Computer System Organization

CPS

1 Introduction
Problem-oriented language level Translation (compiler) Level 4 Assembly language level Translation (assembler) Level 3 Operating System Machine Level Partial interpretation (operating system) Level 2 Conventional Machine level Interpretation (microprogram) Level 1 Microprogramming level Microprograms are directly executed by hardware Level 0

Level 5

Digital logic level

Contemporary MULTILEVEL MACHINES

LEVEL 0 - the machines true hardware. Its circuits carry out the machine language programs of Level 1. The interesting objects are called gates. * Below Level 0 is called the device level, the lowest-level primitives for computer designers who sees individual transistors. LEVEL 1 the true machine language level. In contrast to Level 0, where there is no concept of a program as a sequence of instructions to be carried out, in Level 1 there is definitely a program called a microprogram, whose job is to interpret the instructions of Level 2.

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LEVEL 2. Each microprograms (one or more) of Level 1 machine implicitly defines a level 2 language (and a virtual machine, whose machine language is that language). LEVEL 3 hybrid level. A set of new instructions, the ability to run two or more programs in parallel, and various other features. The new facilities added at Level 3 are carried out by interpreter running at level 2, which has been called operating system. Some of the Level 3 instructions are interpreted directly by the operating system microprogram and some are interpreted by the microprogram. LEVEL 4. The assembly language level is really a symbolic form for one of the underlying languages. This level provides a method for people to write programs for Levels 1, 2, and 3 in a form that is not as unpleasant as the virtual machine languages themselves. LEVEL 5. Consists of languages designed to be used by application programmers called high-level languages (BASIC, C, COBOL, FORTRAN, LISP, Modula 2, Pascal). LEVEL 6. And above consists of collection of programs designed to create machines specifically tailored to certain applications. Note: Level 3 and below are designed by the system programmer, Level 4 and above are intended for the application programmer. Level 1, 2, 3 machine language is numeric. Level 4, 5, and higher the languages contain words and abbreviations.

Terminologies: (Digital) Computer a machine that can solve problems for people by carrying out instructions given to it. Program a sequence of instructions describing how to perform a certain task. System programmers specializes in designing and implementing new virtual machines, who write interpreters and translators. Application programmer who writes programs from Level 4 and above, with a problem to solve. Assembler programs that translate assembly language to be understood or un in Level 1,2,3 and then interpreted by the appropriate virtual or actual machine. Compilers Programs written in high-level languages are translated to level 3 or 4 by translators known as compiler.

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2 Computer System Organization

A digital computer (computer hardware) consist of an interconnected system of processors, memories, and input/output devices. It consists of several major units: the Central Processing Unit (CPU), Main Memory, Secondary Memory and the Peripherals. The forerunner of the modern CPU was the von Neumann Machine, which was first used in EDSAC, the first stored program computer and still the basis for nearly all digital computers even now.

Memory
Arithmetic Logical unit Input Output

Control unit

5 Basic Parts (1) memory (2) arithmetic-logic unit (3) program control unit (4) input (5) output

Accumulator

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2.1 PROCESSORS The CPU (central processing unit) is the brain of the computer. Its functions is to execute programs stored in the main memory by fetching their instructions, examining them and then executing them one after another

Control Unit

Arithmetic Logical Unit Registers

I/O Devices

Main Memory

Disk Printer

bus Organization of a simple computer with (1) CPU and (2) I/O Devices Parts: (1) Control Unit responsible for fetching their instructions from main memory and determining their type. (2) Arithmetic and Logical Unit performs operations such as addition and Boolean AND needed to carry out the instructions. (3) Memory (high speed memory) used to store temporary results and certain control information. This memory consists of a number of registers, each of which has a certain function. Types of Registers: (a) Program Counter (PC) which points to the next instruction to be executed. (b) Instruction Register (IR) which holds the instructions currently being executed 2.1.1. Instruction Execution The CPU executes each instruction in a series of small steps: 1. Fetch the next instruction from memory into the instruction register. 2. Change the program counter to point to the following instruction. 3. Determine the type of instruction just fetched. 4. If the instruction uses data in memory, determine where they are. 5. Fetch the data, if any, into internal CPU registers. 6. Execute the instruction. 7. Store the results in the proper place. 8. Go to step1 to begin executing the following instruction.

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2.1.2. CPU Organization The internal organization of part of a classical von Neumann CPU is called data path and consists of registers (typically 1 to 16) and the ALU. The register feeds into two ALU input registers, labeled A and B. These registers hold the ALU input while the ALU is computing. The ALU itself performs addition, subtraction, and other simple operations on its inputs, yielding a result in the output register. This output register can be stored back into a register, and from there, back to memory, if desired. Categories of Instructions: (1) Register-Memory allows memory words to be fetched into registers where they can be used as ALU inputs in subsequent instructions. (2) Register-Register fetches two operands from the registers, brings them to the ALU input registers, performs some operation on them, and stores the result back in register. (3) Memory-Memory fetches its operands from memory into ALU input registers, performs its operations and then writes the results back into memory.

A+B

Registers

ALU Input Registers

ALU

A+B

ALU Output Registers

Data Path of von Neuman Machine

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Computer System Organization Terminologies:

CPS

Hardware electronic circuits, along with the memory and input/output devices form the computers hardware. Hardware consists of tangible objects integrated circuits, printed circuit board, cables, power supplies, memories, card readers, line printers, and terminals. Software consists of algorithms or set of instructions and their computer representations that makes up the programs. Firmware an intermediate form between hardware and software which consists of software embedded in electronic devices. Firmware is used when the programs are rarely or never expected to be changed. Fetch-decode-execute The series of small steps when CPU executes each instructions. Data path the internal organization of a machine consists of registers (1-16) and the ALU

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