Hypernova - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypernova

Hypernova
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A hypernova (pl. hypernovae) is a type of supernova explosion with an energy substantially higher than standard supernovae. Such explosions are believed to be the origin of long-duration gamma-ray bursts.[1] Just like more normal supernovae, hypernovae are produced by several different types of stellar explosion, some well modelled and observed in recent years, some still tentatively suggested for observed hypernovae, and some entirely theoretical. Numerous hypernovae have been observed corresponding to supernovae type Ic and type IIn, and possibly also at least one of type IIb.[2] The word collapsar , short for collapsed star, was formerly used to refer to the end product of stellar gravitational collapse, a stellar-mass black hole. The word is now sometimes used to refer to a specific model for the collapse of a fast-rotating star, as discussed below.

Eta Carinae, in the constellation of Carina, one of the nearer candidates for a future hypernova

Contents
1 History of the term 2 Gamma-ray bursts 3 Causes of hypernovae 3.1 Collapsar model 3.2 CSM model 3.3 Pair-instability supernova 3.4 Other models 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading

History of the term

Before the 1990s, the term "hypernova" was used sporadically to describe the theoretical extremely energetic explosions of extremely massive population III stars. It has also been used to describe other extreme energy events, such as mergers of supermassive black holes. In 1998, a paper suggesting a link between gamma-ray bursts and young massive stars[3] formally proposed to use the term "hypernova" for the visible after-glow from those gamma-ray bursts. It was speculated that the energy of such events could be up to several hundred times that of known supernovae. At about the same time, various over-luminous supernovae were being discovered and investigated.[4][5][6][7]

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These events were described as hypernovae and varied from less than five to around 50 times as energetic as other supernovae and up to 20 times as luminous as a standard type Ia supernova at its peak. This has become standard usage for the term "hypernova", although not all of them are associated with gamma-ray bursts. Coming full circle, investigation of these types of luminous supernovae suggests that some of them are due to explosions of extremely massive low metallicity stars by the pair instability mechanism, although not with the energies that were speculated for them decades earlier.[8][9]

Gamma-ray bursts
Main article: Gamma-ray burst Gamma-ray bursts are some of the most energetic events observed in the universe, but their origin was entirely speculative[10] until around the year 2000. Now it seems clear that at least some gamma-ray bursts are caused by hypernova explosions, although it is also likely that some gamma-ray bursts are from completely different events and that not all hypernovae are associated with gamma-ray bursts. A gamma-ray burst from a nearby hypernova could destroy life on Earth; however, no likely candidate progenitors are close enough to be a danger. It has been conjectured that a hypernova may have caused the OrdovicianSilurian mass extinction on Earth 440 million years ago, but there is no categorical evidence for this hypothesis.[11]

Causes of hypernovae
A wide variety of models have been proposed to explain events an order of magnitude or more greater than standard supernovae. The collapsar and CSM models are widely accepted and there are a number of well-observed events. Other models are still only tentatively observed or entirely theoretical.

Collapsar model
As might be expected from the name, the collapsar model is a type of hypernova that produces a gravitationally collapsed object, or black hole. When core collapse occurs in a sufficiently massive star, the explosion energy is insufficient to expel the outer layers of the star and it will collapse into a black hole without producing a visible supernova outburst. The threshold for this is when the core of the star has a mass around 15 times the sun depending on the exact chemical composition and rotation rate. For stars with core masses a little below this level, a supernova explosion occurs but a significant proportion of Light curves compared to normal supernovae the ejected mass falls back onto the core remnant and it still collapses to a black hole. This occurs for core masses in the range of 515 times the sun. If these stars are rotating slowly then they will produce a faint supernova, but if the star is rotating quickly enough then the fallback to the black hole will produce relativistic jets. These jets transfer energy into the ejected shell and the visible outburst becomes substantially more luminous than a standard supernova. The jets also beam high energy particles and gamma rays directly out producing x-ray or gamma-ray

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bursts. These gamma-ray jets last for several seconds or more and correspond to long-duration gamma-ray bursts but do not appear to explain short-duration gamma-ray bursts. The 515 solar mass core corresponds approximately to a total mass of 2590 suns if the star has not undergone mass loss. These stars will still have a hydrogen envelope and will explode as a type II supernova. Faint type II supernovae have been observed, but so far no definite candidates for a type II hypernova (except type IIn, which are not thought to be jet supernovae). Only the very lowest metallicity population III stars will reach this stage of their life with little mass loss. Other stars, including most of those visible to us, will have had most of their outer layers blown away by their high luminosity to become a Wolf-Rayet star and will explode as type Ib or type Ic supernovae. Many observed hypernovae are type Ic and those associated with gamma-ray bursts are almost all type Ic, and these are very good candidates for having relativistic jets produced by fallback to a black hole. Not all type Ic hypernovae correspond to observed gamma-ray bursts but the burst would only be visible if one of the jets were aimed towards us. In recent years a great deal of observational data on long-duration gamma-ray bursts has significantly increased our understanding of these events and made clear that the collapsar model produces explosions that differ only in detail from more or less ordinary supernovae and have energy ranges from approximately normal to around 100 times larger. Nevertheless, they continue sometimes to be referred to in the literature as hypernovae. The word hypernova itself was coined by S.E. Woosley.[12] A good example of a collapsar hypernova is Sn1998bw,[13] which was associated with the gamma-ray burst GRB 980425. This is classified as a type Ic supernova due to its distinctive spectral properties in the radio spectrum, indicating the presence of relativistic matter.

CSM model
Almost all observed hypernovae have had spectra similar to either a type Ic or type IIn supernova. The type Ic hypernovae are thought to be produced by jets from fallback to a black hole, but type IIn hypernovae have significantly different light curves and are not associated with gamma-ray bursts. Type IIn supernovae are all embedded in a dense nebula probably expelled from the progenitor star itself, and this circumstellar material (CSM) is thought to be the cause of the extra luminosity.[14] When material expelled in an initial normal supernova explosion meets dense nebular or material or dust close to the star, the shockwave converts kinetic energy efficiently into visible radiation. Thus we see an extremely luminous supernovae of extended duration even though the initial explosion energy was the same as that of a normal supernova. Although any supernova type could potentially produce a type IIn hypernova, given suitable surrounding CSM, the constraints on the size and density of the CSM mean that it will almost always be produced from the star itself immediately prior to the supernova explosion. Such stars are hypergiants and LBVs undergoing substantial mass loss due to Eddington instability, for example SN2005gl.[15]

Pair-instability supernova
Another type of hypernova is a pair-instability supernova, of which SN 2006gy[16] may possibly be the first observed example. This supernova event was observed in a galaxy about 240 million light years (72 million parsecs) from Earth. The theoretical basis for pair-instability collapse has been known for many decades[17] and was suggested as a dominant source of higher mass elements in the early universe as super-massive population III stars exploded. In a pair-instability supernova, the pair production effect causes a sudden pressure drop in the star's core, leading

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to a rapid partial collapse. Gravitational potential energy from the collapse causes runaway fusion of the core which entirely destroys the star, leaving no remnant. Current models show that this only happens in stars with extreme low metallicity and masses between about 140 and 260 times the sun, making it extremely unlikely to observe them in the local universe. Although originally expected to produce hypernova explosions hundreds of times greater than a supernova, they actually produce luminosities ranging from about the same as a normal core collapse supernova to perhaps 50 times brighter, although remaining bright for much longer.[18]

Other models
There are still models for hypernova explosions produced from binary systems, white dwarf or neutron stars in unusual arrangements or undergoing mergers, and some of these are proposed to account for gamma-ray bursts.

See also
Gamma-ray burst progenitors Quark star

References
1. ^ "A Hypernova: The Super-charged Supernova and its link to Gamma-Ray Bursts" (http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov /docs/science/know_l1/why_hyper.html). Imagine the Universe!. NASA. Retrieved 9 December 2011. 2. ^ Hamuy, M.; Deng, J.; Mazzali, P. A.; Morrell, N. I.; Phillips, M. M.; Roth, M.; Gonzalez, S.; Thomas-Osip, J. et al. (2009). "Supernova 2003bg: The First Type IIb Hypernova" (http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/703/2 /1612/pdf/0004-637X_703_2_1612.pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 703 (2): 16121623. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/703/2/1612 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F703%2F2%2F1612). 3. ^ Paczyski, B. (1998). "Are Gamma-Ray Bursts in Star-Forming Regions?" (http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357 /494/1/L45/pdf/1538-4357_494_1_L45.pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 494 (1): L45L48. doi:10.1086/311148 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F311148). 4. ^ Iwamoto, K.; Nakamura, T.; Nomoto, K. I.; Mazzali, P. A.; Danziger, I. J.; Garnavich, P.; Kirshner, R.; Jha, S. et al. (2000). "The Peculiar Type Ic Supernova 1997ef: Another Hypernova" (http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/534/2 /660/pdf/0004-637X_534_2_660.pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 534 (2): 660669. doi:10.1086/308761 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F308761). 5. ^ Nomoto, K.; Iwamoto, K.; Mazzali, P. A.; Umeda, H.; Nakamura, T.; Patat, F.; Danziger, I. J.; Young, T. R. et al. (1998). "A Hypernova Model for the Supernova Associated with the Big -Ray Burst of 25 April 1998". Nature 395 (6703): 672674. doi:10.1038/27155 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F27155). 6. ^ Mazzali, P. A.; Deng, J.; Maeda, K.; Nomoto, K.; Umeda, H.; Hatano, K.; Iwamoto, K.; Yoshii, Y. et al. (2002). "The Type Ic Hypernova SN 2002ap" (http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-4357/572/1/L61/pdf /1538-4357_572_1_L61.pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 572 (1): L61L65. doi:10.1086/341504 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F341504). 7. ^ Mazzali, P. A.; Deng, J.; Pian, E.; Malesani, D.; Tominaga, N.; Maeda, K.; Nomoto, K. I.; Chincarini, G. et al. (2006). "Models for the Type Ic Hypernova SN 2003lw associated with GRB 031203" (http://iopscience.iop.org /0004-637X/645/2/1323/pdf/0004-637X_645_2_1323.pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 645 (2): 13231330. doi:10.1086/504415 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F504415). 8. ^ Gal-Yam, A.; Mazzali, P.; Ofek, E. O.; Nugent, P. E.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Kasliwal, M. M.; Quimby, R. M.; Filippenko, A. V. et al. (2009). "Supernova 2007bi as a pair-instability explosion". Nature 462 (7273): 624627. doi:10.1038/nature08579 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature08579). PMID 19956255 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov /pubmed/19956255). 9. ^ Kasen, D.; Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A. (2011). "Pair Instability Supernovae: Light Curves, Spectra, and Shock Breakout" (http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/734/2/102/pdf/0004-637X_734_2_102.pdf) (pdf). The

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Astrophysical Journal 734 (2): 102. arXiv:1101.3336 (http://arxiv.org/abs/1101.3336). doi:10.1088/0004-637X /734/2/102 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F734%2F2%2F102). ^ Higdon, J. C.; Lingenfelter, R. E. (1990). "Gamma-Ray Bursts". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 28: 401. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.28.090190.002153 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.aa.28.090190.002153). ^ Minard, Anne (April 3, 2009). "Gamma-Ray Burst Caused Mass Extinction?" (http://news.nationalgeographic.com /news/2009/04/090403-gamma-ray-extinction.html). National Geographic News. Retrieved 16 April 2010. ^ Woosley, S. E.; Weaver, T. A. (1982). "Theoretical Models for Supernovae". In Rees, M. J.; Stoneham, R. J. Supernovae: A Survey of Current Research. NATO ASI Series C90. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing. p. 79. Bibcode:1982sscr.conf...79W (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982sscr.conf...79W). ISBN 9789027714428. ^ Fujimoto, S. I.; Nishimura, N.; Hashimoto, M. A. (2008). "Nucleosynthesis in Magnetically Driven Jets from Collapsars" (http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/680/2/1350/pdf/0004-637X_680_2_1350.pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 680 (2): 13501358. doi:10.1086/529416 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F529416). ^ Smith, N.; Chornock, R.; Li, W.; Ganeshalingam, M.; Silverman, J. M.; Foley, R. J.; Filippenko, A. V.; Barth, A. J. (2008). "SN 2006tf: Precursor Eruptions and the Optically Thick Regime of Extremely Luminous Type IIn Supernovae" (http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/686/1/467/pdf/0004-637X_686_1_467.pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 686 (1): 467484. doi:10.1086/591021 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F591021). ^ Gal-Yam, A.; Leonard, D. C. (2009). "A Massive Hypergiant Star as the Progenitor of the Supernova SN 2005gl" (http://hubblesite.org/pubinfo/pdf/2009/13/pdf.pdf) (pdf). Nature 458 (7240): 865867. doi:10.1038/nature07934 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature07934). PMID 19305392 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19305392). ^ Smith, N.; Chornock, R.; Silverman, J. M.; Filippenko, A. V.; Foley, R. J. (2010). "Spectral Evolution of the Extraordinary Type IIn Supernova 2006gy" (http://arxiv.org/pdf/0906.2200v2.pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 709 (2): 856883. arXiv:0906.2200 (http://arxiv.org/abs/0906.2200). Bibcode:2010ApJ...709..856S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ApJ...709..856S). doi:10.1088/0004-637X/709/2/856 (http://dx.doi.org /10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F709%2F2%2F856). ^ Fraley, G. S. (1968). "Supernovae Explosions Induced by Pair-Production Instability" (http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1968Ap%26SS...2...96F&data_type=PDF_HIGH& whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf) (pdf). Astrophysics and Space Science 2 (1): 96114. Bibcode:1968Ap&SS...2...96F (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1968Ap&SS...2...96F). doi:10.1007/BF00651498 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00651498). ^ Kasen, D.; Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A. (2011). "Pair Instability Supernovae: Light Curves, Spectra, and Shock Breakout" (http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/734/2/102/pdf/0004-637X_734_2_102.pdf) (pdf). The Astrophysical Journal 734 (2): 102. arXiv:1101.3336 (http://arxiv.org/abs/1101.3336). doi:10.1088/0004-637X /734/2/102 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F734%2F2%2F102).

Further reading
MacFadyen, A. I.; Woosley, S. E. (1999). "Collapsars: Gamma-Ray Bursts and Explosions in 'Failed Supernovae'" (http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/9810274v1.pdf) (PDF). Astrophysical Journal 524 (1): 262289. arXiv:astroph/9810274 (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9810274). Bibcode:1999ApJ...524..262M (http://adsabs.harvard.edu /abs/1999ApJ...524..262M). doi:10.1086/307790 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F307790). Woosley, S. E. (1993). "Gamma-ray bursts from stellar mass accretion disks around black holes" (http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?db_key=AST&bibcode=1993ApJ...405..273W& letter=.&classic=YES&defaultprint=YES&whole_paper=YES&page=273&epage=273&send=Send+PDF& filetype=.pdf) (PDF). Astrophysical Journal 405 (1): 273277. Bibcode:1993ApJ...405..273W (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993ApJ...405..273W). doi:10.1086/172359 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F172359). Piran, T. (2004). "The Physics of Gamma-Ray Bursts" (http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0405503v1.pdf) (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics 76 (4): 11431210. arXiv:astro-ph/0405503v1 (http://arxiv.org/abs/astroph/0405503v1). Bibcode:2004RvMP...76.1143P (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004RvMP...76.1143P). doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.76.1143 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.76.1143). "Cosmological Gamma-Ray Bursts and Hypernovae Conclusively Linked (SN 2003dh and GRB 030329)" (http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso0318/). European Southern Observatory (ESO). 2003. Hjorth, J.; Sollerman, J.; Mller, P.; Fynbo, J. P. U.; Woosley, S. E.; Kouveliotou, C.; Tanvir, N. R.; Greiner, J. et al. (2003). "A very energetic supernova associated with the -ray burst of 29 March 2003" (http://arxiv.org/ftp/astroph/papers/0306/0306347.pdf) (PDF). Nature 423 (6942): 847850. arXiv:astro-ph/0306347 (http://arxiv.org

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/abs/astro-ph/0306347). Bibcode:2003Natur.423..847H (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.423..847H). doi:10.1038/nature01750 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01750).

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