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Discipline and Negotiation : Power in Learning Organizations

Devi Akella Global Business Review 2008 9: 219 DOI: 10.1177/097215090800900204 The online version of this article can be found at: http://gbr.sagepub.com/content/9/2/219

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Discipline and Negotiation: Power in Learning Organizations

Devi Akella

This article examines issues of power and control in learning organizations. The emphasis is on understanding the working environments of learning organizations, taking into consideration the intricacies of power and control. It focuses on the relationship between management and employees and its overall implications in the effective governance of these organizational forms. The paper critically analyses 42 in-depth interviews undertaken at a multinational situated in Botswana to deconstruct the democratic and participative models of learning organizations.

Introduction
Globalization has led to drastic organizational changes occurring within a complex, uncertain and turbulent business environment. Organizations with the ability to learn quickly and adapt to changes in the external environment will be able to survive in the market. Organizations now need to continuously transform themselves into learning organizations and systems where individuals and groups engage in new learning processes. Though the concept of learning organizations and its relevance can be traced back to the 1940s, it came into prominence only in the 1990s with the publication of Peter Senges (1990) book The Fifth Discipline. The learning

organizations literature has described these new organizational forms either as Utopian Sunshine or Foucauldian Gloom (Snell and Chak 1998). One stream of thought describes learning organizations as ideal workplaces ensuring employee autonomy and empowerment through the implementation of open communication practices, participative decision-making and provision of job satisfaction and autonomy to all its employees (Argyris 1992; Pedler et al. 1991; Foley 1994; Mills and Friesen 1992; Senge 1990), resulting in phenomenal organizational performance and success (Driver 2002). The other school of thought describes learning organization as a negative ideologya new workplace nightmare for employees.

Devi Akella, Assistant Professor, College of Business, Albany State University, Albany, GA 31707. E-mail: dakella@ hotmail.com GLOBAL BUSINESS REVIEW, 9:2 (2008): 219241 SAGE Publications Los Angeles/London/New Delhi/Singapore DOI: 10.1177/097215090800900204

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Learning Organizations are described as workplaces where employees are exploited and locked in psychic prisons, to ensure that their organizations are able to fulfill the objectives of those in power (Coopey 1998). Learning organizations subject their employees to manipulation to protect the interests of a powerful elite group. Therefore, instead of experiencing a workplace of loving cooperation, opportunities for self development, autonomy and participation, employees of learning organizations experience greater control and more exploitation which is totalitarian in nature. Learning organization in fact can be characterized as, ...a Hawthorne light bulb with a dimmer switch, intended to stimulate productivity regardless of its chameleonic brilliance. It is a Machiavellian subterfuge. It is a pimp, and the employees, the hapless prostitutes (Armstrong 2000: 359). The language of the learning organizations masks the capitalists true intention of sustaining their regime through the collaborative and creative participation of workers. Management adopts hegemonic control techniques to seek the cooperation, support and compliance of the workers under the pretext of being concerned about their welfare (Akella 2003). Driver (2002) reconciles these two opposing perspectives to develop a new middle ground perspective on the learning organizations called the fluorescent light view. The fluorescent light approach raises fundamental questions about control, power and ideology, such as whether an organization even a learning oneever be absolutely free
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of control, power, politics, ideology and the painful experiences of its employees (Driver 2002). Control in learning organizations is exercised insidiously through shared views and values, common visions and cultural norms. Control mechanisms are cultural in nature and worse than the earlier traditional control techniques. Now power is exercised over employees under the illusion of cooperation, collaboration and loyalty (Coopey 1995). This paper seeks to make a contribution towards the fluorescent light approach by examining issues of how control is exerted in learning organizations and whether these mechanisms are absolute and totalitarian in nature. The paper asks the question whether a learning organization is a form of managerial hegemony exercising domination over employees mental, social and physical abilities with the support of empirical evidence gathered from a case study undertaken in Botswana.

Origin of Learning Organizations

The concept of learning organizations can be described as the 1990s term for another era of hegemonic control. The 1980s saw a change from traditional scientific management techniques to quality management and learning organizations leading to learning capability in the 1990s (Ulrich et al. 1994). According to Beer (1980), Nadler and Tushman (1991), organizations interact with their external environment to produce goods and services. Existing turbulent and highly unpredictable business environments, stringent customers and demanding shareholders have resulted in the need for organizations

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to be more flexible and innovative (EasterbySmith et al. 1998; Lank and Lank 1995; Dovey 1997; Poell et al. 2000). The earlier form of hierarchical bureaucratic authority systems, top down communications, rules and regulations, and managers who monitor and control (i.e., the appropriate metaphor of an organization as an unthinking machine in which the employees are simple cogs) was found inappropriate (Lank and Lank 1995: 18). Instead, in order to survive, organizations had to concentrate on increasing their problem-solving capacity (Klimecki et al. 1994) and their ability to create new products continuously (Ayas 1998; Datar et al. 1997; Senge 1990). Prahalad and Hamel (1990), and Moingeon and Edmondson (1997) believe the answer lies in the ability of the organization to learn faster than its competitors. Stata (1989: 63) comments that the rate at which individuals and organizations learn may become the only sustainable competitive advantage in knowledge intensive industries. Those organizations possessing this capacity to generate continuous learning and develop knowledge as sustainable competitive advantages are learning organizations (Nonaka 1991; Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Learning organizations are workplaces where people continuously expand their capacity to create the results they truly desirewhere new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured and where people are continuously learning how to learn together (Senge 1990: 1). In other words, learning is a social experience, which is dependent on trust (Coopey 1998) and open interaction between individuals within the organizations (Senge 1990).

Therefore, to motivate and increase the growth, creativity and development of the employees, management has to seek the cooperation, participation and support of its employees. So far all methods of control have concentrated on fulfilling the physical necessities and social needs of an employee. To attain the greatest degree of leverage or potential, it is essential to develop the emotional needs of the employees (Senge 1990). Learning organizations believe that by linking the fulfillment of the self-actualized needs of organizational employees with the objectives of management, a common unified direction can be achieved (Senge 1990). The control aspect in learning organizations focuses on the creation of conditions which help organizational members in achieving their own goals best by directing their efforts toward the success of the enterprise. Rather than elevate the organizations economic objectives above the needs and goals of the staff, integration would lead to the recognition of both the organization and the individuals needs (McGregor 1960: 49). Managers now no longer just plan and let the workers execute. Instead, the leaders concentrate on planning and controlling the language and concepts used by the employees. Language and culture are the tools through which the management control and coordinate the activities of the employees (Simons 1995). This new form of managerial approach seeks to achieve managerial self-interest under the pretence of personal commitment towards the employees. It is an indirect and a more complete form of control where control is viewed by management in terms of the end it seeks to achieve i.e., profitable production.
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Despite claims that a learning organization is essentially an extension of scientific management, it is primarily a justification for a new form of managerial hegemony (Brown 1996: 9). As Scarborogh and Corbett (1992, cited in Brown 1996: 101) state, learning organizations can be considered as the appropriate form of command and coordination for the new market conditions. Learning organizations can be classified as one of the various change programmes initiated by managers whereby they rethink and rework their organizations to exercise total employee control in order to increase their profits. It is, in other words, possible to reach the assumption that learning organizations can be considered as another form of hegemonic control systems. Characteristics of learning organizations (i.e., learning strategy and culture, flexible rewards and structures, participative decision-making and open communication) generate and sustain an environment of fairness, mutual agreement and trust where employees and management cooperate together to achieve the organizations objective. But all the elements of a learning organization can be symbolized as surveillance devices monitoring and regulating employee work and behaviour.

conflict or preferences. But it is also necessary to study the less visible dimensions of power which operate through collective forces and social arrangements suppressing potential issues and averting conflict by helping to shape mens [sic] beliefs and preferences and acting against their real interests. Lukes (1974) thus argues for a radical concept of power where management can control employee thoughts, feelings and emotions. He puts forward his analysis by questioning: A may exercise power over B by getting him to do what he does not want to do but he also exercises power over him [sic] by influencing, shaping or determining his very wants. Indeed is it not the supreme exercise of power to get another or others to have the desires you want them to have that is to secure their compliance by controlling their thoughts and desires (Lukes 1974: 23). In other words, the supreme exercise of power would be a process whereby it is possible to shape cognitions, perceptions and preferences to promote the interests of one group over the others. Such a process would also prevent conflicts from arising in the first place. Power is now exercised through information control mainly via the mass media and socialization (Lukes 1974: 23). Dahl (1961: 164) similarly explains how leaders do not merely respond to the preferences of constituents but shape preferences. An instance of this control process can be seen in schools where almost the entire adult population has been subjected to some degree of indoctrination (Dahl 1961: 317). In the above situations, power is exercised insidiously by excluding

Framework of Power
Lukes (1974: 10) comments that theories of power have been preoccupied with the more visible dimensions of power relations as exhibited by individuals behaviour in decision-making on issues, actual or potential over which there is an observable

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or manipulating the real interests of the individuals to suit the interests of the dominant group (Lukes 1974). Lukes (1974) argument is, however, not complete because he fails to discuss the various methods through which power can be exercised insidiously. In other words, he fails to answer how power is exercised within organizations. These limitations are covered in Foucaults analysis, which is solely concerned with power and its sources. Foucaults analysis revolves around his interpretations of power, knowledge and subjectivity. Foucault (1977) is concerned with different power mechanisms and relations affecting daily lives. Power, for him, is not something, which can be held or possessed or embodied in an institution. Power is not something that is achieved, seized or shared or structuredsomething one holds on to or allows to slip away (Foucault 1981: 94). Power, rather, is relationalbecoming apparent when it is exercised (Townley 1993: 519). Moreover, power is omnipresentit is present and reproduced at all levels and dimensions. Foucault (1977: 100) focuses attention on the source and residence of power, be it a place or an individual. He also writes about the practices, techniques and procedures through which power comes into effect. Furthermore, Foucault (1977) believes that power and knowledge cannot be separated from each other. In fact, however, knowledge is usually gathered in a specific area to exercise effective power over the bodies. Knowledge, therefore, can never be described as neutral, detached and independent. Rather, knowledge is a system of correction and control. Foucault (1977) also believes that human subjectivity is produced through correlative

elements of power and knowledge. The identity of an individual is rendered knowable and developed through the various strategies of power. The main objective is thus rendering an arena or an individual knowable. Foucault (1977) makes use of Benthams work to develop the eighteencentury model of prison (panopticon) into a modern surveillance technique. The panopticon embodies in an architectural form, a mechanism through which power relations can be enacted. It provides a means by which direct surveillance can be undertaken by supervisory purposes to reinforce the asymmetry of power between the goaler and goaled or the employer and the employee (Sewell and Wilkinson 1992: 274). The model of panopticon draws attention to the use of techniques of surveillance, which render visible or potentially visible the minutest details of individuals behaviour (Grey 1994: 479). Control is then exercised over the individuals by effectively supervising and monitoring their behaviour. Even though the panopticon was originally applied to the study of psychiatric institutions, schools and prisons, it has been effectively implemented as a surveillance mechanism in contemporary organizations (Townley 1993). The panopticon monitors human activities on the basis of time and space disciplines (Sewell and Wilkinson 1993). For instance, the entire knowledge of the behaviour of the individual is carefully studied and stored. Then the movements of the individuals are regulated and adjusted in accordance to time. The act is broken down into its elements, the position of the body, limbs, articulations is defined, each movement is assigned, a direction, an aptitude, a duration, their succession is

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prescribed (Foucault 1977: 152). In other words, management, in the case of organizations can actually specify how individuals should act, the type of gestures to use and how they should engage with physical objects (Townley 1993). This can be achieved by rendering individuals as objects of study and also involving individuals in judging and defining themselves (Foucault 1983). In the case of the former, the system of examination was found useful to measure knowledge in quantitative values and categorize individuals in terms of abilities and skills. While in case of the latter, the system of confessions originally found in religious practices (Foucault 1980, 1983 1986) proved to be effective in organizations to gather employee ,information (Townley 1993). Confessions dictate the individuals to certain values, views and identities. The individuals behaviour is monitored to encourage development within these self-classified behaviours. The panopticon, examination system and confession practice take the forms of performance appraisal systems, meetings, interviews and training programmes within contemporary organizations. According to Foucualt (1977, 1983) and Townley (1993) an organization can attempt to impose a total employee control. These attempts may lead to a blueprint for socializing new arrivals into perfect clones of an ideal and imagined employee, member or inmate. It also attempts to remove all means of employee resistance undermining managerial attempts to impose this blueprint on everyone.

Western Multinational Corporations (MNCs) in Africa: A Critical Analysis

The Republic of Botswana, formerly Bechuanaland, is located at the centre of the Southern African plateau. Botswana is a landlocked country with South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Zambia as its neighbours. The national language of Botswana is Setswana, which is universally spoken within the country, while English is the official language used in business and corporations. The country with its stable government, solid financial and physical infrastructure and an encouraging and supportive investment climate, has become a platform for companies hoping to do business across the southern tier of Africa. There are at present tremendous business opportunities for multinationals in Botswana, especially in the areas of professional business support and technical services including information technology (IT) for these services are in short supply. However, the problems and consequences which MNCs might encounter in implementing western management principles, ideologies and techniques within the continent of Africa has so far been neglected (with the exception of Jackson 2004). In fact, little thought has been given to the appropriateness of the ideology of organizational learning and learning organizations which is being introduced into organizations in Africa (Jackson 2005). This paper seeks to examine issues specifically concentrating on power and control aspects that might surface when

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the western ideology of learning organization (with its elements of democracy and participation) is introduced into the corporate environments of Botswana by an MNC, i.e., it seeks to examine the consequences of adopting a learning organization model. The paradigm of critical theory has proved to be useful in unveiling the ideological assumptions, omissions and suppressed contradictions present in any discourse (Flax 1990). Critical thinking involves an epistemological perspective in which knowledge and critique are intertwined (Harvey 1990: 3). Critical theory critiques scientific knowledge, which sustains the oppressive structures (Harvey 1990). The author is interested in deconstructing the various power strategies and control mechanisms within learning organizations and, therefore, felt it necessary to adopt a critical methodology. Further the case study method is useful in investigating a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context and when using multiple sources of evidence (Yin 1989). In fact, all how and why questions usually favour the use of case studies, experiments and histories. Case studies make use of multiple sources of evidence, such as interviews, direct and participant observation, physical artifacts and archival records (Yin 1989). Single case studies are eminently suitable where the case represents a critical test of existing theory or where the case is a rare unique test of existing theory or serves a revelatory purpose. The author felt the single case study approach and the research techniques of in-depth interviews, secondary

sources of data and unstructured observation (as illustrated in Table 1 in the Appendix) are helpful in deconstructing the sources of domination and exploitation existing within learning organizations. The empirical study was undertaken at a professional accounting firm situated within the service industry. The firm in this research study is referred to under the pseudonym Financial Services. Financial Services is one of Botswanas leading multi-disciplinary professional service providers in the areas of audit, taxation, corporate services, business consultancy, accounting, property management and liquidation. The firm was established in 1976, primarily as a firm of certified public accountants, business advisors and consultants in Gaborone, Botswana. In April 1996, Financial Services merged with a leading multinational with its headquarters in the USA. Since then, in keeping with its parent companys motto that rigidity breeds stagnation and ultimately leads to demise, flexibility leads to survival and success, Financial Services has been trying to evolve into the model of a learning organization. The firm presently employs around 130 employees and has offices in Gaborone, SelebiPhikwe and Francistown. Financial Services has gradually introduced the various features of a learning company since its merger in April 1996. The author found relevant evidence in the firms new mission, vision statements and in information about its overall functioning in the firms organizational manual. For instance, the employment manual of Financial Services reads:

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Financial Services has assumed the form of a learning organization, investing in human resource capacity building. The organization believes that continuous training will enable optimal human resource development and organizational success (Financial Services Employment Manual). Overall 42 in-depth interviews were conducted at Financial Services. The sample consisted of consultants, middle and senior managers and partners (i.e., lower, middle and top managerial hierarchy levels were considered). Only those employees, who had been working in the firm for over a year were interviewed. Table 2 in the Appendix provides information about the interviewees who participated in the empirical study. The author spent around 10 weeks on the empirical field site. All interviews were taperecorded and lasted approximately an hour. The author also made short notes on her observations about the interviewee and the entire interview process, which she later incorporated into the transcripts. The author undertook a thematic analysis once the data was first transcribed and then the material gathered was categorized according to the emerging themes. Themes basically refer to certain patterns, explanations, causes and facts, which keep repeating themselves in the empirical data. In this research study, the entire empirical data was read and reread to relate and categorize the information into emerging themes. The themes which emerged consisted of: meaning of learning organizations, various surveillance practices existing in the firm, and the aftermath of the prevailing control mechanism. Table 3 in the Appendix illustrates how data was categorized into themes and patterns.
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The Meaning of Learning Organizations

The interviewees in the case study interpreted learning organizations as organizations which, in order to survive within an increasing competitive, economic environment, had to develop new ways of harnessing employee capabilities. According to them, management of these organizations concentrated on developing the ability of its employees to learn new skills. As the audit manager commented: I have always believed in an organization it is the people who have value. The people make up an organization. Therefore a learning organization is where you are ahead and your energies are concentrated on them, you motivate your people to learn and accept the changing patterns of work, work coming into the profession into the industry is what a learning organization is all about. There appears to be a clear link between the capacity of the organization to learn, its position in the industry and its economic gains. Moreover, it is evident from the above account that the organization can be divided into two groups. While one group is responsible for generating learning by encouraging and motivating the employees, the other needs to absorb the new skills and knowledge about work and profession. This is similar to the concept of scientific management, where there is a separation of execution and conception functions (Taylor 1947). In a learning organization the management decides on the type of knowledge to be generated while employees are responsible for acquiring it. Management indirectly controls

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the learning processes of the employees. They govern the organizations by controlling the companys resources, information, company policy, learning processes and opportunities (Coopey 1995). The business consultancy directors account effectively summarizes the above arguments: Learning organization is needed when the human factor comes into consideration when the top management does not keep up with the latest organizational concepts. Now on the account of changes in the market and heavy competition, people are forced to learn continuously the major objective is client satisfaction and profitability. Okay, so if you ensure client satisfaction you will survive that is marketability, clients will market you. Learning organizations is someplace where the top managements objectives are well accepted by the team consisting of professionals and employees within their organizations as their own, by continuously checking the organization process, upgrading the skills of their employees, checking the clients objectives and the organizations ability in delivering goods to the clients and contributing something to the society, environment. So that you are a part of the total system as the individuals within an organization should feel that they are continuously contributing but the ultimate objective is the customer. The above account has linked up the environmental factors like market changes and competition with the need to generate learning within the organizations. Managers, to achieve client satisfaction and profitability,

seek the cooperation of the workers, by emphasizing employee empowerment schemes, quality circles and job participation. The focus has now shifted towards creating conditions which satisfy the emotional and social needs of the employees (Senge 1990), but the overall objective has not changed. To ensure a marriage of interest between managements profit objectives and the employees economic and emotional needs, management has adopted a more hegemonic and subtle control technique.

Surveillance and Disciplinary Techniques within Learning Organizations

This theme aims to critically analyze and deconstruct the various organizational characteristics of learning organizations i.e., team-based structures, learning environment, selective recruitment and servant leadership, amongst others. It will focus on how control practiced by management crosses the office and professional boundaries, entering the personal lives of the employees. The power which management can exercise over employee decisions regarding their appearance, personality and social network i.e., not just specifying the way an organization should function but also how an employee should lead his/her own life to conform to the identities created and projected by the organization, will be examined. The firm generates an atmosphere of the organization being one big family and the office a second home. For instance, the corporate services manager stated in his interview, We are like one big family.
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This concept of family is helpful in developing ties among the employees. Employees feel they are working for their own family. They feel free to discuss their personal problems with their superiors. Superiors become more like friends. The line between office and home becomes blurred. The office becomes a second home, superiors confidantes and colleagues good friends. The atmosphere is informal, friendly and so working becomes fun. An executive (Corporate Services) now feels no inhibitions in discussing or communicating with his superior, Oh! S ... (his superior) I just go over and talk with him. Another manager (Business Consultancy Director) further believed that: nobody works under me, they all work with me. To further strengthen this bond of friendship and equality, management at Financial Services, insists everyone refer to each by their first names. An executive could address the managing director by his/her first name without any hesitation. An IT manager dwelled on this area, Here I address the director and managing director as S and R. Everyone is on first name basis. Its like a family. Yet the main reason, as explained by another interviewee (Audit Consultant) was: It increases approachability and is friendly. All managers are ordered to keep their office doors open so that employees can simply

walk in to discuss their problems. Managers are encouraged to adopt a people oriented, friendly, caring attitude towards the employees. Furthermore, the managers are required to greet their staff members, inquire about their work and personal problems. The role of manager had changed from a supervisor to that of a coordinator and facilitator. As one manager (Business Consultancy Director) said, I take up the role of a coordinator and a facilitator. When I feel something is not going well, I call them, discuss with them, get hold of their ideas, in fact facilitate and then say what is wrong, then make amends without them knowing. Let them volunteer ideas and make decisions. Managers are now assuming family-like roles within the organizations. They have donned the figure of a father who had to look after their sons and daughters (i.e., subordinates). At Financial Services, there are many pairs of such father and son relationships as found in the Corporate Services department. Beneath this family way of looking after the employees, however, management in actuality was pushing and bullying its employees. As the audit manager said, I always motivate my employees, pressurize them, you sit down with them. If I see an executive leaving at 5:30, I will sit with the executive till 9 and make them achieve the target. I fix deadlines and push them towards it. Sometimes it may not be achievable but one has to test their commitment. Its very strict but that is what has been asked by management.

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Ironically, for the manager in the above account, motivating means pressurizing the employees to finish work before the time deadlines. He believes that he is helping them by sitting with them after office hours until they complete their work. He ignores the facts that these deadlines may not be realistic and neither is the employee financially compensated for this extra labour. Instead the employee is given the illusion that s/he is a member of the family and so should help the company in its hour of need. As another corporate services manager remarked in his interview, If I have to go get work finished and request F to do it, he will stay whole night to do it, not because of me but because he enjoys his work. And no he is not compensated for it. But he does it for his company. Managers are thus deviously manipulating the employees to do more work with no compensation other than just a pat on the back. This, according to a branch manager, is enough for ones excellent hard labour: At that time the support I got from my staff was so good I could not have done without them based on the experience that A has, the amount of input he has given is excellent, he deserves a pat on the back. Maccoby (1976) refers to this situation as a psycho structure whereby employees fit into the requirements of the organization. The basic aim seems to be to inculcate the theme of office as a second home and all employees as members of this family. The management

informs the employees that, under the umbrella of corporate family image, they are cocooned from the harsh realities within a warm and friendly atmosphere, surrounded by colleagues who happen to be good friends and supported by sympathetic, caring, parental seniors. The employee therefore feels emotionally committed to help his/her family even though ultimately it is management which enjoys the profits. Moreover, the feature of team culture associated with learning organizations is useful in strengthening the bond of friendship and family values. But beneath this friendly teammate cooperation there exists interpersonal suspicion, rivalry and jealousy (Barker 1993; Casey 1999; Kunda 1992). For instance, a business consultancy executive had a number of complaints against her team member, including: I have problems with a colleague who is unprofessional. An audit executive hesitatingly explained that, in reality, behind this congenial atmosphere there existed fierce competition and the need to perform better than others: ... constant competition now working in a team, and I handle project work (pause) constant competition, have to do it to look better than S. Management seems to be aware of this underlying antagonism. But interprets it as positive competition and uses it to the advantage of the company. An interviewee (IT Partner) remarked, We encourage positive competition among our team members, we have incentive
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schemes, performance related schemes to put members in competition with each other. But it is not dirty competition. Everyone has the sense of being part of the family. So, just as in a family, parents compare the behaviour of siblings, their successes and failures, praise one child in front of the other to ensure the other improves himself/herself. In an organization, management creates rivalry between members to make them contribute their best and give an optimum performance. Management at Financial Services therefore had regular team meetings where the employees are required to confess their mistakes, doubts and successes gained in the work allotted to them. The members usually dreaded these sessions and inputted more hours to produce quality work for their seniors and also subsequently avoid being teased and joked by other team members. The team and its members became an iron cage from which it was impossible to escape anymore. Barker (1993) and Deetz (1998) refer to this as a concertive system where members themselves monitored their own behaviour in accordance with the values and rules agreed by all members. As revealed by a business consultancy executive, I produce work, for in fact at the end I may be kicked out of my work, ridiculed or humiliated. She further described her experiences at these advice sessions with her team members, she teases me a lot and I am a specialist in my field. In this organization you are on your own you cant trust anybody.
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In other words, the employees are competing with each other to gain the favour of management. Management had successfully gained control over the thoughts, feelings and emotions of the individuals. Employees had subconsciously acquired the norms and values of the organization. The firm also absorbs the social life of the employees. Regular social events are organized, varying from meetings at the bar to participating in a sports event (i.e., football) to a lunch or dinner at a hotel. These gatherings were described by management as a useful medium of meeting ones colleagues. To further tighten the hold the firm recruits certain types of individuals who not only possessed required technical skills but also a specific personality and background which would enable them to fit into the organizations culture and environment (Storey 1995). For instance candidates are selected on the grounds of overall appearance, voice, quality, personal manner, confidence, expression of ideas, mental alertness, motivation, ambition, education and technical skills. The author noticed during her fieldwork that employees, with the exception of partners and directors, were within the age group of 22 to 36. Management obviously believed such individuals could be absorbed into the family culture because they would be in need of emotional support and backing because they lacked prior work exposure. Management also implements various performance appraisal systems where the employees are graded on factors like knowledge of vision and mission, philosophy of the firm, ability to continuously train and upgrade oneself. Grey (1994) mentions some

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appraisal factors like communication, selfconfidence, co-operation, reliability, integrity, team working. The first step in a performance appraisal system is self-appraisal, where the employee evaluates his/her own performance in an objective manner. This process is similar to the practice of confessions found in religious practices (Foucault 1986). The employee is asked to reveal and assess his/her strengths and weaknesses. This also enables management to learn more about the employees, which is helpful in exerting a tighter hold on them (Townley 1993). In contrast, in an inverted appraisal system the subordinate assesses his/her superiors performance. This is just to convince the employees about the impartiality of the performance appraisal system. In the last stage of performance appraisal, the superior or manager reviews the performance of the employee on the basis of which s/he may get promoted in future. In fact the performance appraisal system, like the panopticon, allows a study of employees, gathers information on them and then regulates and monitors their behaviour. Consequently it forces employees to consciously modulate their behaviour according to organizational requirements. The employees are thus forced to behave themselves because they are conscious of being under the normalizing gaze of panopticum-like organizational controls. Meetings achieve the same purpose. Financial Services has different types of meetings, i.e., client meetings, branch meetings, formal and informal meetings. These meetings are not only useful in exchanging views, opinions and information but also in controlling the employees professionally and mentally. As argued in an interview with a senior

accounts executive, meetings are a form of control mechanism whereby the professionals work and mind is attuned and controlled: Meetings help in the purpose of reviewing the performance [pause] there should be a cut off date [weekly or monthly] when your performance should be evaluated then only you will be in a position to so that in case of non performance, steps can be taken basically its a review of performance and we have informal meetings also where we chat about our past performances, our views and opinions, what orders the company gives we have formal meetings are a review of performance has to be there, so if they are they can come out and talk about it with the top management [pause] any problems are looked in to by the management so that the executive can meet the targets also, basically its way to review your performance and removing of hurdles which may hinder performance. Informal meetings are a way to direct our mind professionally. Such a system of reviewing is similar to the examination process usually found in schools and hospitals. In formal meetings, the employees performance is evaluated, questions are asked and steps taken to improve their performance. The informal meetings are helpful in assimilating the employees into the culture of the organization. These meetings incorporate the social lives of the employees within the work environment. The employees are forced to engage in social relations with their colleagues and take an active interest in the personal life of
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their colleagues. The employee is now completely imprisoned within the boundaries of the office. Thus meetings are not only a medium of learning and reviewing but also of controlling and networking. Management has linked up the reward provisions of an employee with his/her performance. The employees salary and long-term career growth become dependent on his/her overall performance. This further motivates the employee to work efficiently in accordance to the norms of the organization. Learning organizations are interested in generating learning amongst their employees and training has usually been associated with the process of learning. Yet it is possible to state that employees advancement and growth is manipulated and coordinated by the training policies to achieve the organizational goals. In Financial Services, at the commencement of each year (or a twelve month period), the partners and directors (or principals) hold a meeting where the organizations overall annual objectives are determined. On the basis of this each professionals target is allotted. As explained by the tax manager, It all starts with the firms objectives and then it filters down in terms of both targets so the firm will say if next year we want to do ten per cent more business than last year. Each employee now has to acquire new skills, knowledge and develop new contacts both within and outside the firm to generate that amount of income. All professionals have to first identify their learning needs and then decide which training programs are suitable to their needs. In the words of the tax manager:
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So the process works in that way, you identify your objectives, then you set your objectives and look to see what training objectives there are, to meet those objectives and then you look to see whether these training needs can be satisfied internally (within the firm) or externally (outside the firm) if these can be satisfied internally you book yourself to a course same in case of externally. This technique outwardly gives the employee the impression that s/he has the full autonomy to plan his/her career. In reality, it is management, which specifies the type of skills and knowledge to be acquired. This assures cloning of employees who possess specific skills, attitudes and behaviour traits. It is therefore plausible to argue that the disciplinary techniques implemented within learning organizations are able to exercise power over the employees physical, mental, emotional and social abilities. The employee is chained to the organization and its values and beliefs. Furthermore, s/he is trapped in to upholding the image of the company under the illusion of being a member of a loving and caring family firm. These observations lead to the assumption that the control practiced is absolute. The next theme looks into this aspect.

Resistance Strategies in Learning Organizations

According to Gabriel (1999) the meaning of resistance is dependent on the researcher and how s/he interprets the definition of resistance. The author believes that invisibility of resistance may not necessarily mean lack of resistance. In fact, any form of spontaneous, unsupervised actions occurring within the

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panoptic gaze can also be classified as resistance and misbehaviour (Fineman and Gabriel 1996; Fineman and Sturdy 1997; Gabriel 1999; Thompson and Ackroyd 1995). For instance at the firm, resistance practiced was not an overt, open and frontal attack. Instead it occurred in the form of verbal disagreements, frustrations with managerial policies, back stabbing and psychological withdrawal i.e., employees were rebelling and conforming simultaneously. For instance, when the interviewer, an audit executive remarked positively to an executive about his managerial style, he eagerly corrected, I think [pause] I learned it from my previous firm, my articles. There the managers, the partners used to come and sit with us. I was very comfortable. I felt there were no limits where I cant I felt at ease. There are companies where you really cant approach managers and ask questions, they might feel it is really stupid but I felt it was not so in my previous organization. I liked this way. In other words, the executive in the above quote means that the firm does not follow such an open and equal communication policy. Thus the executive is indirectly criticizing his company and its policies. Similarly, another interviewee, an audit executive sarcastically questioned when asked about the organizations mission, No, I havent heard about any mission or vision. In fact what mission? What is it? In the above account, the interviewee reveals that, as far as he is concerned, the employees are not involved in the develop-

ment of the companys mission and policies. Another audit manager further clarified this point by commenting, Boss will tell you what to do and what he expects, there is no proper coordinated functioning. He further commented on this environment, saying, Each month you are watched [pause] one month you are asked questions, second month, third month [pause] sooner you will be thrown out. The above quotations reveal the frustrations, anger and depression experienced by the employees i.e., the feeling of always being under pressure, competing with each other, wanting to participate in the organizations decision making. There emerges a clear division between the labour and management. The former becomes dissatisfied with the latters way of functioning and policies. Some, as in the above cases, showed their resistance by criticizing and mocking the practices of management. Gabriel (1999) refers to this as psychological withdrawal. For instance, a corporate services executive stated, So I am not bothered much, I work strict office hours and go home to my baby. She further continued, Here I just work office hours and collect my salary. The employee in the above case reminds herself that it is just a job. By portraying a lack of interest, she effectively segregates
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herself from the firm. Similarly, another executive (Business Consultancy) commented, You know the structure? Who cares, I know my superior, my department and where to collect my salary. In the above interview quote the executive is externally conforming to the firms norms and values. But in reality she is ridiculing the organization and its management. Simultaneously she withdraws by saying she is only interested in her salary. Compliance and dissent are taking place at the same time. Fineman and Gabriel (1996: 87) give an example of such a situation where people may be rebelling even as they appear to be conforming: Pupils who wear the regulation uniform may be conforming to the rules, but by leaving the top shirt button undone, they express their resistance to them. Compliance and resistance are not either/or responses. Orders may be obeyed willingly or unwillingly: they may equally be obeyed grudgingly, inaccurately, ritualistically or sarcastically. In all of these cases, compliance and resistance can coexist in the same form of behaviour. Gabriel (1999) cites examples of how employees may abuse company accounts, corporate hospitality and business travel or wear non-uniform types of dress to work i.e., all forms of resistance which are marginal, making them less accessible to the controlling gaze (1999: 197). Thus, one can summarize that employees are aware of the control system and its unfairness. They show their resistance by openly
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criticizing and airing their frustrations against the management in front of outsiders (i.e., the author). Therefore, the power exercised by the management is not absolute and neither are learning organizations places where there is employee participation, cooperation, empowerment and mutual dialogue between management and employees.

Negotiation in Learning Organizations

The presence of resistance in this study contradicts Foucaults (1980) interpretations of power: that an individual is not merely dependent on power nor is s/he outside it but instead s/he is an actual product of power. Therefore, power is absolute and there can be no question of resistance. As Giddens (1981: 158) argues, even those subject to power of dominant groups are themselves knowledgeable human agents who resist, blunt or actively alter the conditions of life that seeks to thrust upon them. This is exactly what is taking place within Financial Services. Employees are aware of the unfairness of the control systems and practice covert resistance. It seems as if prisoners are being surveyed who have already and for independent reasons decided to be docile (Grey 1994: 481). This could be attributed to the link between long-term career advancement and conformance to the norms and values of the organization. An audit partner at Financial Services remarked, I joined as an employee and have come up as a partner. One is not denied an opportunity here if you are willing to take an interest in your career.

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The employees in Financial Services have realized that conforming to the demands of management would mean an opportunity in the future to earn dizzying salaries and enjoy massive fringe benefits. In fact, the audit manager focused on this aspect in his interview, saying, By working for three years you will not be benefited, you will receive only salary and perks, car and house will be provided by the company [pause] when managers level is reached [pause] in five/six years. Career and money prospects could thus influence the identity and role adopted by the employees within learning organizations.

Conclusion
To conclude, the empirical analysis suggests that management in learning organizations to effectively coordinate and organize the work of employees implements various surveillance techniques. But, unlike previous direct and despotic control measures (the techniques prescribed by the so-called scientific management), in case of learning organizations the control is extended over the professional, personal and intimate lives of the employees. Corporate clones who are saturated with the firms values, ideologies and beliefs can be developed through disciplinary practices like learning culture, performance appraisal and reward systems, and open communication through formal and informal meetings. This study further suggests that employees are aware of the various control measures and are antagonistic towards them. In fact, the employees vent their anger and frustrations by ridiculing, mocking and

contradicting the statements made by management. This can be treated as a form of resistance although it is not as violent as strikes and ghettos practiced within factories. Employees consciously modulate themselves to the requirements of the disciplinary practices imposed by the management. On the surface, the employees voluntarily submit to managements golden handcuffs. But, simultaneously, they insidiously resist management by mocking and ridiculing the organization to outsiders. It is, in fact, ironically the image of a perfect family where the children fight and rebel against their parents but in the end always submit and surrender to the parental authority and guidance. In this sense, learning organizations can be described as ideal working places but with the support and consent of the employees. Management deliberately creates such an environment to accumulate profits with the cooperation of the employees. Employees willingly uphold this facade to achieve their own career objectives. It is this ritual game of hypocrisy enacted by the management and employees which sustains the democratic environments advertised by the learning organizations. This paper effectively argues for the existence of power and control which leads to painful employee experiences, within a learning organization. It also provides practical insights about problems which could occur when the western ideology of learning organizations is introduced in the African continent with different cultural, historical and economic frameworks. The study provides insights into how a failure to appreciate the impact of cultural dynamics on the working of local institutions could hinder the development of effective governance structures.
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This, however, is a limited contribution and therefore further research is essential to fully comprehend the cross-cultural influences on management theory and practices and its consequences. It is also necessary to understand to what extend any cross-cultural studies undertaken in Africa are applicable

globally across other developing countries. It is also essential to improve and modify the conceptual frameworks, analytical tools and methodological perspectives developed in this paper, and to further investigate and expand the propositions and insights gained from this study.

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APPENDIX

Table 1 Sources of Data Research Technique In-depth interviews Unstructured observation Secondary sources Data Gathered Subjective views of 42 employees Subjective observations of the researcher Organizational Manual, Organizations Chart, Financial Reports, Brochures and Pamphlets Table 2 Information of Interviewees Departments Auditing Research Accounting and Taxation Corporate Services Business Consultancy Information Technology Branch Administration Partners 3 1 1 1 1 Directors Managers 2 1 2 Executives 8 1 4 2 4 5 1 2

1 1

Table 3 Themes and Analysis Themes Definition/ Meaning of Learning Organization Interview Quotes Learning organization is needed when the human factor comes into consideration when the top management does not keep up with the latest organizational concepts. Now on account of changes in the market and heavy competition, people are forced to learn continuously that the major objective is client satisfaction and profitability. Okay, so if you ensure client satisfaction you will survive that is marketability, clients will market you. Secondary Sources Relevance LO as a contemporary control mechanism for new market conditions. Power Mechanism

(Table 3 continued)

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(Table 3 continued) Themes Interview Quotes Learning organization is someplace where the top managements objectives are well accepted by the team consisting of professionals and employees within their organizations as their own, by continuously checking the organization process, upgrading the skills of their employees, checking the clients objectives and the organizations ability in delivering goods to the clients and contributing something to the society, environment. So that you are a part of the total system the individuals within an organization should feel that they are continuously contributing but the ultimate objective is the customer If you feel it is your own company then only you can identify with it. Strict disciplinarian attitude wouldnt work. Take up the role of coordinator and a facilitator. When I feel something is not going well, call them, discuss with them, get hold of their ideas, in fact facilitate and then say what is wrong. Then make amends without them knowing. Let them volunteer ideas and make decisions Secondary Sources Relevance

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Power Mechanism

Surveillance Techniques Managerial Style

Hegemonic Control Technique

(Table 3 continued)

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(Table 3 continued) Themes Interview Quotes Secondary Sources Relevance Power Mechanism Foucaults Confession Systems

Communication Meetings help in the Systems purpose of reviewing the performance [pause] there should be a cut off date [weekly or monthly] when your performance should be evaluated; then only you will be in a position to so that in case of non performance, steps can be taken basically its a review of performance and we have informal meetings also where we chat about our past performances, our views and opinions, what orders the company gives we have formal meetings are a review of performance has to be there, so if they are they can come out and talk about it with the top management [pause] any problems are looked in to by the management so that the executive can meet the targets also, basically its way to review your performance and removing of hurdles which may hinder performance. Informal meetings are a way to direct our mind professionally Matrix Structure Constant competition now working in a team, and I handle project work (pause) constant competition, have to do it to look better than S

Concertive Control System

(Table 3 continued)

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(Table 3 continued) Themes Selective Recruitment Interview Quotes Here have been one or more instances when he [an executive] was promoted to managers level. He said can. As a junior executive he was okay, as he was under somebody. But at manager level he said no, no I can, we arranged a job for him and he left. He is good in industry We can appraise people in terms of their skills [pause] how good are they in dealing with tax issues, like how good are there in dealing with people will influence the financial performance, client relationship and management skills If you perform be ensured you are rewarded We are having courses daily develop your personality and your knowledge in the business field it all starts with the firm business objectives and then it filters down in terms of both targets so the firm will say if next year we want to do 10% more business than last year Training need not always be a form of learning. It could be initiated by the management to develop employees who can achieve the goals of the company. Secondary Sources Employees were evaluated on their awareness of the organization mission and vision, the philosophy of the firm and the ability to train and upgrade continuously Relevance

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Power Mechanism Examination Process

Performance Appraisal Systems

Panopticon Model

Reward Systems Learning Environment

Examination Process Examination Process

Resistance Strategies Back Stabbing No, I havent heard about any mission or vision. In fact what mission? What is it? No [pause], it depends if you dont want to attend them you usually find a way. But you dont because if you dont people might notice it and put pressure on you to attend it, so you have to do it, usually you try to find some way out. Psychological so am not bothered much, I work strict office hours and go home to Withdrawal my baby

Passive Resistance

Passive Resistance

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