What is a Carbon Nanotube?

Introduction: A promising group of Nanostructured materials is the nanotubes, which are currently fabricated from various materials such as boron nitride, molybdenum, carbon (carbon nanotubes), etc. However, at the moment, carbon nanotubes seem to be superior and most important due to their unique structure with interesting properties, which suit them to a tremendously diverse range of applications in micro or nanoscale electronics, biomedical devices, nanocomposites, gas storage media, scanning probe tips, etc. Definition: Carbon nanotubes are a new form of carbon made by rolling up a single graphite sheet to a narrow but long tube closed at both sides by two hemispheres (1/2 section of fullerene carbon) like end caps. In 1991, while experimenting on fullerene and looking into soot residues sumio lijima invented two types of nanotubes namely single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs). SWNT consists only of a single graphene sheet with one atomic layer in thickness, while MWNT is formed from 2 to several tens of graphene sheets arranged concentrically into tube structures. They are promising one-dimensional periodic structure along the axis of the tube with high aspect ratio (length/diameter).

Properties: The following table shows selected electrical and mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes. Nanotubes can be either electrically conductive or semi conductive, depending on their helicity. These one-dimensional fibers exhibit electrical conductivity as high as copper, thermal conductivity as high as diamond. Strength 100 times greater than steel at one sixth the weight, and high strain to failure. Current length limits are about one millimeter.

A Carbon Nanotube is a tube-shaped material, made of carbon, having a diameter measuring on the nanometer scale. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter, or about one ten-thousandth of the thickness of a human hair. The graphite layer appears somewhat like a rolled-up chicken wire with a continuous unbroken hexagonal mesh and carbon molecules at the apexes of the hexagons. Carbon Nanotubes have many structures, differing in length, thickness, and in the type of helicity and number of layers. Although they are formed from essentially the same graphite sheet, their electrical characteristics differ depending on these variations, acting either as metals or as semiconductors. Carbon Nanotubes typically have diameters ranging from <1 nm up to 50 nm. Their lengths are typically several microns, but recent advancements have made the nanotubes much longer, and measured in centimeters.

Carbon Nanotubes can be categorized by their structures:

Single-wall Nanotubes (SWNT) Multi-wall Nanotubes (MWNT) Double-wall Nanotubes (DWNT)

Related to CNT other Structures Torus: a nanotorus is a carbon nanotubes bent into a torus (doughnut shape). Nanotori are predicted to have many unique properties, such as magnetic moments 1000 times larger than previously expected for certain specific radii. Properties such as magnetic moment, thermal stability, etc. vary widely depending on radius of the torus and radius of the tube. Nanobuds: Carbon Nanobuds are a newly created material combining two previously discovered allotropes of carbon: carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. In this new material, fullerene-like "buds" are covalently bonded to the outer sidewalls of the underlying carbon nanotube. This hybrid material has useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. In particular, they have been found to be exceptionally good field emitters. In composite materials, the attached fullerene molecules may function as molecular anchors preventing slipping of the nanotubes, thus improving the composites mechanical properties. Graphenated carbon nanotubes (g-CNTs): Graphenated CNTs are a relatively new hybrid that combines graphitic foliates grown along the sidewalls of multiwalled or bamboo style CNTs. Peapod: Carbon peapod is a novel hybrid carbon material which traps fullerene inside a carbon nanotube. It can possess interesting magnetic properties with heating and irradiating. It can also be applied as an oscillator during theoretical investigations and predictions. Cup-stacked carbon nanotubes: Cup-stacked carbon nanotubes (CSCNTs) differ from other quasi-1D carbon structures, which normally behave as quasi-metallic conductors of electrons. CSCNTs exhibit semiconducting behaviors due to the stacking microstructure of graphene layers. Single-wall Nanotubes (SWNT) Single-wall nanotubes (SWNT) are tubes of graphite that are normally capped at the ends. They have a single cylindrical wall. The structure of a SWNT can be visualized as a layer of graphite, a single atom thick, called graphene, which is rolled into a seamless cylinder. Most SWNT typically have a diameter of close to 1 nm. The tube length, however, can be many thousands of times longer.

SWNT are more pliable yet harder to make than MWNT. They can be twisted, flattened, and bent into small circles or around sharp bends without breaking. SWNT have unique electronic and mechanical properties which can be used in numerous applications, such as field-emission displays, nanocomposites materials, nanosensors, and logic elements. These materials are on the leading-edge of electronic fabrication, and are expected to play a major role in the next generation of miniaturized electronics. Most single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) have a diameter of close to 1 nanometer, with a tube length that can be many millions of times longer. The structure of a SWNT can be conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of graphite called graphene into a seamless cylinder. The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices (n,m) . The integers n and m denote the number of unit vectors along two directions in the honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene. If m = 0, the nanotubes are called zigzag nanotubes, and if n = m, the nanotubes are called armchair nanotubes. Otherwise, they are called chiral. The diameter of an ideal nanotube can be calculated from its (n,m) indices as follows

where a = 0.246 nm.

Graphene nanoribbon Armchair (n,n)

The translation vector is bent, while the chiral vector stays straight

The chiral vector is bent, while the translation vector stays straight

Zigzag (n,0)

n and m can be counted at the end of the tube

Chiral (n,m) Graphene nanoribbon

Multi-wall Nanotubes (MWNT) Multi-wall nanotubes can appear either in the form of a coaxial assembly of SWNT similar to a coaxial cable, or as a single sheet of graphite rolled into the shape of a scroll. The diameters of MWNT are typically in the range of 5 nm to 50 nm. The interlayer distance in MWNT is close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite. MWNT are easier to produce in high volume quantities than SWNT. However, the structure of MWNT is less well understood because of its greater complexity and variety. Regions of structural imperfection may diminish its desirable material properties. The challenge in producing SWNT on a large scale as compared to MWNT is reflected in the prices of SWNT, which currently remain higher than MWNT. Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT) consist of multiple rolled layers (concentric tubes) of graphene. There are two models that can be used to describe the structures of multi-walled nanotubes. In the Russian Doll model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylinders, e.g., a (0, 8) single-walled nanotube (SWNT) within a larger (0, 17) single-walled nanotube.

In the Parchment model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in around itself, resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled newspaper. The interlayer distance in multi-walled nanotubes is close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite, approximately 3.4 . SWNT, however, have a performance of up to ten times better, and are outstanding for very specific applications.

Double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNT)

Double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNT) form a special class of nanotubes because their morphology and properties are similar to those of SWNT but their resistance to chemicals is significantly improved. This is especially important when functionalization is required (this means grafting of chemical functions at the surface of the nanotubes) to add new properties to the CNT Double-wall nanotubes (DWNT) are an important sub-segment of MWNT. These materials combine similar morphology and other properties of SWNT, while significantly improving their resistance to chemicals. This property is especially important when functionality is required to add new properties to the nanotubes. Since DWNT are a synthetic blend of both SWNT and MWNT, they exhibit the electrical and thermal stability of the latter and the flexibility of the former. Because they are developed for highly specific applications, SWNT that have been functionalized are more susceptible to breakage. Creating any structural imperfections can modify their mechanical and electrical properties. What are the Properties of Carbon Nanotubes? The intrinsic mechanical and transport properties of Carbon Nanotubes make them the ultimate carbon fibers. Overall, Carbon Nanotubes show a unique combination of stiffness, strength, and tenacity compared to other fiber materials which usually lack one or more of these properties. Thermal and electrical conductivity are also very high, and comparable to other conductive materials.

Properties
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Strength Hardness Kinetic properties Electrical properties Optical properties

6. 7.

Thermal properties Toxicity

Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in terms of

Strength
tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. This strength results from the covalent sp2 bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a multi-walled carbon nanotubes was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 gigapascals (GPa).

Hardness
Standard single-walled carbon nanotubes can withstand a pressure up to 24GPa without deformation. They then undergo a transformation to superhard phase nanotubes. Maximum pressures measured using current experimental techniques are around 55GPa. However, these new superhard phase nanotubes collapse at an even higher, albeit unknown, pressure. The bulk modulus of superhard phase nanotubes is 462 to 546 GPa, even higher than that of diamond(420 GPa for single diamond crystal).

Kinetic properties
Multi-walled nanotubes are multiple concentric nanotubes precisely nested within one another. These exhibit a striking telescoping property whereby an inner nanotube core may slide, almost without friction, within its outer nanotubes shell, thus creating an atomically perfect linear or rotational bearing. This is one of the first true examples of molecular nanotechnology, the precise positioning of atoms to create useful machines. Already, this property has been utilized to create the world's smallest rotational motor. Future applications such as a gigahertz mechanical oscillator are also envisaged.

Optical properties
The optical properties of carbon nanotubes refer specifically to the absorption, photoluminescence, and Raman spectroscopy of carbon nanotubes. Spectroscopic methods offer the possibility of quick and non-destructive characterization of relatively large amounts of carbon nanotubes. There is a strong demand for such characterization from the industrial point of view: numerous parameters of the nanotubes synthesis can be changed, intentionally or unintentionally, to alter the nanotubes quality. As shown below, optical absorption, photoluminescence and Raman spectroscopes allow quick and reliable characterization of this "nanotubes quality" in terms of non-tubular carbon content, structure (chirality) of the produced nanotubes, and structural defects.

Electrical properties
Because of the symmetry and unique electronic structure of graphene, the structure of nanotubes strongly affects its electrical properties. For a given (n, m) nanotubes, The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices (n,m) . The integers n and m denote the number of unit vectors along two directions in the honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene. if n = m, the nanotube is metallic; if n m is a multiple of 3, then the nanotube is semiconducting with a very small band gap, otherwise the nanotube is a moderate semiconductor. Thus all armchair (n = m) nanotubes are metallic, and nanotubes (6,4), (9,1), etc. are semiconducting.

Toxicity
The toxicity of carbon nanotubes has been an important question in nanotechnology. Such research has just begun. The data are still fragmentary and subject to criticism. Preliminary results highlight the difficulties in evaluating the toxicity of this heterogeneous material. Parameters such as structure, size distribution, surface area, surface chemistry, surface charge, and agglomeration state as well as purity of the samples, have considerable impact on the reactivity of carbon nanotubes. However, available data clearly show that, under some conditions, nanotubes can cross membrane barriers, which suggests that, if raw materials reach the organs, they can induce harmful effects such as inflammatory and fibrotic reactions.

Synthesis (production of carbon nanotubes): The growth of carbon nanotubes during synthesis and production is believed to commence from the recombination of carbon atoms split by heat from its precursor. Although a number of newer production techniques are being invented, three main methods are the laser ablation, electric arc discharge and the chemical vapor deposition. Chemical vapor deposition is becoming very popular because of its potential for scale up production.

Carbon Nanotube Technology can be used for a wide range of new and existing applications:

Conductive plastics Structural composite materials Flat-panel displays Gas storage Antifouling paint Micro- and Nano-electronics Radar-absorbing coating Technical textiles Ultra-capacitors Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) tips Batteries with improved lifetime Biosensors for harmful gases Extra strong fibers

Carbon fullerenes: Introduction: A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid or tube. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyball, and they resemble the balls used in association football. Cylindrical ones are called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings. The first fullerene to be discovered, and the family's namesake, buckminsterfullerene (C60), was prepared in 1985 by Richard Smalley, Robert Curl, James Heath, Sean O'Brien, and Harold Kroto at Rice University. The name was homage to Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic domes

it resembles. The structure was also identified some five years earlier by Sumio Iijima, from an electron microscope image, where it formed the core of a "bucky onion." The discovery of fullerenes greatly expanded the number of known carbon allotropes, which until recently were limited to graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon such as soot and charcoal.

Types of fullerene
Since the discovery of fullerenes in 1985, structural variations on fullerenes have evolved well beyond the individual clusters themselves. Examples include:

buckyball clusters: smallest member is C20 (unsaturated version of dodecahedrane) and the most common is C60. Nanotubes: hollow tubes of very small dimensions, having single or multiple walls; potential applications in electronics industry.

Megatubes: larger in diameter than nanotubes and prepared with walls of different thickness; potentially used for the transport of a variety of molecules of different sizes.

Polymers: chain, two-dimensional and three-dimensional polymers are formed under high-pressure high-temperature conditions; single-strand polymers are formed using the Atom Transfer Radical Addition Polymerization (ATRAP) route.

Nanoonions": spherical particles based on multiple carbon layers surrounding a buckyball core; proposed for lubricants.

linked "ball-and-chain" dimers: two buckyballs linked by a carbon chain; fullerene rings. Carbon is a unique material, and can be a good metallic conductor in the form of

graphite, a wide band gap semiconductor in the form of diamond, or a polymer when reacted with hydrogen. Carbon provides examples of materials showing the entire regime of intrinsic nanometer scaled structures from fullerenes, which are zero-dimensional nanoparticles, to carbon nanotubes, one-dimensional nanowires to graphite, a two dimensional layered anisotropic material, to fullerene solids, a three dimensional bulk materials with the fullerene molecules as the fundamental building block of the crystalline phase. Carbon fullerene commonly refers to a molecule with 60 carbon atoms, C 60, and with an icosahedral symmetry, but also includes larger molecular weight fullerenes Cn (n>60). Examples

of larger molecular weight fullerenes are C70, C76, C78, C80, and higher mass fullerenes, which possess different geometric structures, e.g. C70 has a rugby-ball shaped symmetry. The following figure shows the structure and geometry of C60 molecule.

Figure: The icosahedral C60 molecule. The name of fullerene was given to this family of carbon molecules because of the resemblance of these molecules to the geodesic dome designed and built by R. Buckminster Fuller, where as the name of Buckminster Fullerene or buckyball was specifically given to the C60 molecules, which are most widely studied in the fullerene family and deserve a little more discussion on its structure and properties. Properties: The 60 carbon atoms in C60 are located at the vertices of a regular truncated icosahedron and every carbon site on C60 is equivalent to every other site. The average nearest neighbor C-C distant in C60 (1.44 A0) is almost identical to that in graphite (1.42A0). Each carbon atom in C60 is trigonally bonded to other carbon atoms, the same as that in graphite, and most of the faces on the regular truncated isosahedron are hexagons. There are 20 hexagonal faces and 12 additional pentagonal faces in each C60 molecule, which has a molecule diameter of 7.10A0. Some selective properties of C60 molecule were given in the following table. Property Cage diameter Vander walls diameter Bond distances: five-six bonds 0.1404 nm value 0.7 nm 1.0 nm

Bond distances: six-six bonds 0.1448 nm

symmetry Electron affinity First ionization potential Cohesive energy

isosahedral 2.65 ev 7.58 ev 7.4 ev/atom

Synthesis: There are four methods for the production of fullerenes. They are Radio frequency thermal plasma method, Laser vaporization; RF-inductive coupled plasma discharge method Flame combustion method.

Fullerenes are usually synthesized by using an arc discharge (flame combustion method) between graphite electrodes in approximately 200 torr of He gas. The heat generated at the contact point between the electrodes evaporates carbon to form soot and fullerenes, which condense on the water cooled walls of the reactor. This discharge produces carbon soot that contains up to ~15% fullerenes: C60 (~13%) and C70 (~2%). The fullerenes are next separated from the soot, according to their mass, by use of liquid chromatography and using a solvent such as toluene. However, there is no definite understanding of the growth mechanism of the fullerenes. The following figure shows the schematic diagram of fullerene soot production Chamber.

Applications: Speculation and some hard work on potential applications began almost immediately after the discovery of buckyballs. There are some potential applications of fullerenes as listed below. 1. As fullerenes are very large graphitic systems, they can easily accommodate extra electrons. When we add three electrons to C60 we get ionic solids of the general formula A3C60, where A is any metal in Group I (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium). These materials are actually metals, and display superconductivity at somewhat low temperatures. Current research is aimed at getting the maximum superconducting temperature (or Tc) to higher values. 2. C60 is just the right size to fit into the active cavity of HIV Protease, an enzyme important to the activity of the virus which causes AIDS. Cramming a buckyball into the active cavity would deactivate the enzyme and kill the virus. Ways of getting the molecule to the enzyme are under investigation 3. Possible applications of interest to industry include optical devices; chemical sensors and

chemical separation devices; production of diamonds and carbides as cutting tools or hardening agents; batteries and other electrochemical applications, including hydrogen storage media; drug delivery systems and other medical applications; polymers, such as new plastics; and catalysts.

Catalysts, in fact, appear to be a natural application for fullerenes, given their combination of rugged structure and high reactivity. Experiments suggest that fullerenes which incorporate alkali metals possess catalytic properties resembling those of platinum. 4. The C60 molecule can also absorb large numbers of hydrogen atoms--almost one hydrogen for each carbon--without disrupting the buckyball structure. This property suggests that fullerenes may be a better storage medium for hydrogen than metal hydrides, the best current material, and hence possibly a key factor in the development of new batteries and even of non-polluting automobiles based on fuel cells. 5. A thin layer of the C70 fullerene, when deposited on a silicon chip, seems to provide a vastly improved template for growing thin films of diamond.