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1. Absorption of photons generation of electron-hole pairs 2. Separation of carriers in the internal electric field created by p-n junction and collection at the electrodes
potential difference and current in the external circuit 3. Potential difference at the electrodes of a p-n junction injection and recombination of carriers losses The resulting current in the external circuit: I = IL - ID (V) photocurrent IL dark (diode) current ID
sunlight
solar cell
waste heat - 56% spectral mismatch - 9% reflection & transmission - 13% fundamental recombination
electricity
(1 R )
Af At
QE el
g QE opt
EC
g
Non-absorption g < ph
Eph EV
g
EG
PI = 0 ( )
( )
0
hc d
hc 0 ( ) d 0
Photon flux density: number of photons per unit area per unit time and unit wavelength
hc 0 ( ) d 0
g > ph
EC Eph EV
g
EG
Eg
hc PI = ( ) d 0 flux density: number of photons per 0 ( ) Photon unit area per unit time and unit wavelength
0
0 g
0 ( ) d
hc 0 ( ) d 0
EC EG EV
Thermalization Eph>EG
g
Eph
EG
hc ( ) d 0
0 0
Eg
g
0 ( ) d
hc ( ) d 0
hc 0 ( ) d 0
(1 R )
Af At
Reflection: Different refractive indices Transmission: finite thickness of a cell absorption coefficient Area loss: metal electrode coverage
QE el
g QE opt
(1 R )
Af At
Recombination: bulk recombination (minority carrier lifetime) surface recombination (surface recombination velocity)
QE el
g QE opt
J max = q 0 ( ) d
0
J sc = J max (1 R ) QE opt g QE el
Af At
q 0 ( ) d
0
hc d ( ) 0
0
PI = ( )
0 0
hc d
E G 0 ( ) d
0 0 () 0
hc d
0 g
0 ()
hc d hc d
0 () 0
Overstraeten, Mertens: Physics, technology and Use of Photovoltaics, Adam Hilger 1986
hc 0 ( ) d 0
0
E g 0 ( ) d
0 g 0 ( ) 0
hc ( ) d 0
hc d
q Voc Af ff (1 R ) g QE opt QE el At Eg
1. Loss by long wavelengths 2. Loss by excess energy of photons 3. Loss by metal electrode coverage 4. Loss by reflection 5. Loss by incomplete absorption due to the finite thickness 6. Loss due to recombination 7. Voltage factor 8. Fill factor
Overstraeten, Mertens: Physics, technology and Use of Photovoltaics, Adam Hilger 1986
Properties: Optical gap Optical gap Refractive indices Absorption coefficient Metal grid design
ISC = I L
VOC
kT I L = ln + 1 q I0
q Dn ni2 q D p ni2 I0 = A + L N Lp N D n A
p++
p++
SiO
n+
+
IL
1 2
ID
Voltage
VOC IT
ISC
IL
+
V
Rsh
-200
-400
Voltage [V]
0 Rs = 0 Ohm -100 Rp
-200
-300 Voc 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
-400
Voltage [V]
p-type Si
Fabricated in 1954
n-type Si
wrap-around structure p-n junction formed by B dopant diffusion high resistive losses in the player efficiency 6%
External parameters:
Jsc =42.7 mA/cm2 Voc =0.705 V ff = 0.828 = 25.0 %
Passivation of surface (SiO2 on both sides of solar cell) Thin metal fingers on the front side Back side metalization with small contact area to the base material Locally diffused regions under contact points at the back
(BSF field)