CO2 Storage-Site Screening, Selection and Characterization

Dr. Stefan Bachu

Distinguished Scientist, CO2 Storage Alberta Innovates Technology Futures Stefan.Bachu@albertainnovates.ca RECS 2013 Birmingham, AL

Associate Editor (Storage)

The Pathway to CO2 Capture and Storage

CO2 Capture and Storage Chain

Capture

Compression

Pipeline Transport

Underground Injection & Storage

We know how to do it!

CO2 Capture and Storage

Worldwide activities: 8 active projects of which 5 capture CO2 from gas plants, 2 from power plants and 1 from a coal gasification plant >70 announced projects in various stages of planning, design and implementation, mostly in US, Canada and China

In Salah- Algeria, since 2006, 1 Mt CO2/yr from an onshore gas plant, now discontinued

Sleipner North Sea, since 1996, 1 Mt CO2/yr from an offshore gas plant

CO2 Pipeline Network in the U.S.

Annual CO2 transport: ~ 50 Mt/year on ~6000 km pipeline

Operational Stages of CO2 Storage

Site characterization is a continuous, iterative process during all operational stages of a CO2 storage project

Outline
o Relevant CO2 properties for CO2 storage o CO2 storage assessment scales o Basin and regional scale screening criteria o Local and site-scale screening criteria

Relevant CO2 Properties, CO2 Trapping Mechanisms, Means and Media for CO2 Geological Storage

Phase Diagram for Carbon Dioxide

CO2 Density for Pressure and Temperature Conditions in the Earth Crust

Example of Subsurface Temperature and Pressure for CO2 Storage

Ts=10oC
0 0
500

Temperature (oC)
40 60 80 100

Watertable = 0 m
0 0

Pressure (bar)
200 300 400

20

100

500
1000

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

1000

1500 2000

1,250 m

1500

1,250 m

2000

2500

2500
3000

3000

T = 10oC + 25oC/1,000 m x 1,250 m = 41.25oC

p= 105 Pa + 1,000 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2*1,250 m = 12.36 MPa (123.6 bar)

Storage Depth is Defined by CO2 Density

Storage below 800 m v Supercritical CO2 v Dense phase CO2 (500 to 800 kg/m3); Water is1.3 to 2 times denser (heavier) v Low viscosity (0.04 to 0.06 MPas); Water is 10-20 times more viscous Rule-of-thumb v Depends on P and T profile v Will vary from site to site Watertable depth Mean annual surface temperature and geothermal gradient

Storage below 800 m

CO2 Phases in a Transportation and Storage System

Supercritical Fluid
Pipeline Transportation 1,600 m 1,250 m 900 m (31.0oC, 7.38 MPa) 500 m 200 m

Leak in the atmosphere

Trapping of CO2 in the Pore Space at Irreducible Saturation

Carbon Dioxide Solubility in Water

In pure water In brine

Sequence of Geochemical Reactions between CO2 and Formation Water and Rocks
1. Solubility Trapping CO2(g) CO2(aq) 2. Ionic Trapping H2CO3(aq) HCO3(aq) + H+ 3. Mineral Trapping CO2-3(aq) + Ca2+ CaCO3(s) HCO3(aq) + Ca2+ CaCO3(s) + H+ HCO3(aq) CO2-3(aq) + H+ CO2(aq) + H2O H2CO3(aq)

Adsorption of Various Gases on Coal

Trapping Mechanisms for CO2

Physical Trapping (in free phase)
In large, man-made caverns In the pore space (as CO2) in structural and stratigraphic traps at irreducible saturation (immobile) in long-range, regional-scale flow systems (open aquifers)

Chemical Trapping (in a different phase)

In solution in formation fluids (oil or water) Adsorbed onto organic material in coals and shales As a mineral precipitate

Temporal Scales of CO2 Injection and Geological Storage Processes

Relation between Time, Trapping Mechanisms and CO2 Storage Security

From IPCC SRCCS, 2005

Process Scales for CO2 Geological Storage

Required Characteristics of Geological Media Suitable for Storage of Fluids

Capacity, to store the intended CO2 volume Injectivity, to receive the CO2 at the supply rate Containment, to avoid or minimize CO2 leakage

Rocks Suitable for CO2 Storage

Igneous rocks v Rocks formed from cooling magma Granite Basalt Metamorphic Rocks v Rocks that have been subjected to high pressures and temperatures after they are formed Schist Gneiss Sedimentary rocks v Rocks formed from compaction and consolidation of rock fragments Sandstone Shale v Rocks formed from precipitation from solution Limestone Crystalline Low porosity Low permeability Fractures Crystalline Low porosity Low permeability Fractures High porosity High permeability Few fractures

Granite

Schist

Sandstone

Geological Media Suitable for CO2 Storage

Porous and permeable rocks (sandstone and carbonate) overlain by tight rocks (shales and evaporitic beds): Oil and gas reservoirs Deep saline aquifers Coal beds Salt caverns All are geological media found ONLY in sedimentary basins

Types and World Distribution of Sedimentary Basins

Based on St. John et al., 1984

Means for CO2 Geological Storage

As a byproduct in energy production operations In oil reservoirs in enhanced hydrocarbon recovery In coal beds in enhanced coalbed methane recovery In disposal operations In depleted oil and gas reservoirs In deep saline aquifers In salt caverns (mainly as a buffer in CO2 collection and distribution systems)

Means of CO2 Geological Storage

Prospectivity of Sedimentary Basins for CO2 Storage

Three primary conditions Sedimentary rocks with storage reservoirs and seals Pressure and temperature > critical values (31oC, 7.8 MPa) Not a source of drinking water

from IPCC, 2005

Controversial Storage Media

Among the media proposed for CO2 storage: Storage in coal beds: Has never been successfully demonstrated Uneconomic coals have not been defined Storage in shales rich in organic material: Based on the same principles as storage in coal beds Has not been attempted and demonstrated Will require fracturing the shale, which constitute the caprock for hydrocarbon reservoirs and deep saline aquifers Storage in basalts (based on rapid geochemical reactions) Very controversial because of basalts high porosity and permeability A test is under way in western Washington state

CO2 Storage Assessment Scales

Basic Principles 1
Site selection criteria are the criteria by which a site is assessed, evaluated, judged, and, in the case of multiple possible sites, ranked for final selection and qualification Site characterization represents a collection of types of data and information needed to reach the necessary understanding and confidence that the proposed storage site is safe and acceptable Site selection and characterization depend on the scale of the assessment

Assessment Scales and Resolution

Country: high level, minimal data Basin: identify and quantify storage potential Regional: increased level of detail, identify prospects Local: very detailed, pre-engineering site selection Site: engineering level for permitting, design and implementation Note: Depending on the size of a country in relation to its sedimentary basin(s), the order of the top two or three may interchange

Relationship Between Assessment Scale and Level of Detail and Resolution

Primary Characteristics of Geological Media Suitable for CO2 Storage

Capacity: to store the intended CO2 volume Injectivity: to receive the CO2 at the supply rate Containment: to prevent, avoid or minimize CO2 leakage However, if capacity and/or injectivity are insufficient, some measures can be taken (e.g., use multiple and/or horizontal wells, use several storage sites, store less CO2) If containment is defective, then the prospective site is disqualified!

Basic Principles 2
Site characterization is an iterative, non-linear process running through all the operational stages of CO2 storage Monitoring is a key element in site operation, closure and post-closure, likely to be a permitting requirement Storage safety and security is a common thread throughout all the stages of the operational chain and has to be demonstrated when applying for tenure of the storage unit and permit to operate, during operations, and after cessation of injection to complete site abandonment

Basin and/or Regional Scale Screening

Flow of Formation Waters in Sedimentary Basins

Driven by sediment compaction on marine shelves Driven by tectonic compression in orogenic belts Driven by erosional and/or glacial rebound in foreland and intra-cratonic basins Driven by topography in intra-montane, foreland and intra-cratonic basins Driven by hydrocarbon generation and other internal overpressuring processes

Types of Fluid Flow in Sedimentary Basins

Risk of Leakage in Sedimentary Basins

(Hitchon et al., 1999)

Preferred Flow Systems

Deep, regional scale, driven by topography or erosional rebound

Geothermal Regime in Sedimentary Basins

Depends on: Basin type, age and tectonism Proximity to crustal heat sources Basement heat flow Thermal conductivity and heat production of rocks Temperature at the surface

Plate Tectonics and Earths Heat Flow

Preferred Sedimentary Basins

Intra-cratonic, foreland and passive-margin basins

Surface Temperature for Sedimentary Basins

Marine basins: 3-4 oC at the bottom of the sea/ocean Continental (sub) Arctic and (sub) Antarctic basins: -2 oC below the permafrost Continental temperate basins: 4-10 oC depending on latitude and altitude Continental tropical basins: 10-25 oC depending on latitude and altitude

Variation with Depth and Geothermal Regime of Carbon Dioxide Density

Sedimentary Basins by Geothermal Regime

Cold basins: Low surface temperature and/or geothermal gradients - more favorable (higher CO2 density, at shallower depths) Warm basins: High surface temperature and geothermal gradients - less favorable (lower CO2 density, larger depths needed)

Basin Maturity
Defined by fossil-energy potential (oil and gas, coals) and degree of exploration and production Mature: Rich in energy resources, advanced production Immature: Rich in resources, in exploration & early production stage Poor: No or poor in hydrocarbon resources

Industry Maturity and Infrastructure

Developed continental basins: Access roads, pipelines, wells (e.g., Texas, Alberta) Developed marine basins: Drilling and production platforms (e.g., North Sea)

Eliminatory Criteria for Sedimentary Basins

Criterion
1 2 3 4 5 6 Depth Aquifer-seal pairs Pressure regime Seismicity Faulting and fracturing Hydrogeology

Unsuitable
< 1000 m Poor (few, discontinuous) Overpressured High and very high Extensive Shallow, short flow systems <2500 km2 Forbidden

Suitable
>1000 m Intermediate, excellent Hydrostatic Very low to moderate Limited to moderate Intermediate, regionalscale flow systems >2500 km2 Allowed

7 8

Areal size Legal accessibility

Desirable Characteristics of Sedimentary Basins

Criterion 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Within fold belts Significant diagenesis Geothermal regime Evaporites Hydrocarbon potential Industry maturity Coal seams Coal rank Coal value On/offshore Climate Accessibility Infrastructure CO2 sources <500 km Undesirable Yes Present Warm basin Absent Absent/small Immature Absent, shallow or very deep Lignite/Anthracite Economic Deep offshore Harsh No or difficult Absent/undeveloped Absent Desirable No Absent Cold basin Present Medium/giant Mature Between 400 m and 800 m depth (sub) Bituminous Uneconomic Onshore, shallow Moderate Good Developed Present

Cross Sectional Representation of Sedimentary Basins across North America

Seismicity in Canada

Canadas Sedimentary Basins

Local and Site-Scale Screening Criteria

Basic Principles 3
Sites must pass the basin-scale eliminatory criteria, and should broadly possess basin-scale desirable characteristics In addition, sites must pass and/or meet additional criteria that fall broadly into five categories:
Capacity and injectivity Confinement, i.e., safety, security and environmental acceptability Legal and regulatory restrictions Economic Societal (public acceptance)

The same criteria can be organized into:

Eliminatory criteria: sites are eliminated if they dont meet these criteria Selection criteria: sites are selected if they meet most or the preferred of these criteria, depending on local circumstances

Eliminatory Site Selection Criteria - 1

1. Legally inaccessible (in protected areas) 2. Legally unreachable (right of access cannot be secured) 3. Legally unavailable (e.g., equity interest held by third parties) 4. Physically unavailable (e.g., a hydrocarbon reservoir in production, an aquifer used for geothermal energy or for natural gas storage) 5. Located in high-density population areas flexible 6. Potentially affecting other natural, energy and mineral resources and equity

Eliminatory Site Selection Criteria - 2

7. Within the depth of protected groundwater 8. In hydraulic communication or contact with protected groundwater 9. Located at shallow depth (<750-800 m) - debatable! 10. Lacking at least one major, extensive, competent barrier to upward CO2 migration 11. Located in an area of very high seismicity 12. Located in over-pressured strata 13. Lacking monitoring potential

Site Selection Criteria - 1

For efficacy of storage: 1. Sufficient capacity and injectivity: they are not independent, injectivity may limit capacity! 2. Sufficient thickness 3. Low temperature 4. Favorable pressure and hydrodynamic regime

Site Selection Criteria - 2

For safety and security of storage: 5. Low number of penetrating wells 6. Presence of multi-layered overlying system of aquifers and aquitards (secondary barriers to upward CO2 migration) 7. Potential for attenuation of leaked CO2 near and at surface

Site Selection Criteria - 3

For cost: 8. Accessibility and infrastructure (location, terrain, climate, right of access, avoidance of populated/protected areas) 9. Transportation economics (distance from source, pipelines or shipping facilities, compression and site delivery) 10. Storage economics (site facilities, wells and compression, operational and environmental monitoring)

Additional Site Selection Criteria?

Depth Thickness Porosity Permeability Water salinity These have been suggested in the past, but they are implicit in the criteria of capacity, injectivity, and protection of groundwater and/or mineral resources They still can be used as selection criteria, but they are not completely independent and changes in one may affect another

Critical Site Qualification Criteria

Criterion Eliminatory Condition Poor, faulted, breached, >14 kPa/m Absent Yes Acceptable Condition

1 Sealing 2 Pressure gradients 3 Monitoring potential 4 Affecting groundwater

Multi-layered system < 12 kPa/m Present No

A site must pass all these criteria to be considered for CO2 storage

Essential Site Qualification Criteria

Criterion 1 Seismicity 2 Faulting and fracturing intensity 3 Flow systems Eliminatory Condition High Extensive/high Acceptable Condition Moderate and less Limited to moderate

Short and/or in communication with protected groundwater

Intermediate and regional scale

A site should pass all these criteria to be considered for CO2 storage, but exceptions can be made

Desirable Site Qualification Criteria - 1

Criterion 1 Within fold belts 2 Adverse diagenesis 3 Geothermal regime 4 Temperature 5 Pressure Unfavorable Yes Significant Favorable No Low to moderate

G 35 C/km and/or high G < 35 C/km and low Ts Ts < 35 C < 7.5 MPa 35 C 7.5 MPa

A site should meet as many as possible of these criteria; if too few are being met, then maybe it should be rejected

Desirable Site Qualification Criteria - 2

Criterion 6 Thickness 7 Porosity 8 Permeability 9 Caprock thickness 10 Well density Unfavorable < 20 m < 10% < 20 mD < 10 m High Favorable 20 m 10% 20 mD 10 m Low to moderate

Site Characterization Objectives - 1

1. 3-D structure of the sedimentary succession from the storage unit to ground surface 2. Geology of the sedimentary succession from the storage unit to ground surface 3. Rock properties 4. Mineralogical, chemical and mechanical characteristics of all system components 5. Hydrogeology and geothermics

Broad Site Characterization - 2

7. Planar discontinuities such as faults and fractures 8. Fault and fracture characteristics 9. In-situ conditions of P, T and stress 10. Fluid compositions and PVT behaviour 11. Linear features such as wells 12. Reservoir and wells history

Concluding Remarks Regarding Site Selection

CO2 storage sites should be selected based on the safety and security of storage, their capacity and injectivity, ability to meet regulatory requirements including monitoring, accessibility and economics Any assessment of CO2 storage capacity should carefully consider the processes involved, their spatial and temporal scales, the resolution of the assessment, and the available data and their quality Sites should be properly characterized to meet regulatory and stakeholders requirements, particularly in regard to safety and security of storage

References Regarding Site Selection

1. Screening and ranking of sedimentary basins for sequestration of CO2 in geological media in response to climate change. Bachu. S., Environmental Geology, v. 44, no. 3, p. 277-289, doi: 10.1007/s00254-003-0762-9 2. Screening and selection criteria, and characterisation for CO2 geological storage. Bachu, S. In: Developments and Innovation in Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Capture and Storage Technology, Vol. 2 (M. Maroto-Valer, ed.), Woodhead Energy Series No. 16, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., p. 27-56, 2010.

References Regarding Storage Capacity Estimation

1.CO2 storage capacity estimation: Methodology and gaps. Bachu, S., J. Bradshaw, D. Bonijoly, R. Burruss, S. Holloway, N.P. Christensen and OM. Mathiassen. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, v. 1, no. 4, p. 430-443, doi: 10.1016/S1750-5836(07)00086-2, 2007. 2.U.S. DOE methodology for the development of geologic storage potential for carbon dioxide at the national and regional scale. Angela Goodman, Alexandra Hakala, Grant Bromhal, Dawn Deel, Traci Rodosta, Scott Frailey, Mitchell Small, Doug Allen, Vyacheslav Romanov, Jim Fazio, Nicolas Huerta, Dustin McIntyre, Barbara Kutchko and George Guthrie. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, v. 5, doi: 10.1016/j.ijggc. 2011.03.010.

Contact

Dr. Stefan Bachu

Alberta Innovates Technology Futures stefan.bachu@albertainnovates.ca