Geologa,

metalogena y aspectos histricos de la minera en Europa

Krister Leon Sundblad

Universidad de Turku, Finlandia

Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru

Junio 17-19, 2013

 Partes 1 y 2

Que es Turku y que es Finlandia?

Finlandia es ubicada en el norte de Europa. Turku es una ciudad en el suroueste de Finlandia.

Krister Leon Sundblad

1952 1970-1974 1981 1974-1982 1983 1984-1986 1987-1997 1997-2001 2001Born in Stockholm, Sweden. Basic university studies in Stockholm, Sweden. PhD thesis at the University of Stockholm, Sweden Geologist at the Geological Survey of Sweden. Exploration geologist in Nicaragua. State Geologist at the Geological Survey of Sweden. Associate Professor at the University of Stockholm. Professor at the Technical University of Trondheim, Norway. Professor at the University of Turku, Finland

Geologa, metalogena y aspectos histricos de la minera en Europa

Contenido Parte 1. Perspectivos histricos. Parte 2. Metalogena Precambrico
El Escudo de Fennoscandia

Junio 17 Junio 17 Junio 18 Junio 18

Parte 3. Metalogena Palaeozoico Parte 4. Metalogena del Mar Tethys y de los Alpes

Parte 1, Junio 17, 2013

5:30 - 6:30 p.m.

Perspectivos histricos

Krister Leon Sundblad

In a historical perspective, nothing can beat Cyprus, Greece and Cornwall, when comes to earliest mining in Europe.

Cyprus, Laurion and Cornwall served the Roman empire (and many previous cultures) with necessary metals for peaceful and hostile purposes

Cyprus served pre-Roman cultures and the Roman empire with Cu. Cornwall (Sn), provided the tin for the bronze cultures for 1000s of years, while Laurion (Ag) was essential for the Greek culture.

Later, Belgium and Germany were the centers for mining and developing mining techniques.

Vielle Montagne in the Ardennes (Belgium) served the Roman empire with Pb-Zn. Kupferschiefer (Cu) and Erzgebirge (Sn and Ag), both Germany, were main European metal producers for 1000 years.

German knowledge and technology on ores and mining were world-leading. Agricola formulated the first scientific principles on ores and how to find them.

Georgius Agricola (1494-1555)

De Re Metallica (1555)

But in a modern perspective, nothing can beat Finland and Sweden, when comes to present mining in Europe.

1. It is the biggest complex of Precambrian crust in Europe. 2. It is very rich in mineral resources (and metals).

a. history of mining activities in northern Europe

The Falun mined produced copper before Sweden existed and was for a time the biggest copper mine in the world.

The Sala mine was the biggest silver producer in the world before the Spanish conquistadors came to Latin America

b. discoveries of metals (and other elements)

many tens of elements have been discovered in northern Europe)

c. the metal production (from ancient to present)

d. present mining

More metals than ever are produced from ores in the Fennoscandian Shield.

Present mines in Europe

Kiruna Aitik Skellefte District Svartliden Garpenberg Zinkgruvan Dannemora Pyhsalmi Laiva Suurikuusiskko Kemi Hitura Talvivaara Kevitsa Orivesi Pampalo Sydvaranger Kupferschiefer Sweden Sweden Sweden Sweden Sweden Sweden Sweden Finland Finland Finland Finland Finland Finland Finland Finland Finland Norway Poland Fe Cu Cu, Zn and Au Au Cu, Zn, Ag Zn, Pb Fe Cu, Zn Au Au Cr Ni Ni Ni Au Au Fe Cu

Parte 2, Junio 17, 2013

6:30 - 8:00 p.m.

Metalogena del Precambrio

El Escudo de Fennoscandia

Krister Leon Sundblad

Northern Europe is strongly dominated by the Fennoscandian Shield

The Fennoscandian Shield is the largest Precambrian crustal complex in Europe.

The amount of ore deposits in northern Europe is larger than in most other parts of the world. Some of these ores are significant in size and many hundreds of these have been mined, some in very large operations. As a consequence, mining has played a major role for the Nordic countries to evolve from insignificant and peripheral areas in northern Europe to leading centers with respect to mining, metal production and high-technology industries. Mining started already during the iron age, became significant in the 9th century when underground mining started in Falun, and is still important in several regions, particularly in Sweden, Finland and westernmost Russia. The ore deposits are hosted by rocks of a large variety of types, ages and origin and the metallogeny of northern Europe is a result of a long and complex history that started more than 3000 millions of years ago.

1. The Fennoscandian Shield

The Fennoscandian Shield is the largest of all Precambrian terrains in Europe and includes several orogenic complexes ranging in age from Archaean to Proterozoic. The metallogenetic history of the Fennoscandian Shield is complex but follows closely the crustal evolution. Several important segments are recognized in the Fennoscandian Shield.

2 1 3 5 4

1. The Archaean Domain 2. The Karelian Schist Belt (+ Lapland Greenstone Belt) 3. The Svecofennian Domain 4. Transscandinavian Igneous Belt 5. Gothian Domain

The Fennoscandian Shield, includes both Archaean and Proterozoic orogenies, in Russia, Finland, Sweden and Norway.

More details on the crustal evolution in the Fennoscandian Shield

1. The Archaean Domain The Archaean Domain is dominated by granodiorites, tonalites and komatiitic greenstone belts, emplaced at 2700-3100 Ma. Slightly older crustal components (up to 3500 Ma) have been found locally. The Archaean rocks were deformed and metamorphosed by the Saamian and Lopian orogenies, which led to cratonization of the Archaean crust. In this way, one of the first continents in Europe had been formed. A similar process had simultaneously also created a continent in the Ukraine, but that continent was at that time located far away from Fennoscandia).

2. The Karelian Schist Belt (+ Lapland Greenstone Belt) Weathering and erosion of the Archaean continent started immediately after the continent had been formed. No vegetation existed at this time and the erosion products were quickly transported by landslides and rivers to the surrounding oceanic waters. We can see many pieces of evidence for this along the southwestern margin of the Archaean Domain; conglomerates, quartzites, marbles and turbiditic sediments indicate silent shallowmarine deposition while the deeper marine products further off shore indicate more rapid accumulation. Igneous activity started already at 2400 Ma, when large gabbroic layered intrusions were emplaced at various sites within the Archaean craton. These intrusions were followed by dolerites and komatiitic volcanic rocks that were intercalated with the epiclastic sediments. Most of this igneous activity took place at 2200-2100 Ma, in conjunction with rifting along the south-western margin of the Archaean continent. At 1960 Ma, this rifting became successful and a proper ocean (with development of oceanic crust) was created. The best evidence for this is the Jormua ophiolite in eastern Finland.

3. The Svecofennian Domain The oceanic conditions remained during the Svecofennian (1920-1890 Ma) when a huge amount of juvenile crust was formed. Some of this activity took place along, and within, the south-western margin of the Archaean continent, which now was an active continental margin related to subduction. This can be studied in the Kiruna and Aitik regions in northern Sweden. Most Svecofennian rocks were, however, formed under marine conditions and gave rise to island arcs (in the Skellefte and Pyhsalmi regions) and turbidite-dominated areas. The southwesternmost Svecofennian region is located in Bergslagen, Sweden, where the depositional conditions indicate shallow-marine sedimentary and volcano-plutonic environments near an Archaean continent. This continent must have been located southwest of the Svecofennian environments and been lost since then. The Svecofennian crust was subject to orogenic activities at repeated times, including 1870, 1845, 1830 and 1800 Ma, all referred to as the Svecokarelian orogeny. As a result, the continent had increased in size and consisted now of Archaean and Svecofennian crustal components.

4. Transscandinavian Igneous Belt (and rapakivi granites) The south-western margin of the Archaean and Svecofennian continent turned immediately into an active continental margin, resulting in extensive granitoid and rhyolitic subaerial volcanic rocks. The first expressions of this subduction-related activity took place already at 1845 Ma, but the main igneous phases were formed at 1800 and 1770 Ma respectively. A very different igneous phase lasted from 1700 to 1670 Ma and in an extensional environment with generation of A-type granitic and rhyolitic subaerial volcanic rocks. Both above-mentioned igneous complexes are referred to as the Transscandinavian Igneous Belt (TIB) and is always located along the western margin of the metamorphosed Svecofennian crust. It is very well exposed in south-eastern Sweden but also occur under the Caledonian rocks along the border between Sweden and Norway. The extensional environment that had created the 1700 to 1670 Ma TIB rocks continued at certain spots in southern Finland and in the Ladoga region. The first spot was the 1645 Ma Wiborg rapakivi granite Batholith and was followed by similar rapakivi batholiths at 1545 Ma at Salmi, land and (under the Phanerozoic cover) in the Riga region.

5. Gothian Domain The Gothian Domain has got its name from the oldest crustal components in south-western Scandinavia, 1600 Ma old meta-sedimentary rocks and metamorphosed granitoids. Later rocks include 1400 and 1200 Ma granitoids as well as sedimentary formations and associated mafic volcanic rocks. This Gothian Domain evolved far away from the rocks in the Archaean-Svecofennian-TIB continent, but finally, at 1000-950 Ma, the Gothian Domain collided with the ArchaeanSvecofennian-TIB continent. This collisional event is referred to as the Sveconorwegian orogeny and was followed by extensive post-orogenic (900 Ma) granitic intrusions, mainly in southern Norway.

The Metallogeny of the Fennoscandian Shield follows closely the crustal evolution and is thus very complex. The following basic mineralizing events can be recognized:
A. ARCHAEAN MINERALIZATION B. PROTEROZOIC MINERALIZATION I. Mineralization in the earliest Palaeoproterozoic

II. 1.9 Ga mineralization within the Svecofennian Domain III. Stitching plutons within the Svecofennian (and Archaean) Domains IV. Proterozoic gold within the Svecofennian (and Archaean) Domains V. Mid to Late Proterozoic mineralization in Southwestern Scandinavia

A. ARCHAEAN MINERALIZATION Archaean crust occur in eastern Finland and westernmost Russia (as well as smaller areas in northern Sweden and Norway).

A number of ore types, tied to Archaean crust have been recognized in Finnish and Russian Karelia as well as in the Kola Peninsula region.

The most important of these are the ore bodies tied to 2700-3100 Ma old greenstone belts and associated tonalitic intrusions, both in the Finnish and Russian parts of Karelia.

B. PROTEROZOIC MINERALIZATION

I. Mineralization in the earliest Palaeoproterozoic; a. failed rift systems After a craton had been formed in the Late Archaean, several (failed) attempts to rift this craton took place in the earliest Palaeoproterozoic, which resulted in a variety of ore-bearing environments in the Nordkalott province: a) 2.4 Ga layered intrusions with Cr, Pt, and Pd Penikat in the Kemi region Monchegorsk in the Kola Peninsula region Burakovski east of lake Onega b) 2.1 Ga layered intrusions with Ni-Cu Petsamo (Pechenga) in the Kola Peninsula region Kevitsa and Sakattilampi, NE Finland c) 2.1 Ga stratiform Cu in greenstone belts Viscaria, Kiruna region, N Sweden

2400 Ma layered intrusions with Cr, Pt & Pd Monchegorsk and Burakovski, Russia Penikat (Kemi region), Finland 2100-2200 Ma Ni-Cu deposits in greenstone belts Petsamo (Rus), Kevitsa and Sakattilampi (Fin)

2100-2200 Ma stratiform Cu in greenstone belts Viscaria, Sweden

b. Sediment-hosted Cu-mineralization Nussir and Voronov Bor

two examples of early Proterozoic sediment-hosted chalcocine-bornite-chalcopyrite mineralization

c. Successful ocean opening at 1960 Ma At 1960 Ma the efforts to rift the Archaean continent finally became sucessful. An ocean opened up southwest of the Archaean continent and led to the production of oceanic crust. A piece of Archaean crust was probably now removed from Fennoscandia and if this was the case, we have never seen it again. A small piece of the 1960 Ma oceanic crust is, however, preserved in Finland; the Jormua ophiolite. This ophiolite was thrust on top of the Archaean continent (probably during the Svecokarelian orogeny) and rests with a tectonic contact on top of the Archaean crust. The Jormua ophiolite can be followed towards the south (although overprinted with deformation and metamorphism) into the Outokumpu region. With such an association, an ophiolite and a large-scale massive sulphide deposit, it is easy to imagine that Outokumpu is a Cyprus type deposit.

d. Ore deposits in the 1950-2200 Ma Kalevian meta-sedimentary successions The sedimentary rock units associated with the Jormua ophiolite have also attracted attention recently: Talvivaara is a big industrial operation that recently has started for extracting Ni and U out of black schists in the Kajaaai region. Hammaslahti was mined for Cu and Zn during the 1980:ies from a volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit in turbiditic host rocks. It can be compared with the Escanaba model.

Talvivaara (Ni, U) Outokumpu (Cu, Zn, Co) Hammaslahti (Cu, Zn)

II. 1920-1890 Ma mineralization within the Svecofennian Domain After the accretion of the Jormua ophiolite, emplaced on top of the Archaean continent, a new ocean opened at the same site at about 1890-1920 Ma, i.e. to the southwest of the present Archaean crust (and its obducted fragments of ophiolites and Kalevian schists. The SW border was then located slightly more to the southwest, coinciding with the Raahe-Ladoga line.
a c b d

In this 1900 Ma ocean, several Svecofennian terranes developed, which amalgamated to the Archaean continent in the Svecokarelian orogeny. These terranes include the following mining districts or deposits: a. Kiruna/Aitik b. Vihanti/Pyhsalmi c. Skellefte District d. Bergslagen District

a) Terrestrial 1910 Ma volcanism, along the south-western margin of the Archaean continent (comparable to present-day Chile), was associated with the Kiruna magnetite-apatite Fe ores and the Aitik Cu-Au deposit.

b) Continental-margin, shallow-marine 1910 Ma volcanism along the southwestern margin of the Archaean continent.

This zone extends from Tjmotis (T) in north Sweden to Varkaus (V) in southeast Finland. It was associated with formation of VMS deposits (of which the largest are located at Vihanti and Pyhsalmi). Although similar in style compared to the island arc environment of the Skellefte district, these groups are not the same.

V V

c) Island arc 1890 Ma magmatism in the Skellefte district (S), with a number of Kuroko type Cu-Zn deposits (Kristineberg, Nsliden, Udden, etc.) The region can be further traced into the Tampere region (T).

Comagmatic plutonic complexes to the island arc system include granitoids within the Central Finnish Batholith and its associated Cu-Mo-W deposits (Kopsa, Yljrvi and Ktaberget).

The island arc environment of the Skellefte district is spatially surrounded by discontinuous pods of ultramafics with significant Ni ores (Lappvattnet, Kotalahti, Kylmkoski and Vammala), revealing deep and regionally significant sutures, which probably represent terrane boundaries.

d) The Bergslagen district is the historically most important ore district of Fennoscandia.

It forms a geological terrane that can be followed from southcentral Sweden via SW Finland to Estonia and Latvia. It is characterized by 1890 Ma felsic continental-margin volcanic rocks and continent-derived clastic sediments. The ore types include magnetite-apatite Fe deposits (Grngesberg), exhalative Fe deposits (Dannemora and Norberg), volcanogenic Cu-Zn-Pb deposits (Falun and Garpenberg) and volcanic-exhalative Zn-Pb deposits (Zinkgruvan).

Falun Dannemora Garpenberg Norberg Grngesberg Zinkgruvan

III. Stiching plutons within the Svecofennian (and Archaean) Domains After metamorphism and amalgamation of Svecofennian terranes to the Archaean craton, the Svecofennian and (Archaean) Domains were intruded by granitoids in several generations:

1. 1800 Ma granites
a) Late collisional uplift granites intragranitic Mo deposits (Bispberg, Allebuoda and Tepasto) exoskarn-W deposits (Yxsjberg) U deposits (Pleutajokk) b) Subduction-related TIB batholiths epithermal Pb-Zn deposits (latorp)

2. 1700-1500 Ma anorogenic granites and volcanic rocks in extensional tectonics

a) 1700-1670 Ma batholiths in the northern part of the Transscandinavian Igneous Belt polymetallic (Cu-Zn-Pb-Sn-In) intragranitic greisen deposits (Van and Gillerdrgen)

b) 1650-1500 Ma rapakivi granites i. polymetallic (Cu-Zn-Pb-Sn-In) intragranitic greisen deposits (Eurajoki, Pahasaari, Korsvik and Jungfrubergen) ii. polymetallic (Cu-Zn-Pb-Sn-In) exoskarn deposits (Pitkranta).

Post-Svecofennian granitoidrelated deposits 1800 Ma Pleutajokk U deposit 1800 Ma Bispberg Mo deposit and Yxsjberg W skarn deposit. 1800 Ma TIB and epithermal latorp Pb-Zn-Ag deposit. 1650-1500 Ma anorogenic Cu-ZnPb-Sn-In skarn deposit (Pitkranta). 1650-1500 Ma anorogenic Cu-Sn-In greisen deposits (Jungfrubergen, Korsvik and Eurajoki).

IV. Proterozoic gold within the Lapland Greenstone Belts, the Svecofennian (and Archaean) Domains Mesothermal gold deposits are found in several geological environments within the Lapland Greenstone Belts and the Svecofennian Domain, formed from a number of orogenic processes:

a) Svecokarelian (1800-1850 Ma) shear zones in the greenstone belts of the Nordkalott province This group includes Bidjovagge, Pahtohavare, Saattopora, Suurikuusikko and many others. The mesothermal gold at Ringvassya also belong here, although Archaean zircons have been recorded in these greenstone successions.

b) Svecokarelian shear zones

Bjrkdal and kerberg (Skellefte, Sweden) Laiva, Haveri and Orivesi/Kutemajrvi (Finland)

c) Even later (<1800 Ma) shear zones

delfors and Solstad (SE Sweden)

V. Mid to Late Proterozoic mineralization in Southwestern Scandinavia Southwestern Scandinavia records a different geological and metallogenetic evolution compared to the Archaean-Svecofennian domains. The following ore types are among the most important: a) Stratiform Zambia-type Cu deposits in 1100 Ma continental sedimentary basins related to failed rift (Stora Strand) b) Mesothermal Au deposits, associated with the 900-1000 Ga Sveconorwegian orogeny (Eidsvoll and Harns) c) Stitching 900 Ma granites with Mo (Knaben) and Ti deposits in anorthosites (Tellnes), all in SW Norway