975, when asbestos was being mined in some 25 countries, but is today less than half of what it was in the mid-1970s.[citation needed] For a long time, the world's largest asbestos mine was the Jeffrey mine in the town of Asbestos, Quebec.[5] Six minerals are defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as "asbestos" including those belonging to the serpentine class chrysotile and those belonging to the amphibole class amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite. There is an important distinction to be made between serpentine and amphibole asbestos due to differences in their chemical composition and their degree of potency as a health hazard when inhaled. However asbestos and all commercial forms of asbestos (including chrysotile asbestos) are known to be human carcinogens.[6][7]

Serpentine

White
Chrysotile, CAS No. 12001-29-5, is obtained from serpentinite rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4. Chrysotile fibers are curly as opposed to fibers from amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, actinolite, and anthophyllite which are needlelike.[8] Chrysotile, along with other types of asbestos, has been banned in dozens of countries and is only allowed in the United States and Europe in very limited circumstances.

Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America.[9] Applications where chrysotile might be used include the use of joint compound. It is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos; it can be spun and woven into fabric. The most common use is within corrugated asbestos cement roof sheets typically used for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It is also found as flat sheets used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Numerous other items have been made containing chrysotile, including brake linings, cloth behind fuses (for fire protection), pipe insulation, floor tiles, and rope seals for boilers.[citation needed]

Amphibole

Brown
Amosite, CAS No. 12172-73-5, is a trade name for the amphiboles belonging to the cummingtonite-grunerite solid solution series, commonly from South Africa, named as an acronym for "asbestos mines of South Africa". One formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O22(OH)2. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products and ceiling tiles.[9]

Blue
Crocidolite, CAS No. 12001-28-4, is the fibrous form of the amphibole riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa, but also in Australia and Bolivia. One formula given for crocidolite is Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2. Crocidolite commonly occurs as soft friable fibers. Asbestiform amphibole may also occur as soft friable fibers but some varieties such as amosite are commonly straighter. All forms of asbestos are fibrillar in that they are composed of fibers with breadths less than 1 micrometer that occur in bundles and have very great widths. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus". Amphiboles such as tremolite have a crystal structure containing strongly bonded ribbonlike silicate anion polymers that extend the width of the crystal. Serpentine (chrysotile) has a sheetlike silicate anion which is bowed and which rolls up like a carpet to form the fiber.[10]

Other materials
Other regulated asbestos minerals, such as tremolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-68-6, Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2; actinolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca2(Mg, Fe)5(Si8O22)(OH)2; and anthophyllite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2; are less commonly used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulation materials and have been reported in the past to occur in a few consumer products.

Size of asbestos fibers compared to other particles (USEPA, March, 1978

Other natural and not currently regulated asbestiform minerals, such as richterite, Na(CaNa)(Mg, Fe++)5(Si8O22)(OH)2, and winchite, (CaNa)Mg4(Al, Fe3+)(Si8O22)(OH)2, may be found as a contaminant in products such as the vermiculite containing zonolite insulation manufactured by W.R. Grace and Company. These minerals are thought by some to be no less harmful than tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite.[11] They are referred to as "asbestiform" rather than asbestos. Although the U.S. OSHA has not included them in the asbestos standard, NIOSH and the American Thoracic Society have recommended that they be included as regulated materials. As such, they may still be related to diseases and hazardous.[11

Industrial era
Asbestos use in England dates back to the 1700s, but did not become widespread until the Industrial Revolution during the late 1800s.[23] The Industrial Revolution represented a huge boom for the asbestos industry. Factories were opening everywhere and new uses for the miracle mineral were being devised on a regular basis. Commercial asbestos mines sprung up in the late 1800s and entrepreneurs recognised that asbestos could perhaps make them rich. The U.S. asbestos industry began in 1858 when fibrous anthophyllite was mined for use as asbestos insulation by the Johns Company, a predecessor to the current Johns Manville at a quarry at Ward's Hill on Staten Island, New York.[24] Asbestos became more widespread during the industrial revolution; in 1866 it was used as insulation in the U.S. and Canada. Development of the first commercial asbestos mine began in 1874 in the Appalachian foothills of Quebec.[25] By the mid 20th century uses included fire retardant coatings, concrete, bricks, pipes and fireplace cement, heat, fire, and acid resistant gaskets, pipe insulation, ceiling insulation, fireproof drywall, flooring, roofing, lawn furniture, and drywall joint compound. In Japan, particularly after World War II, asbestos was used in the manufacture of ammonium sulfate for purposes of rice production, sprayed upon the ceilings, iron skeletons, and walls of railroad cars and buildings (during the 1960s), and used for energy efficiency reasons as well. Production of asbestos in Japan peaked in 1974 and went through ups and downs until about 1990, when production began to drop severely.[26]

Discovery of toxicity
For additional chronological citations, see also, List of asbestos disease medical articles The first documented death related to asbestos was in 1906.[citation needed] In the early 1900s researchers began to notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos mining towns. The first diagnosis of asbestosis was made in the UK in 1924. By the 1930s, the UK regulated ventilation and made asbestosis an excusable work-related disease, followed by the U.S about ten years later.[8] The term mesothelioma was first used in medical literature in 1931; its association with asbestos was first noted sometime in the 1940s. Approximately 100,000 people in the United States have died, or will die, from asbestos exposure related to ship building. In the Hampton Roads area, a shipbuilding center, mesothelioma occurrence is seven times the national rate.[27] Thousands of tons of asbestos were used in World War II ships to wrap the pipes, line the boilers, and cover engine and turbine parts. There were approximately 4.3 million shipyard workers in the United States during WWII; for every thousand workers about fourteen died of mesothelioma and an unknown number died from asbestosis.[28]

The United States government and asbestos industry have been criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of dangers, and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s court documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos dangers since the 1930s and had concealed them from the public.[28] In Australia, asbestos was widely used in construction and other industries between 1945 and 1980. From the 1970s there was increasing concern about the dangers of asbestos and its use was phased out. Mining ceased in 1983. The use of asbestos was phased out in 1989 and banned entirely in December 2003. The dangers of asbestos are now well known in Australia and there is help and support for sufferers from asbestosis or mesothelioma.[2

8. What are the different types of water paints? State suitability of each type? 9. Explain classification of metals? Ans9

Basic definition
The general definition of a mineral encompasses the following criteria:[2] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Naturally occurring Stable at room temperature Represented by a chemical formula Usually abiogenic Ordered atomic arrangement

The first three general characteristics are less debated than the last two.[2] The first criterion means that a mineral has to form by a natural process, which excludes anthropogenic compounds. Stability at room temperature, in the simplest sense, is synonymous to the mineral being solid. More specifically, a compound has to be stable or metastable at 25C. Classical examples of exceptions to this rule include native mercury, which crystallizes at -39C, and water ice, which is solid only below 0C; as these two minerals were described prior to 1959, they were grandfathered by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA).[3][4] Modern advances have included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy. Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they can be described by fixed or a variable formula. Many mineral groups and species are composed of a solid solution; pure substances are not usually found because of contamination or chemical substitution. For example, the olivine group is described by the variable formula (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, which is a solid solution of two end-member species, magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, which are described by a fixed chemical formula. Mineral species themselves could have a variable compositions, such as the sulfide mackinawite, (Fe, Ni)9S8, which is mostly a ferrous sulfide, but has a very significant nickel impurity that is reflected in its formula.[5][2] The requirement of a valid mineral species to be abiogenic has also been described as similar to have to be inorganic; however, this criterion is imprecise and organic compounds have been assigned a separate classification branch. Finally, the requirement of an ordered atomic arrangement is usually synonymous to being crystalline; however, crystals are periodic in addition to being ordered, so the broader criterion is used instead.[2] The presence of an ordered atomic arrangement translates to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage.[6] There have been several recent proposals to amend the definition

to consider biogenic or amorphous substances as minerals. The formal definition of a mineral approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) in 1995: A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes."[7] In addition, biogenic substances were explicitly excluded: "Biogenic substances are chemical compounds produced entirely by biological processes without a geological component (e.g., urinary calculi, oxalate crystals in plant tissues, shells of marine molluscs, etc.) and are not regarded as minerals. However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, then the product can be accepted as a mineral."[7]

Recent advances
Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science. Recent changes have included the addition of an organic class, in both the new Dana and the Strunz classification schemes.[8][9] The organic class includes a very rare group of minerals with hydrocarbons. The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names recently adopted (in 2009) a hierarchical scheme for the naming and classification of mineral groups and group names[10] and established seven commissions and four working groups to review and classify minerals into an official listing of their published names.[11] According to these new rules, "mineral species can be grouped in a number of different ways, on the basis of chemistry, crystal structure, occurrence, association, genetic history, or resource, for example, depending on the purpose to be served by the classification."[10] The Nickel (1995) exclusion of biogenic substances was not universally adhered to. For example, Lowenstam (1981) stated that "organisms are capable of forming a diverse array of minerals, some of which cannot be formed inorganically in the biosphere."[12] The distinction is a matter of classification and less to do with the constituents of the minerals themselves. Skinner (2005) views all solids as potential minerals and includes biominerals in the mineral kingdom, which are those that are created by the metabolic activities of organisms. Skinner expanded the previous definition of a mineral to classify "element or compound, amorphous or crystalline, formed through biogeochemical processes," as a mineral.[13] Recent advances in high-resolution genetic and x-ray absorption spectroscopy is opening new revelations on the biogeochemical relations between microrganisms and minerals that may make Nickel's (1995)[7] biogenic mineral exclusion obsolete and Skinner's (2005) biogenic mineral inclusion a necessity.[13] For example, the IMA commissioned 'Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry Working Group'[14] deals with minerals in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Mineral forming microorganisms inhabit the areas that this working group deals with. These organisms exist on nearly every rock, soil, and particle surface spanning the globe reaching depths at 1600 meters below the sea floor (possibly further) and 70 kilometers into the stratosphere (possibly entering the mesosphere).[15][16][17] Biologists and geologists have recently started to research and appreciate the magnitude of mineral geoengineering that these creatures are capable of. Bacteria have contributed to the formation of minerals for billions of years and critically define the biogeochemical cycles on this planet. Microorganisms can precipitate metals from solution contributing to the formation of ore deposits in addition to their ability to catalyze mineral dissolution, to respire, precipitate, and form minerals.[18][19][20] Prior to the International Mineralogical Association's listing, over 60 biominerals had been discovered, named, and published.[21] These minerals (a sub-set tabulated in Lowenstam (1981)

[12]

) are considered minerals proper according to the Skinner (2005) definition.[13] These biominerals are not listed in the International Mineral Association official list of mineral names, [22] however, many of these biomineral representatives are distributed amongst the 78 mineral classes listed in the Dana classification scheme.[13] Another rare class of minerals (primarily biological in origin) include the mineral liquid crystals that are crystalline and liquid at the same time. To date over 80,000 liquid crystalline compounds have been identified.[23][24] Concerning the use of the term mineral to name this family of liquid crystals, one can argue that the term inorganic would be more appropriate. However, inorganic liquid crystals have long been used for organometallic liquid crystals. Therefore, in order to avoid any confusion between these fairly chemically different families, and taking into account that a large number of these liquid crystals occur naturally in nature, we think that the use of the old fashioned but adequate mineral adjective taken sensus largo is more specific that an alternative such as purely inorganic, to name this subclass of the inorganic liquid crystals family.[24] The Skinner (2005) definition[13] of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral can be crystalline or amorphous. Liquid mineral crystals are amorphous. Biominerals and liquid mineral crystals, however, are not the primary form of minerals, most are geological in origin,[25] but these groups do help to identify at the margins of what constitutes a mineral proper. The formal Nickel (1995) definition explicitly mentioned crystalline nature as a key to defining a substance as a mineral. A 2011 article defined icosahedrite, an aluminium-iron-copper alloy as mineral; named for its unique natural icosahedral symmetry, it is also a quasicrystal. Unlike a true crystal, quasicrystals are ordered but not periodic.[26][27]

Rocks, ores, and gems

Schist is a metamorphic rock characterized by an abundance of platy minerals. In this example, the rock has prominent sillimanite porphyroblasts as large as 3 cm (1.2 in). Minerals are not equivalent to rocks. Whereas a mineral is a naturally occurring usually solid substance, stable at room temperature, representable by a chemical formula, usually abiogenic, and has an ordered atomic structure, a rock is either an aggregate of one or more minerals, or not composed of minerals whatsoever.[28] Rocks like limestone or quartzite are composed primarily of one mineralcalcite or aragonite in the case of limestone, and quartz in the latter case.[29][30] Other rocks can be defined by relative abundances of key (essential) minerals; a granite is defined by proportions of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar.[31] The other minerals in the rock are termed accessory, and do not greatly affect the bulk composition of the rock. Rocks can also be composed entirely of non-mineral material; coal is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of organically derived carbon.[28][32] In rocks, some mineral species and groups are much more abundant than others; these are termed the rock-forming minerals. The major examples of these are quartz, the feldspars, the micas, the amphiboles, the pyroxenes, the olivines, and calcite; except the last one, all of the minerals are silicates.[33] Overall, around 150 minerals are considered particularly important, whether in terms of their abundance or aesthetic value in terms of collecting.[34] Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals. For example, muscovite, a white mica, can be used for windows (sometimes referred to as isinglass), as a filler, or as an insulator.[35] Ores are minerals that have a high concentration of a certain element, typically a metal. Examples are cinnabar (HgS), an ore of mercury, sphalerite (ZnS), an ore of zinc, or cassiterite (SnO2), an ore of tin. Gems are minerals with an ornamental value, and are distinguished from non-gems by their beauty, durability, and usually, rarity. There are about 20 mineral species that qualify as gem minerals, which constitute about 35 of the most common gemstones. Gem minerals are often present in several varieties, and so one mineral can account for several different gemstones; for example, ruby and sapphire are both corundum, Al2O3.[36]

Nomenclature and classification

In general, a mineral is defined as naturally occurring solid, that is stable at room temperature, representable by a chemical formula, usually abiogenic, and has an ordered atomic structure. However, a mineral can be also narrowed down in terms of a mineral group, series, species, or variety, in order from most broad to least broad. The basic level of definition is that of mineral species, which is distinguished from other specific by specific and unique chemical and physical properties. For example, quartz is defined by its formula, SiO2, and a specific crystalline structure that distinguishes it from other minerals with the same chemical formula (termed polymorphs). When there exists a range of composition between two minerals species, a mineral series is defined. For example, the biotite series (a discredited mineral species) contains a mixture of phlogopite, siderophyllite, annite, and eastonite. In contrast, a mineral group is a grouping of mineral species with some common chemical properties that share a crystal structure. The pyroxene group has a common formula of XY(Si,Al)2O6, where X and Y are both cations, with X typically bigger than Y; the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates that crystallize in either the orthorhombic or monoclinic crystal families. Finally, a mineral variety is a specific type of mineral species that differs by some external physical characteristic, such as colour or crystal habit. An example is amethyst, which is a purple variety of quartz.[37] Two common classifications are used for minerals; both the Dana and Strunz classifications rely on the composition of the mineral, specifically with regards to important chemical groups, and its structure. The Dana System of Mineralogy was first published in 1837 by James Dwight Dana, a

leading geologist of his time; it is presently in its eighth edition (1997 ed.). The Dana classification, assigns a four-part number to a mineral species. First is its class, based on important compositional groups; next, the type gives the ratio of cations to anions in the mineral; finally, the last two numbers group minerals by structural similarity with a given type or class. The less commonly used Strunz classification, named for German mineralogist Karl Hugo Strunz, is based on the Dana system, but combines both chemical and structural criteria, the latter with regards to distribution of chemical bonds.[38] There are presently over 4,300 approved mineral species. They are most commonly named after a person (45%), followed by discovery location (23%); names based on chemical composition (14%) and physical properties (8%) are the two other major groups of mineral name etymologies

1.