VALVES

Valves are apparatus designed to maintain, restrict, or meter the flow of materials through pipes, hoses, tubing or entire systems. They generally function by allowing flow while in their open position, and restricting flow when closed. The valve family is broken down into product areas based on the mechanism that is used to restrict flow. The following are the main valve product area: ball valves, butterfly valves, check valves, diaphragm valves, gate or knife valves, globe valves, needle valves, pinch valves (for both industrial and medical applications), plug valves, control valves (1/4 turn - isolation and multi-turn, throttling), pressure relief valves, and AC and DC solenoid valves. (A valve is a device that regulates the flow of substances (either gases, fluidized solids, slurries, or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically pipe fittings, but usually are discussed separately) Dispensing valves are a separate category from regular valves. While regular valves work to transfer material throughout a system, dispensing valves are designed to meter a specific amount of material and deposit said material into another medium, area, or locale. As with regular valves, dispensing valves are divided into areas based upon their mechanism of transfer. Products within this category include: single component dispensing valves, positive displacement valves, spray valves, diaphragm valves, pinch valves, and needle or spool valves. Some valves are driven by pressure only, they are mainly used for safety purposes in steam engines and domestic heating or cooking appliances. Others are used in a controlled way, like in Otto cycle engines driven by a camshaft, where they play a major role in engine cycle control.

These water valves are regulated by handles .

Application A large variety of valves are available and have many applications with sizes ranging from tiny to huge. The cost of valves ranges from very cheap simple disposable valves, in some items to very expensive valves for specialized applications. Often not realized by some, small valves are even inside some common household items including liquid or gel mini-pump dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping air, etc., manual air pumps and some other pumps, and laundry washers. Valves are almost as ubiquitous as electrical switches. Often a valve is part of some object, the valve body and the object made in one piece; for example, a separatory funnel. Faucets, taps, and spigots are all variations of valves. Many fluid systems such as water and natural gas lines in houses and other buildings have valves. Fluid systems in chemical and power plants and other facilities have numerous valves to control fluid flow.

Valve parts
Body The majority of the valve consists of the valve body, including most of the exterior. The valve body is the vessel or casing that holds the fluid going through inside the valve. Valve bodies are most commonly made of various metals or plastics, although valve bodies fused with glass laboratory items in one piece are also made of glass. Ports The body consists of two or more openings, called ports from which movement occurs from one opening to the next. These ports are controlled by a valve. Valves with two or three ports are the most common, while valves consisting of four or more ports are not as frequently used. Extra ports that are not needed can be closed off by the valve. Manufacturing of valves often occurs with the intent that they will be connected with another specific object. These objects can vary, but generally these include some type of piping, tubing, or pump head. In some cases, a valve port is immediately connected to a spray nozzle or container. To make a connection, valves are commonly measured by the outer diameter the ports they connect to. For example, a 1-inch valve is sized to connect to 1-inch outer diameter tubing. Combined with a valve, ports have the ability to act as faucets, taps, or spigots, all while one or more of its remaining ports are left unconnected. Most valves are built with some means of connection at the ports. This includes threads, compression fittings, glue or cement application (especially for plastic), or welding (for metals). Discs and rotors Inside the valve body, flow through the valve may be partly or fully blocked by an object called a disc. Although valve discs of some kinds of valves are traditionally disc-shaped, discs can come in various shapes. Although the valve body remains stationary within the fluid system, the disc in the valve is movable so it can control flow. A round type of disc with fluid pathway(s) inside which can be rotated to direct flow between certain ports can be called a rotor. Ball valves are valves which use

spherical rotors, except for the interior fluid passageways. Plug valves use cylindrically-shaped or conically-tapered rotors called plugs. Other round shapes for rotors are possible too in rotor valves, as long as the rotor can be turned inside the valve body. However not all round or spherical dics are rotors; for example, a ball check valve uses the ball to block reverse flow, but is not a rotor because operating the valve does not involve rotation of the ball. Seat The valve seat is the interior surface in the body which contacts or could contact the disc to form a seal which should be leak-tight, particularly when the valve is shut (closed). If the disc moves linearly as the valve is controlled, the disc comes into contact with the seat when the valve is shut. When the valve has a rotor, the seat is always in contact with the rotor, but the surface area of contact on the rotor changes as the rotor is turned. If the disc swings on a hinge, as in a swing check valve, it contacts the seat to shut the valve and stop flow. In all the above cases, the seat remains stationary while the disc or rotor moves. The body and the seat could both come in one piece of solid material, or the seat could be a separate piece attached or fixed to the inside of the valve body, depending on the valve design. Stem The stem is a rod or similar piece spanning the inside and the outside of the valve, transmitting motion to control the internal disc or rotor from outside the valve. Inside the valve, the rod is joined to or contacts the disc/rotor. Outside the valve the stem is attached to a handle or another controlling device. Between inside and outside, the stem typically goes through a valve bonnet if there is one. In some cases, the stem and the disc can be combined in one piece, or the stem and the handle are combined in one piece. The motion transmitted by the stem can be a linear push or pull motion, a rotating motion, or some combination of these. A valve with a rotor would be controlled by turning the stem. The valve and stem can be threaded such that the stem can be screwed into or out of the valve by turning it in one direction or the other, thus moving the disc back or forth inside the body. Packing is often used between the stem and the bonnet to seal fluid inside the valve in spite of turning of the stem. Some valves have no external control and do not need a stem; for example, most check valves. Check valves are valves which allow flow in one direction, but block flow in the opposite direction. Some refer to them as one-way valves even though they have two ports. Valves in which the disc is between the seat and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction into the valve to shut it are normally-seated (also called 'front seated'). Valves in which the seat is between the disc and the stem and where the stem moves in a direction out of the valve to shut it are reverse-seated (also called 'back seated'). These terms do not apply to valves with no stem nor to valves using rotors. Bonnet A bonnet basically acts as a cover on the valve body. It is commonly semipermanently screwed into the valve body. During manufacture of the valve, the internal parts were put into the body and then the bonnet was attached to hold 3

everything together inside. To access internal parts of a valve, a user would take off the bonnet, usually for maintenance. Many valves do not have bonnets; for example, plug valves usually do not have bonnets. Spring Many valves have a spring for spring-loading, to normally shift the disc into some position by default but allow control to reposition the disc. Relief valves commonly use a spring to keep the valve shut, but allow excessive pressure to force the valve open against the spring-loading, Valve balls A valve ball is also used for severe duty, high pressure, high tolerance applications. They are typically made of stainless steel, titanium, Stellite, Hastelloy, brass, and nickel. They can also be made of different types of plastic, such as ABS, PVC, PP or PVDF. Valve operating positions Valve positions are operating conditions determined by the position the disc or rotor in the valve. Some valves are made to be operated in a gradual change between two or more positions. 2-way valves 2-port valves are commonly called 2-way valves. Operating positions for such valves can be either shut (closed) so that no flow at all goes through, fully open for maximum flow, or sometimes partially open to any degree in between. Many valves are not designed to precisely control intermediate degree of flow; such valves are considered to be either open or shut, with maybe qualitative descriptions in between. Some valves are specially designed to regulate varying amounts of flow. Such valves have been called by various names like regulating, throttling, metering, or needle valves. For example, needle valves have elongated conically-tapered discs and matching seats for fine flow control. For some valves, there may be a mechanism to indicate how much the valve is open, but in many cases other indications of flow rate are used, such as separate flow meters. In some plants with fluid systems, some 2-way valves can be designated as normally shut or normally open during regular operation. Examples of normally shut valves are sampling valves, which are only opened while a sample is taken. Examples of normally open valves are isolation valves, which are usually only shut when there is a problem with a unit or a section of a fluid system such as a leak. Then, isolation valve(s) are shut in order to isolate the problem from the rest of the system. Although many 2-way valves are made in which the flow can go in either direction between the two ports, when a valve is placed into a certain application, flow is often expected to go from one certain port on the upstream side of the valve, to the other port on the downstream side. Pressure regulators are variations of valves in which flow is controlled to produce a certain downstream pressure, if possible. They are often used to control flow of gas from a gas cylinder. A back-pressure regulator is a

variation of a valve in which flow is controlled to maintain a certain upstream pressure, if possible. 3-way valves 3-way valves have three ports. 3-way valves are commonly made such that flow coming in at one port can be directed to either the second port in one position or the third port in another position or in an intermediate position so all flow is stopped. Often such 3-way valves are ball or rotor valves. Many faucets are made so that incoming cold and hot water can be regulated in varying degrees to give outcoming water at a desired temperature. Other kinds of 3-port valves can be designed for other possible flow-directing schemes and positions; for example, see Ball valve. In valves having more than 3 ports, even more flow-directing schemes are possible. Such valves are often rotor valves or ball valves. Slider valves have been used also. Control

A valve controlled by a wheel (left). Many valves are controlled manually with a handle attached to the valve stem. If the handle is turned a quarter of a full turn (90) between operating positions, the valve is called a quarter-turn valve. Butterfly valves, ball valves, and plug valves are often quarter-turn valves. Valves can also be controlled by devices called actuators attached to the stem. They can be electromechanical actuators such as an electric motor or solenoid, pneumatic actuators which are controlled by air pressure, or hydraulic actuators which are controlled by the pressure of a liquid such as oil or water. Actuators can be used for the purposes of automatic control such as in washing machine cycles, remote control such as the use of a centralized control room, or because manual control is too difficult; for example, the valve is huge. Pneumatic actuators and hydraulic actuators need pressurized air or liquid lines to supply the actuator: an inlet line and an outlet line. Pilot valves are valves which are used to control other valves. Pilot valves in the actuator lines control the supply of air or liquid going to the actuators. The fill valve in a commode water tank is a liquid level-actuated valve. When a high water level is reached, a mechanism shuts the valve which fills the tank. In some valve designs, the pressure of the flow fluid itself or pressure difference of the flow fluid between the ports automatically controls flow through the valve. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure.

Other considerations Valves are typically rated for maximum temperature and pressure by the manufacturer. The wetted materials in a valve are usually identified also. Some valves rated at very high pressures are available. When a designer, engineer, or user decides to use a valve for an application, he/she should ensure the rated maximum temperature and pressure are never exceeded and that the wetted materials are compatible with the fluid the valve interior is exposed to. Some fluid system designs, especially in chemical or power plants, are schematically represented in piping and instrumentation diagrams. In such diagrams, different types of valves are represented by certain symbols. Valves in good condition should be leak-free. However, valves may eventually wear out from use and develop a leak, either between the inside and outside of the valve or, when the valve is shut to stop flow, between the disc and the seat. A particle trapped between the seat and disc could also cause such leakage. Types of valves

4-stroke cycle engine valves, Aspin valve, a cone-shaped metal part fitted to the cylinder head of an engine. Ball cock, often used as a water level controller (cistern). Ball valve, which is good for on/off control. Bibcock, provides a connection to a flexible hosepipe Blast valve, used to prevent rapid overpressures in a fallout shelter or a bunker. Butterfly valve, particularly in large pipes. Check valve or Non-return valve, allows the fluid to pass in one direction only. Cock, colloquial term for a small valve or a stopcock. Demand valve on a diving regulator. Diaphragm valve, a sanitary valve predominantly used in the pharmaceutical industry Double check valve. A flow control valve maintains a constant flow rate through the valve. Foot valve, a check valve on the foot of a suction line to prevent backflow. Freeze valve, in which freezing and melting the fluid creates and removes a plug of frozen material acting as the valve. Gate valve, mainly for on/off control. Choke valve, Is a heavy duty valve which controls flow to a certain Flow Coefficient (CV) determined by how far the valve is opened, regularly used in the Oil industry. Globe valve, which is good for regulating flow. A heart valve regulates blood flow through the heart in many organisms. Hydraulic valve (diaphragm valve). A leaf valve is a one-way valve consisting of a diagonal obstruction with an opening covered by a hinged flap. Needle valve for gently releasing high pressures. Pilot valves regulate flow or pressure to other valves. Piston valves.

Plug valve, for on/off control. A poppet valve is commonly used in piston engines to regulate the fuel mixture intake and exhaust. The sleeve valve is another valve type used for this purpose. A pressure reducing valve (PRV), also called pressure regulator, reduces pressure to a preset level downstream of the valve. A pressure sustaining valve, also called back-pressure regulator, maintains pressure at a preset level upstream of the valve. Presta and Schrader valves are used to hold the air in bicycle tires. A Reed valve consists of two or more flexible materials pressed together along much of their length, but with the influx area open to allow one-way flow, much like a heart valve. A regulator is used in SCUBA diving equipment and in gas cooking equipment to reduce the high pressure gas supply to a lower working pressure. Rotary valves and piston valves are parts of brass instruments used to change their pitch. A saddle valve, where allowed, is used to tap a pipe for a low-flow need. A safety valve or relief valve operates automatically at a set differential pressure to correct a potentially dangerous situation, typically over-pressure. Schrader valves are used to hold the air inside automobile tires. Solenoid valve, an electrically controlled hydraulic or pneumatic valve. Stopcocks restrict or isolate the flow through a pipe of a liquid or gas. Tap (British English), faucet (American English) is the common name for a valve used in homes to regulate water flow. Thermostatic Mixing Valve. A three-way valve routes fluid from one direction to another. Some trap primers either include other types of valves, or are valves themselves. Vacuum breaker valves prevent the back-siphonage of contaminated water into pressurized drinkable water supplies.

Valve operating positions Valve positions are operating conditions determined by the position the disc or rotor in the valve. Some valves are made to be operated in a gradual change between two or more positions.

Ball valve
A ball valve (like the butterfly valve, one of a family of valves called quarter turn valves) is a valve that opens by turning a handle attached to a ball inside the valve. The ball has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when the port is in line with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed, the hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. The handle position lets you "see" the valve's position. Ball valves are durable and usually work to achieve perfect shutoff even after years of disuse. They are therefore an excellent choice for shutoff applications (and are often preferred to globe valves and gate valves for this purpose). They do not offer the fine

control that may be necessary in throttling applications but are sometimes used for this purpose. The body of ball valves may be made of metal, ceramic, or plastic. The ball may be chrome plated to make it more durable. There are four general body styles of ball valves: single body, split body, top entry, and welded. There are four general types of ball valves: full port, standard port, reduced port, and v port. A full port ball valve has an oversized ball so that the hole in the ball is the same size as the pipeline resulting in lower friction loss. Flow is unrestricted, but the valve is larger.

A standard port ball valve is usually less expensive, but has a smaller ball and a correspondingly smaller port. Flow through this valve is one pipe size smaller than the valve's pipe size resulting in slightly restricted flow. In reduced port ball valves, flow through the valve is one pipe sizes smaller than the valve's pipe size resulting in restricted flow. A trunnion ball valve has a mechanical means of anchoring the ball at the top and the bottom.

Manually operated ball valves can be closed quickly and thus there is a danger of water hammer. Some ball valves are equipped with an actuator that may be pneumatically or motor (electric) operated. These valves can be used either for on/off or flow control. A pneumatic flow control valve is also equipped with a positioner which transforms the control signal into actuator position and valve opening accordingly.

Straight Through, Two Way OR Three Way Ball Valves

schematic 3 way ball valve - L-shaped ball right, T-shaped left Three-way ball valves have a L- or T-shaped hole through the middle. The different combination of flow are shown in the picture. 4-way valves are also commercially

available, the 4th way being orthogonal to the plane of the other three, for special applications. Ball Valves come in single piece, two or three piece designs wherein in main body is solid and whole as in the case of 1pc design or separated with bolts and nuts into 2pc or 3 pc designs. The latter facilitates efficient cleaning of deposited sediments, particles and leftovers of fluid during pipe line overhaulings.

Butterfly valve

A butterfly valve is a type of flow control device, typically used to regulate a fluid flowing through a section of pipe. The valve is similar in operation to a ball valve. A flat circular plate is positioned in the center of the pipe. The plate has a rod through it connected to a handle on the outside of the valve. Rotating the handle turns the plate either parallel or perpendicular to the flow. Unlike a ball valve, the plate is always present within the flow, therefore a pressure drop is always induced in the flow regardless of valve position. There are three types of butterfly valve: 1. Resilient butterfly valve which has a flexible rubber seat. Working pressure up to 1.6 megapascals (MPa)/232 pounds per square inch (PSI) 2. High performance butterfly valve which is usually double eccentric in design . Working pressure up to 5.0 MPa/725 PSI 3. Tricentric butterfly valve which is usually with metal seated design. Working pressure up to 10.0 MPa/1450 PSI Butterfly valves are widely used in water distribution and waste water processing (not recommended, as the debris may block the operation of the disc). Butterfly valves can come in two body types, affecting installation and maintenance: lugged or wafer. Wafer style valves are more common. They are typically installed between two flanges using bolts or studs and nuts. Lug style valves are also installed between two flanges but with a separate set of bolts for each flange. The lug style setup makes it possible to remove one side of the piping while the other remains intact. An additional application is found within the exhaust system of automobiles. By incorporating a butterfly valve in the exhaust system, it is possible to control the backpressure and noise output from the muffler and catalytic converter. When in a closed position, the valve increases the amount of back pressure produced and

suppresses noise. The angle of valve can be controlled in a variety of ways, including manual control, vacuum control, as well as being tired directly to the throttle.

Check valve -1
A check valve is a mechanical device, a valve, that normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one direction. Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two openings in the body, one for fluid to enter and the other for fluid to leave. There are various types of check valves used in a wide variety of applications. Check valves are often part of common household items. Although they are available in a wide range of sizes and costs, many check valves are very small, simple, and/or cheap. Check valves work automatically and most are not controlled by a person or any external control; accordingly, most do not have any valve handle or stem. The bodies (external shells) of most check valves are made of plastic or metal. An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure which is the minimum upstream pressure at which the valve will operate. Typically the check valve is designed for and can therefore be specified for a specific cracking pressure. Heart valves are essentially inlet and outlet check valves for the heart ventricles, since the ventricles act as a pump.

Types of check valves

A closed ball check valve.

An open ball check valve.

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A Ball check valve is a check valve in which the disc, the movable part to block the flow, is a spherical ball. In many ball check valves, the ball is spring-loaded to stay shut, but also many do not have a spring inside. The interior surface of the seats of ball check valves are more or less conically-tapered to guide the ball into the seat and/or form a positive seal when stopping reverse flow. Ball check valves are often very small, simple, and cheap (although some are expensive). They are commonly used in liquid or gel mini-pump dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping air, etc., manual air pumps and some other pumps, and refillable dispensing syringes. Although the balls are most often made of metal, they can be made of other materials, or in some specialized cases out of artificial ruby. High pressure HPLC pumps and similar applications commonly use small inlet and outlet ball check valves with balls made of artificial ruby and seats made of artificial sapphire, both for hardness and chemical resistance. After prolonged use, such check valves can eventually wear out or the seat can develop a crack, requiring replacement. Therefore, such valves are made to be replaceable, sometimes placed in a small plastic body tightly-fitted inside a metal fitting which can withstand high pressure and which is screwed into the pump head. There are similar check valves where the disc is not a ball, but some other shape. Ball check valves should not be confused with ball valves, which is a different type of valve in which a ball acts as a controllable rotor to stop or direct flow. There are check valves where the pressure on the upstream side must be greater than the pressure on the downstream side by a certain amount, the pressure differential, for the check valve to open allowing flow. A swing check valve is a check valve in which the disc, the movable part to block the flow, swings on a hinge or trunnion, either onto the seat to block reverse flow or off the seat to allow forward flow. The seat opening cross-section may be perpendicular to the centerline between the two ports or at an angle. Although swing check valves can come in various sizes, large check valves are often swing check valves.

This Siamese clappered inlet allows one or two inputs into a deluge gun. A clapper valve is a type of check valve used in or with firefighting, and has a hinged gate (often with a spring urging it shut) that will only remain open in the outflowing direction. A stop-check valve is a check valve with override control to stop flow regardless of flow direction or pressure. When the valve is open, it acts as a check valve, but the valve can be deliberately shut to stop flow. A lift-check valve is a check valve in which the disc, sometimes called a lift, can be lifted up off its seat by higher pressure of inlet or upstream fluid to allow flow to the outlet or downstream side. A guide keeps motion of the disc on a vertical line, so the valve can later reseat properly. When the pressure is no longer higher, gravity or

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higher downstream pressure will cause the disc to lower onto its seat, shutting the valve to stop reverse flow. A double check valve is often used as a backflow prevention device to keep potentially contaminated water from siphoning back into municipal water supply lines. There are also double ball check valves in which there are two ball/seat combinations sequentially in the same body to ensure positive leak-tight shutoff when blocking reverse flow; and piston check valves, wafer check valves, and ball-and-cone check valves.

Applications
Check valves are often used with some types of pumps. Piston-driven and diaphragm pumps such as metering pumps and pumps for chromatography commonly use inlet and outlet ball check valves. These valves often look like small cylinders attached to the pump head on the inlet and outlet lines. Many similar pump-like mechanisms for moving volumes of fluids around use check valves such as ball check valves. Check valves are used in many fluid systems such as those in chemical, and power plants, and in many other industrial processes. Check valves are also often used when multiple gases are mixed into one gas stream. A check valve is installed on each of the individual gas streams to prevent mixing of the gases in the original source. For example, if a fuel and an oxidizer are to be mixed, then check valves will normally be used on both the fuel and oxidizer sources to ensure that the original gas cylinders remain pure and therefore nonflammable. Some types of irrigation sprinklers and drip irrigation emitters have small check valves built into them to keep the lines from draining when the system is shut off.

Check Valve -2
Check (non-return) valves are installed in pipelines to allow flow in one direction only; helping to protect equipment and processes. The operation, benefits, applications and selection of different designs, including lift, disc, swing and wafer check valves are explained in this tutorial Check valves, or non-return valves, are installed in pipeline systems to allow flow in one direction only. They are operated entirely by reaction to the line fluid and therefore do not require any external actuation. In this text, the expected, or desired direction of flow is termed 'forward flow', flow in the opposite direction is 'reverse flow'. There are a number of reasons for using check valves, which include:

Protection of any item of equipment that can be affected by reverse flow, such as flowmeters, strainers and control valves. To check the pressure surges associated with hydraulic forces, for example, waterhammer. These hydraulic forces can cause a wave of pressure to run up and down pipework until the energy is dissipated. Prevention of flooding. Prevention of reverse flow on system shutdown. Prevention of flow under gravity. Relief of vacuum conditions. 12

Although check valves can effectively shut off reverse flow, they should never be used in place of an isolation valve to contain live steam, in a section of pipe. As with isolation valves, there are a number of different check valve designs, each suited to specific applications. The different types of check valve and their applications are discussed in this tutorial, along with the correct sizing method.

Lift check valves

Lift check valves are similar in configuration to globe valves, except that the disc or plug is automatically operated. The inlet and outlet ports are separated by a cone shaped plug that rests on a seat typically metal; in some valves, the plug may be held on its seat using a spring. When the flow into the valve is in the forward direction, the pressure of the fluid lifts the cone off its seat, opening the valve. With reverse flow, the cone returns to its seat and is held in place by the reverse flow pressure.

Fig. 12.3.1 A lift check valve If a metal seat is used, the lift check valve is only suitable for applications where a small amount of leakage, under reverse flow conditions, is acceptable. Furthermore, the design of a lift check valve generally limits its use to water applications, subsequently, they are commonly used to prevent reverse flow of condensate in steam traps and on the outlets of cyclic condensate pumps. The main advantage of the lift check valve lies in its simplicity, and as the cone is the only moving part, the valve is robust and requires little maintenance. In addition, the use of a metal seat limits the amount of seat wear. The lift check valve has two major limitations; firstly, it is designed only for installation in horizontal pipelines, and

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secondly, its size is typically limited to DN80, above which, the valve would become too bulky. The piston-type lift check valve is a modification of the standard lift check valve. It incorporates a piston shaped plug instead of the cone, and a dashpot is applied to this mechanism. The dashpot produces a damping effect during operation, thereby eliminating the damage caused by the frequent operation of the valve, for example, in pipeline systems, which are subject to surges in pressure, or frequent changes in flow direction (one example would be a boiler outlet).

Swing check valves

A swing check valve consists of a flap or disc of the same diameter as the pipe bore, which hangs down in the flow path. With flow in the forwards direction, the pressure of the fluid forces the disc to hinge upwards, allowing flow through the valve. Reverse flow will cause the disc to shut against the seat and stop the fluid going back down the pipe. In the absence of flow, the weight of the flap is responsible for the closure of the valve; however, in some cases, closure may be assisted by the use of a weighted lever. As can be seen from Figure 12.3.2, the whole mechanism is enclosed within a body, which allows the flap to retract out of the flow path.

Fig. 12.3.2 A full-bodied, swing check valve Swing check valves produce relatively high resistance to flow in the open position, due to the weight of the disc. In addition, they create turbulence, because the flap 'floats' on the fluid stream. This means that there is typically a larger pressure drop across a swing check valve than across other types. With abrupt changes in flow, the disc can slam against the valve seat, which can cause significant wear of the seat, and generate waterhammer along the pipe system. This can be overcome by fitting a damping mechanism to the disc and by using metal seats to limit the amount of seat wear.

Wafer check valves

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Both lift and swing check valves tend to be bulky which limits their size and makes them costly. To overcome this, wafer check valves have been developed. By definition wafer check valves are those that are designed to fit between a set of flanges. This broad definition covers a variety of different designs, including disc check valves and wafer versions of swing or split disc check valves.

Disc check valves

The disc check valve consists of four main components: the body, a disc, a spring and a spring retainer. The disc moves in a plane at right angles to the flow of the fluid, resisted by the spring that is held in place by the retainer. The body is designed to act as an integral centring collar that facilitates installation. Where a 'zero leakage' seal is required, a soft seat can be included.

Fig. 12.3.3 A disc check valve When the force exerted on the disc by the upstream pressure is greater than the force exerted by the spring, the weight of the disc and any downstream pressure, the disc is forced to lift off its seat, allowing flow through the valve. When the differential pressure across the valve is reduced, the spring forces the disc back onto its seat, closing the valve just before reverse flow occurs. This is shown in Figure 12.3.4. The presence of the spring enables the disc check vale to be installed in any direction.

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Fig. 12.3.4 Operation of a disc check valve The differential pressure required to open the check valve is mainly determined by the type of spring used. In addition to the standard spring, there are several spring options available:

No spring - Used where the differential pressure across the valve is small. Nimonic spring - Used in high temperature applications. Heavy-duty spring - This increases the required opening pressure. When installed in the boiler feedwater line, it can be used to prevent steam boilers from flooding when they are unpressurised.

As with all wafer check valves, the size of the disc check valve is determined by the size of the associated pipework. This usually ensures that the valve is correctly sized, but there are cases where the valve is over or undersized. An oversized check valve is often indicated by continuous valve chatter, which is the repeated opening and closing of the valve that occurs when the valve is only partially open. It is caused by the fact that when the valve opens, there is a drop in the upstream pressure; if this pressure drop means that the differential pressure across the valve falls below the required opening pressure, the valve will slam shut. As soon as the valve shuts, the pressure begins to build up again, and so the valve opens and the cycle is repeated. Oversizing can usually be rectified by selecting a smaller valve, but it should be noted that this will increase the pressure drop across the valve for any one flow. If this is not acceptable, it may be possible to overcome the effects of chatter by reducing the closing force on the disc. This can be done either by using a standard spring instead of a heavy-duty one, or by removing the spring altogether. Another alternative is to use a soft seat; this does not prevent the chatter but rather, reduces the noise. Care must be taken however, as this may cause excessive wear on the seat. Undersizing results in excessive pressure drop across the valve and, in the extreme, it may even prevent flow. The solution is to replace the undersized valve with a larger one. Disc check valves are smaller and lighter than lift and standard swing check valves and subsequently cost less. The size of a disc check valve is however limited to DN125; above this, the design becomes complicated. Typically, such a design would 16

include a cone shaped disc and a small diameter spring that is retained and guided along the centre line of the cone, which is more difficult and expensive to manufacture. Even then, such designs are still limited in size to DN250. Standard disc check valves should not be used on applications where there is heavily pulsating flow, for example, on the outlet of a reciprocating air compressor, as the repeated impact of the disc can lead to failure of the spring retainer and high levels of stress in the spring. Specifically designed retainers are available for such applications. These designs typically reduce the amount of disc travel, which effectively increases the resistance to flow and therefore increases the pressure drop across the valve. The design of disc check valves allows them to be installed in any position, including vertical pipelines where the fluid flows downwards.

Swing type wafer check valves

These are similar to the standard swing check valves, but do not have the full-bodied arrangement, instead, when the valve opens, the flap is forced into the top of the pipeline. Subsequently, the flap must have a smaller diameter than that of the pipeline, and because of this, the pressure drop across the valve, which is often high for swing type valves, is further increased. Swing type check valves are used mainly on larger pipeline sizes, typically above DN125, because on smaller pipelines the pressure drop, caused by the disc 'floating' on the fluid stream, becomes significant. Furthermore, there are significant cost savings to be made by using these valves on larger sizes, due to the small amount of material required for the construction of the valve. There is however one problem with using larger size valves; due to their size, the discs are particularly heavy, and therefore possess a large amount of kinetic energy when they close. This energy is transferred to the seat and process fluid when the valve slams shut, which could cause damage to the seat of the valve and generate waterhammer.

Fig. 12.3.5 Swing type wafer check valve

Wafer check valve applications

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Wafer check valves are becoming the preferred type of check valve for most applications, due to their compact design and relatively low cost. The following is a list of some of their most common applications:

Boiler feedlines - The check valve is used to prevent boiler water being forced back along the feedline into the storage tank when the feedpump stops running. Furthermore, a disc check valve with a heavy-duty spring and a soft seat can be fitted in the boiler feedline to prevent flow under gravity into the boiler when the feedpump is shut off.

Fig. 12.3.6 Boiler feedline applications Steam traps - Other than with steam traps discharging to atmosphere, check valves should always be inserted after a steam trap to prevent back flow of condensate flooding the steam space. The check valve will also prevent the steam trap from becoming damaged by any hydraulic shock in the condensate line. It should be noted that when using blast discharge type steam traps, the check valve should be fitted at least 1 m downstream of the trap.

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Fig. 12.3.7 Steam trap applications Hot water circuits - A check valve should be installed after each pump to prevent reverse flow through the pump when it has been shut off (see Figure 12.3.8).

Fig. 12.3.8 Duplex pump set Vacuum breakers - Check valves can be used as vacuum breakers, by fitting them in reverse. When a vacuum is created, the valve opens, allowing air to be drawn in from the atmosphere (see Figure 12.3.9).

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Fig. 12.3.9 Steam injection into a tank

Blending - A check valve should be fitted in each supply line to prevent reverse flow along the different lines which will lead to contamination. A common blending application is the mixing of hot and cold water to provide hot water (see Figure 12.3.10).

Fig. 12.3.10 Blending applications

Pipeline fitting protection - Check valves are used to prevent damage to equipment such as flowmeters and control valves, all of which can be damaged by reverse flow. Check valves also stop the contents of strainers from being deposited in upstream pipework by back flowing fluid. Multiple boiler applications - A check valve must be inserted on the outlet of each boiler to prevent any steam flowing into boilers, which may be on hot stand-by (see Figure 12.3.11).

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Fig. 12.3.11 Multiple boiler applications

Blowdown vessels - When a blowdown vessel receives blowdown from more than one boiler, a wafer check valve should be installed on each separate blowdown line. This will prevent the blowdown from one boiler flowing back into another boiler. In many countries, this is a statutory requirement. Flash vessels - A wafer check valve is installed at the flash steam outlet from the flash vessel; this ensures that steam from any make-up valve does not flow back into the flash vessel (see Figure 12.3.12). A check valve is also installed after the steam trap that drains the flash vessel.

Fig. 12.3.12 Flash vessel applications

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Split disc check valves

The split disc check valve or dual plate check valve is designed to overcome the size and pressure drop limitations of the swing and disc type wafer check valves. The flap of the swing check valve is essentially split and hinged down its centre, such that the two disc plates will only swing in one direction. The disc plates are held against the seat by a torsion spring mounted on the hinge. In order to hold the hinge in the centre of the flow path, externally mounted retainer pins can be used. These retainer pins are a common source of leakage from the valve. An improved design secures the hinge internally, and as the valve mechanism is entirely sealed within the body, leakage to atmosphere is prevented (see Figure 12.3.13).

Fig. 12.3.13 A split disc check valve (retainerless design) The valve is normally closed, as the disc plates are kept shut by the torsion spring. When fluid flows in the forwards direction, the pressure of the fluid causes the disc plates to hinge open, allowing flow. The check valve is closed by the spring as soon as flow ceases, before any reverse flow can occur.

Fig. 12.3.14 Operation of a split disc check valve The frequent opening and closing of the split disc check valve would soon cause seat damage if the heels of the disc plates were allowed to scuff against the seat during

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opening. To overcome this, the heel of the disc plates lift during the initial opening of the valve and the plates rotate purely on the hinge as opposed to the seat face. The split disc type of check valve has several advantages over other types of check valves: The split disc design is not limited in size and these valves have been produced in sizes of up to DN5400. The pressure drop across the split disc check valve is significantly lower than across other types. They are capable of being used with lower opening pressures. Split disc check vales can be installed in any position, including vertical pipelines.

Other check valve types

The above mentioned types of check valve are the most commonly encountered types in steam, condensate, and liquid systems. However, several other types are also available. The three types listed below are mainly suited to liquid applications and subsequently may be found in condensate systems:

Ball check valve - This consists of a rubber-coated ball that is normally seated on the inlet to the valve, sealing off the inlet. When pressure is exerted on the ball, it is moved off its seat along a guide rail, allowing fluid to pass through the inlet. When the fluid pressure drops, the ball slides back into its position on the inlet seat. Note: Ball check valves are typically only used in liquid systems, as it is difficult to obtain a tight seal using a ball. Diaphragm check valve - A flexible rubber diaphragm is placed in a mesh or perforated cone with the point in the direction of flow in the pipeline (see Figure 12.3.15). Flow in the forwards direction deflects the diaphragm inwards, allowing the free passage of the fluid. When there is no flow or a backpressure exists, the diaphragm returns to its original position, closing the valve. Note: The diaphragm material typically limits the application of the diaphragm check valve to fluids below 180C and 16 bar.

Fig. 12.3.15 A diaphragm check valve

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Tilting disc check valve - This is similar to the swing type check valve, but with the flap pivoted in front of its centre of pressure and counterweighted or spring loaded to assume a normally closed position (see Figure 12.3.16). When flow is in the forwards direction, the disc lifts and 'floats' in the stream offering minimum resistance to flow. The disc is balanced so that as flow decreases, it will pivot towards its closed position, closing before reverse flow actually commences. The operation is smooth and silent under most conditions. Note: due to the design of the tilting disc check valve, it is limited to use on liquid applications only.

Fig. 12.3.16 Operation of a tilting disc check valve

Pressure loss charts

As most types of check valve are suitable for use on both liquid and gas systems, manufacturers typically show the pressure drop across a valve in the form of a pressure loss chart for water. A typical pressure loss chart is shown in Figure 12.3.17. It shows the pressure drop across a particular check valve for a given valve size and water flowrate in m3/h.

Fig. 12.3.17 A typical manufacturer's pressure loss diagram

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In order to determine the pressure drop across the check valve for other liquids, the equivalent water volume flowrate needs to be calculated, this is done using the formula in Equation 12.3.1:

Equation 12.3.1

Once the equivalent water volume flowrate has been determined, the pressure drop across the valve can be read off the chart using the same method as for water, selecting the equivalent water volume flowrate instead of the actual volume flowrate. It should be noted that the volumetric flowrate (in m 3/h) is typically quoted for liquid applications, whereas, in steam applications, the mass flowrate (in kg/h) is normally used. To convert from kg/h to m 3/h, the mass flowrate is multiplied by the specific volume (in kg/m3) for the particular working pressure and temperature (see Equation 12.3.2).

Equation 12.3.2

Alternatively, if the Kv value of the valve is specified, the pressure drop across the valve can be determined using the method outlined in Tutorial 12.2. Example 12.3.1 Determine the pressure drop across a DN65 check valve passing 1200 kg/h of saturated steam at 8 bar g. Use the pressure drop characteristics shown in Figure 12.3.17. Solution: The first step is to calculate the volumetric flowrate: From steam tables at 8 bar gauge Using Equation 12.3.2
g

= 0.2149 m3/kg

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Using Figure 12.3.18, the pressure drop across the valve would be approximately 0.085 bar.

Fig. 12.3.18

Diaphragm valve
Diaphragm valves (or membrane valves) consists of a valve body with two or more ports, a diaphragm, and a "saddle" or seat upon which the diaphragm closes the valve. The valve is constructed from either plastic or steel. Originally, the diaphragm valve was developed for use in non-hygienic applications. Later on the design was adapted for use in the bio-pharmaceutical industry by using compliant materials that can withstand sanitizing/sterilizing methods. There are two main categories of diaphragm valves, one type seals over a "weir" (saddle) and the other seals over a seat. The main difference is that a saddle-type valve has its two ports in line with each other on the opposite sides of the valve. Whereas the seat-type has the in/out ports located at a 90 degree angle from one another. The saddle type is the most common in process applications and the seat-type is commonly used as a tank bottom valve but exist also as process valve. Both types come with three ports and even more. When more than three ports are included, they

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generally require more than one diaphragm; however, special dual actuators can handle more ports with one membrane. Diaphragm valves can be manual or automated. Their application is generally as shutoff valves in process systems within the food and beverage, pharmaceutical and biotech industries. The older generation of these valves is not suited for regulating/controlling process flows, however newer developments in this area have successfully tackled this problem. In addition to the well known, two way shut off diaphragm valve, there are many other forms of the diaphragm valve including: three way zero deadleg valve, sterile access port, block and bleed, valbow and tank bottom valve just to name a few.

Materials used to construct diaphagm valves

ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) PVC-U (Polyvinyl chloride, unplasticized) also known as PVCu or uPVC PVC-C (Polyvinyl chloride, post chlorinated) also known as PVCc or cPVC PP (Polypropylene) PE (Polyethylene) also known as LDPE, MDPE and HDPE (see note) PVDF (Polyvinylidene fluoride) Stainless Steel

Gate valve

22mm Gate Valve on domestic hot water pipe.

Gate Valves are prone to corrosion. Here the shaft has broken . A Gate Valve, or Sluice Valve, as it is sometimes known, is a valve that opens by lifting a round or rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid. The distinct feature of a gate valve is the sealing surfaces between the gate and seats are planar. The gate faces can form a wedge shape or they can be parallel. Gate valves are 27

sometimes used for regulating flow, but many are not suited for that purpose, having been designed to be fully opened or closed. When fully open, the typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path, resulting in very low friction loss. Gate valves are characterised as having either a rising or a nonrising stem. Rising stems provide a visual indication of valve position. Nonrising stems are used where vertical space is limited or underground. Bonnets provide leakproof closure for the valve body. Gate valves may have a screwin, union, or bolted bonnet. Screw-in bonnet is the simplest, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal. Union bonnet is suitable for applications requiring frequent inspection and cleaning. It also gives the body added strength. Bolted bonnet is used for larger valves and higher pressure applications. Another type of bonnet construction in a gate valve is pressure seal bonnet. This construction is adopted for valves for high pressure service, typically in excess of 15 MPa (2250 psi). The unique feature about the pressure seal bonnet is that the body bonnet joints seals improves as the internal pressure in the valve increases, compared to other constructions where the increase in internal pressure tends to create leaks in the body-bonnet joint. Gate valves normally have flanged ends which are drilled according to pipeline compatible flange dimensional standards. Cast Iron, Cast Carbon Steel, Gun Metal, Stainless Steel, Alloy Steels & Forged Steels are different materials in which Gate Valves are made available.

Maintenance
If a gate valve fails, it is normally best to replace it, provided you can get one of the matching size. To avoid failure, it is a very good practice to use the valve three or four times a year. From its normal position of nearly full-open: wind it fully closed, then fully open, then half a turn closed. Make sure the system that the pipes are connected to doesn't require water flow whilst you do this.

Globe valve
A Globe valve is a device for regulating flow in a pipeline, consisting of a movable disk-type element and a stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body.

Globe Valves are named for their spherical body shape with the two halves of the body being separated by an internal baffle. This has an opening that forms a seat onto which a movable plug can be screwed in to close (or shut) the valve. In globe valves, the plug is connected to a stem which is operated by screw action in manual valves. 28

Typically, automated valves use sliding stems. Globe valves have a smooth stem rather than threaded and are opened and closed by an actuator assembly. When a globe valve is manually operated, the stem is turned by a handwheel. Although globe valves in the past had the spherical bodies which gave them their name, many modern globe valves do not have much of a spherical shape. However, the term globe valve is still often used for valves that have such an internal mechanism. In plumbing, valves with such a mechanism are also often called stop valves since they don't have the global appearance, but the term stop valve may refer to valves which are used to stop flow even when they have other mechanisms or designs. Globe valves are used for applications requiring throttling and frequent operation. For example, globe valves or valves with a similar mechanism may be used as sampling valves, which are normally shut except when liquid samples are being taken. Since the baffle restricts flow, they're not recommended where full, unobstructed flow is required. Globe valves are typically two-port valves, although three port valves are also produced. Ports are openings in the body for fluid flowing in or out. The two ports may be oriented straight across from each other on the body, or oriented at an angle such as a 90 angle. Globe valves with ports at such an angle are called angle globe valves.

Parts of a typical globe valve

Body
The main pressure containing structure of the valve and the most easily identified as it forms the mass of the valve. It contains all of the valve's internal parts that will come in contact with the substance being controlled by the valve. The bonnet is connected to the body and provides the containment of the fluid, gas, or slurry that is being controlled.

Bonnet
Provides leakproof closure for the valve body. The threaded section of stem goes through a hole with matching threads in the bonnet. Globe valves may have a screwin, union, or bolted bonnet. Screw-in bonnet is the simplest bonnet, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal. Union bonnet is suitable for applications requiring frequent inspection or cleaning. It also gives the body added strength. A bonnet attached with bolts is used for larger or higher pressure applications. Bonnets also contain the packing, which is a wearable material that maintains the seal between the bonnet and the stem during valve cycling operations

Plug
The closure member of the valve. Plugs are connected to the stem which is slid or screwed up or down to throttle the flow. Plugs are typically of the balance or unbalanced type. Unbalanced plugs are solid and are used with smaller valves or with low pressure drops across the valve. The advantages are simpler design, with one possible leak path at the seat and usually lower cost. The disadvantages are the limited 29

size; with a large unbalanced plug the forces needed to seat and hold the flow off become impractical. Balanced plugs have holes through the plug. Advantages include easier shut off as the plug does not have to overcome static forces. However, a second leak path is created between the plug and the cage, cost is generally higher.

Stem
The stem serves as a connector from the actuator to the inside of the valve and transmits this actuation force. Stems are either smooth for actuator controlled valves or threaded for manual valves. The smooth stems are surrounded by packing material to prevent leaking material from the valve. This packing is a wear material and will have to be replaced during maintenance. With a smooth stem the ends are threaded to allow connection to the plug and the actuator. The stem must not only withstand a large amount of compression force during valve closure, but also have high tensile strength during valve opening. In addition, the stem must be very straight, or have low runout, in order to insure good valve closure. This minimum runout also minimizes wear of the packing contained in the bonnet, which provides the seal against leakage.

Cage
The cage is part of the valve that surrounds the plug and is located inside the body of the valve. Typically, the cage is one of the greatest determiners of flow within the valve. As the plug is moved more of the openings in the cage are exposed and flow is increased and vise versa. The design and layout of the openings can have a large effect on flow of material (the flow characteristics of different materials at temperatures, pressures that are in a range). Cages are also used to guide the plug to the seat of the valve for a good shutoff, substituting the guiding from the bonnet.

Seat ring
The seat ring provides a stable, uniform and replaceable shut off surface. Seat rings are usually held in place by pressure from the fastening of the bonnet to the top of the body. This pushes the cage down on the lip of the seat ring and holds it firmly to the body of the valve. Seat rings my also be threaded and screwed into a thread cut in the same area of the body. However this method makes removal of the seat ring during maintenance difficult if not impossible. Seat rings are also typically beveled at the seating surface to allow for some guiding during the final stages of closing the valve. Economical globe valves or stop valves with a similar mechanism used in plumbing often have a rubber washer at the bottom of the disc for the seating surface, so that rubber can be compressed against the seat to form a leak-tight seal when shut. Many globe valves have a class rating that corresponds to the pressure specifications of ANSI 16.34. Bibcocks and sillcocks are variations of globe or stop valves used in plumbing. Needle valves are variations of globe valves where instead of a separate attached disc piece, the internal end of the stem is conically tapered to act as the disc to fit into a matching seat for fine flow adjustment. Other different types of valve usually are called globe style valves because of the shape of the body or the way of closure of the disk. As an example typical swing check valves could be called globe type.

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Materials
Typically globe valves are made of metallic alloys, although some synthetic materials are available. These materials are chosen based on pressure, temperature, controlled media properties. Corrosive and/or erosive process streams may require a compromise in material selection or exotic alloys or body coatings to minimize these material interactions and extend the life of the valve or valve trim components. Typically, carbon steel alloys are specified for noncorrosive applications. Other alloys such as Hastelloy, Monel, Inconel and others are available. Packing material must also be considered during valve selection. Typically the requirement for a low friction packing conflict with a durable material that will provide low maintenance requirements during service life. Corrosive applications can further complicate packing material selection as the typical packing materials may or may not be compatible with the processed materials. Typically graphite or a PTFE material is used do to low friction. Enviro-seal applications also have the availablilty of constant applied force (live-load) packing. While more complex, it allows for constant packing force load throughout the life of the packing material. This packing helps meet contemporary environmental laws.

Needle valve
A needle valve is a type of valve having a small orifice and a threaded, needle-like plunger. It allows precise regulation of flow, although it is generally used for, and is capable of, only relatively small flow rates.

Construction and operation

A needle valve has a relatively small orifice with a long, tapered, conical seat. A needle-shaped plunger, on the end of a screw, exactly fits this seat. As the screw is turned and the plunger retracted, flow between the seat and the plunger is possible; however, until the plunger is completely retracted the fluid flow is significantly impeded. Therefore, and since it takes many turns of the fine-threaded screw to retract the plunger, precise regulation of the flow rate is possible.

Uses
Needle valves are usually used in flow metering applications, especially when a constant, calibrated, low flow rate must be maintained for some time, such as the idle fuel flow in a carburetor. Since flow rates are low and many turns of the valve stem are required to completely open or close, needle valves are not used for simple shutoff applications. Since the orifice is small and the force advantage of the fine-threaded stem is high, needle valves are usually easy to shut off completely, with merely "finger tight" pressure. Small, simple needle valves are often used as bleed valves in hot water heating applications. Unlike a ball valve, it is impossible to tell from examining the handle position whether the valve is open or closed. 31

Plug valve
Plug valves are valves with cylindrical or conically-tapered "plugs" which can be rotated inside the valve body to control flow through the valve. The plugs in plug valves have one or more hollow passageways going sideways through the plug, so that fluid can flow through the plug when the valve is open. Plug valves are simple and often economical. When the plug is conically-tapered, the stem/handle is typically attached to the larger diameter end of the plug. Plug valves usually do not have bonnets but often have the end of the plug with the handle exposed or mostly exposed to the outside. In cases like that, there is usually not much of a stem. The stem and handle often come in one piece, often a simple, approximately L-shaped handle attached to the end of the plug. The other end of the plug is often exposed to the outside of the valve too, but with a mechanism which retains the plug in the body. The simplest and most common general type of plug valve is a 2-port valve, which has two positions, open to allow flow, and shut (closed) to stop flow. Ports are openings in the valve body through which fluid can enter or leave. The plug in this kind of valve has one passageway going through it. The ports are typically at opposite ends of the body; therefore, the plug is rotated a fourth of a full turn to change from open to shut positions. This makes this kind of plug valve a quarter-turn valve. There is often a mechanism limiting motion of the handle to a quarter turn, but not in glass stopcocks. Slightly conically-tapered metal (often brass) plug valves are often used as simple shut-off valves in household natural gas lines. It is also possible for a plug valve to have more than two ports. In a 3-way plug valve, flow from one port could be directed to either the second or third port. A 3-way plug valve could also be designed to shift flow between ports 1 and 2, 2 and 3, or 1 and 3, and possibly even connect all three ports together. The flow-directing possibilities in multi-port plug valves are similar to the possibilities in corresponding multi-port ball valves or corresponding multi-port valves with a rotor. An additional possibility in plug valves is the have one port on one side of the plug valve and two ports on the other side, with two diagonal and parallel fluid pathways inside the plug. In this case the plug can be rotated 180 to connect the port on the one side to either of the two ports on the other side. Stopcocks used in laboratory glassware are typically forms of conically-tapered plug valves. When fused with the glassware, the valve bodies are made of glass. Otherwise, they can be made of an inert plastic such as Teflon. The plugs can be made of a similar plastic or glass. When the plug is made of glass, the handle and plug are fused together in one piece out of glass. When glass is used for both the stopcock body and the plug, the contacting surfaces between them are special ground glass surfaces (see Laboratory glassware) often with stopcock grease in between. Special glass stopcocks are made for vacuum applications, such as in use with vacuum manifolds. Stopcock grease is always used in high vacuum applications to make the stopcock air-tight.

Flow control valve

A flow control valve regulates the flow or pressure of a fluid. Control valves normally respond to signals generated by independent devices such as flow meters or 32

temperature gauges. Control valves are normally fitted with actuators and positioners. Pneumatically-actuated globe valves are widely used for control purposes in many industries, although quarter-turn types such as (modified) ball and butterfly valves are also used. Control valves can also work with hydraulic actuators (also known as hydraulic pilots). These types of valves are also known as Automatic Control Valves. The hydraulic actuators will respond to changes of pressure or flow and will open/close the valve. Automatic Control Valves do not require an external power source, meaning that the fluid pressure is enough to open and close the valve. Automatic control valves include: pressure reducing valves, flow control valves, back-pressure sustaining valves, altitude valves, and relief valves. An altitude valve controls the level of a tank. The altitude valve will remain open while the tank is not full and it will close when the tanks reaches its maximum level. The opening and closing of the valve requires no external power source (electric, pneumatic, or man power), it is done automatically, hence its name.

Relief valve
The relief valve is a type of valve used to control or limit the pressure in a system or vessel which can build up by a process upset, instrument or equipment failure, or fire. The pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurised fluid to flow from an auxiliary passage out of the system. The relief valve is designed or set to open at a predetermined pressure to protect pressure vessels and other equipment from being subjected to pressures that exceed their design limits. When the pressure setting is exceeded, the relief valve becomes the "path of least resistance" as the valve is forced open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through the auxiliary route. The diverted fluid (liquid, gas or liquid-gas mixture) is usually routed through a piping system known as a flare header or relief header to a central, elevated gas flare where it is usually burned and the resulting combustion gases are released to the atmosphere. As the fluid is diverted, the pressure inside the vessel will drop. Once it reaches the valve's re-seating pressure, the valve will re-close. This pressure, also called blowdown, is usually within several percent of the set-pressure. In high-pressure gas systems, it is recommended that the outlet of the relief valve is in the open air. In systems where the outlet is connected to piping, the opening of a relief valve will give a pressure build up in the piping system downstream of the relief valve. This often means that the relief valve will not re-seat once the set pressure is reached. For these systems often so called "differential" relief valves are used. This means that the pressure is only working on an area, that is much smaller than the openings area of the valve. If the valve is opened the pressure has to decrease enormously before the valve closes and also the outlet pressure of the valve can easily keep the valve open. Another consideration is that if other relief valves are connected to the outlet pipe system, they may open as the pressure in exhaust pipe system increases. This may cause undesired operation. In some cases, a so-called bypass valve acts as a relief valve by being used to return all or part of the fluid discharged by a pump or gas compressor back to either a storage reservoir or the inlet of the pump or gas compressor. This is done to protect the pump or gas compressor and any associated equipment from too high a pressure. The bypass valve and bypass path can be internal (an integral part of the pump or compressor) or external (installed as a component in the fluid path).

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In other cases, equipment must be protected against being subjected to an internal vacuum (i.e., low pressure) that is lower than the equipment can withstand. In such cases, vacuum relief valves are used to open at a predetermined low pressure limit and to admit air or an inert gas into the equipment so as control the amount of vacuum. Legal and code requirements in industry In the petroleum refining, petrochemical and chemical manufacturing, natural gas processing and power generation industries, the term relief valve is synonymous with the terms pressure relief valve (PRV), pressure safety valve (PSV) and safety valve. In most countries, such industries are legally required to protect pressure vessels and other equipment by using relief valves. Also in most countries, equipment design codes such as those provided by the ASME, API and other organizations like British Standards Institute (BS5500 pressure vessel design code) must be complied with and those codes include design standards for relief valves. Pressure relief valves in oil hydraulics Whereas pressure relief valves in gas pressure systems are always used to protect the system, in oil hydraulic systems a pressure relief valve can act as part of the control system. The easiest use of the relief valve is as a sort of check valve, a seat with a ball and an adjustable spring. More sophisticated relief valves are pilot operated, so that the pressure can be set at zero (by-pass) and sometimes at 2 or 3 other pressures. In these cases, the highest pressure acts as the maximum working pressure and the others as a set pressure during a certain operation of the installation.

What is a Relief Valve???

The relief valve is a type of valve used to control or limit the pressure in a system or vessel which can build up by a process upset, instrument or equipment failure, or fire. The pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurised fluid to flow from an auxiliary passage out of the system. The relief valve is designed or set to open at a predetermined pressure to protect pressure vessels and other equipment from being subjected to pressures that exceed their design limits. When the pressure setting is exceeded, the relief valve becomes the "path of least resistance" as the valve is forced open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through the auxiliary route. The diverted fluid (liquid, gas or liquid-gas mixture) is usually routed through a piping system known as a flare header or relief header to a central, elevated gas flare where it is usually burned and the resulting combustion gases are released to the atmosphere. As the fluid is diverted, the pressure inside the vessel will drop. Once it reaches the valve's re-seating pressure, the valve will re-close. This pressure, also called blowdown, is usually within several percent of the set-pressure. In high-pressure gas systems, it is recommended that the outlet of the relief valve is in the open air. In systems where the outlet is connected to piping, the opening of a relief valve will give a pressure build up in the piping system downstream of the relief valve. This often means that the relief valve will not re-seat once the set pressure is reached. For these systems often so called "differential" relief valves are used. This means that the pressure is only working on an area, that is much smaller than the openings area of the valve. If the valve is opened the pressure has to decrease 34

enormously before the valve closes and also the outlet pressure of the valve can easily keep the valve open. Another consideration is that if other relief valves are connected to the outlet pipe system, they may open as the pressure in exhaust pipe system increases. This may cause undesired operation. In some cases, a so-called bypass valve acts as a relief valve by being used to return all or part of the fluid discharged by a pump or gas compressor back to either a storage reservoir or the inlet of the pump or gas compressor. This is done to protect the pump or gas compressor and any associated equipment from too high a pressure. The bypass valve and bypass path can be internal (an integral part of the pump or compressor) or external (installed as a component in the fluid path). In other cases, equipment must be protected against being subjected to an internal vacuum (i.e., low pressure) that is lower than the equipment can withstand. In such cases, vacuum relief valves are used to open at a predetermined low pressure limit and to admit air or an inert gas into the equipment so as control the amount of vacuum.

Blowoff valve
A blowoff valve is a pressure release system present in turbocharged engines, its purpose is to prevent compressor surge and reduce wear on the engine. Definitions A compressor bypass valve (CBV) also known as a compressor relief valve is a vacuum-actuated valve designed to release pressure in the intake system of a turbocharged or centrifugally supercharged car when the throttle is lifted or closed. This air pressure is re-circulated back into the non-pressfghfghgfhfghurized end of the intake (before the turbo) but after the mass airflow sensor. A blowoff valve, (BOV, sometimes hooter valve, dump valve) does basically the same thing, but releases the air to the atmosphere. This creates a very distinctive sound desired by many who own turbocharged sports cars. Some blowoff valves are sold with trumpet shaped exits that amplify the "Psshhhh" sound, these designs are normally marketed towards the tuner crowd. For some owners this is the only reason to fit a BOV. Motor sports governed by the FIA have made it illegal to vent unmuffled blowoff valves to the atmosphere. In the United States, Australia and Europe cars featuring unmuffled blowoff valves are illegal for street use. Downsides of releasing air to atmosphere The unique sound caused by a blowoff valve (but not a compressor bypass valve) sometimes comes at a price. On a car with a mass airflow sensor, doing this confuses the engine control unit (ECU) of the car. The ECU is told it has a specific amount of air in the intake system, and injects fuel accordingly. The amount of air released by the blowoff valve is not taken into consideration and the engine runs rich for a period of time. Engines with a manifold absolute pressure regulated ECU are not affected. Typically this isn't a major issue, but sometimes it can lead to hesitation or stalling of the engine when the throttle is closed. This situation worsens with higher boost pressures. Eventually this can foul spark plugs and destroy the catalytic converter

35

(when running rich, not all the fuel is burned which can heat up on and melt the converter). Purpose of Relief and Blow Off Valves Blowoff valves are used to prevent compressor surge. Compressor surge is a phenomenon that occurs when lifting off the throttle of a turbocharged car (with a non-existent or faulty bypass valve). When the throttle plate on a turbocharged engine running boost closes, high pressure in the intake system has nowhere to go. It is forced to travel back to the turbocharger in the form of a pressure wave. This results in the wheel rapidly decreasing speed and stalling. The driver will notice a fluttering air sound. How it works

throttle open, blowoff valve closed

throttle closed, blowoff valve open

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A blow-off-valve is connected by a vacuum hose to the intake manifold after the throttle plate. When the throttle is closed, underpressure develops in the intake manifold after the throttle plate and "sucks" the blowoff valve open. The excess pressure from the turbocharger is vented into the atmosphere or recirculated into the intake upstream of the compressor inlet. Tuning adjustable valves Most aftermarket valves are adjustable leaving customers curious on how to set them properly for their vehicle. Typically the adjustment lies in the spring preload. Here is how to set it. You want the spring as soft as possible without leaking boost at peak pressure. If the spring is set too soft then the valve will not close fully resulting in a boost leak and idle problems. If you set it too hard then the valve will not fully open, close too early, and have compressor surge. Trial and error with an accurate boost gauge is the perfect way to find the right setting for your vehicle....

Safety valve

Oxygen Safety Valve A safety valve is a valve mechanism for the automatic release of a gas from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system when the pressure or temperature exceeds preset limits. They are often called by more specific names such as pressure relief valves, T&P valves, or temperature and pressure relief valves. Safety valves were first used on steam boilers during the industrial revolution. Early boilers without them were prone to accidental explosion when the operator allowed the pressure to become too high, either deliberately or through incompetence.

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Function and design

Proportional-Safety Valve The earliest and simplest safety valve used a weight to hold the pressure of the steam, but these were easily tampered with or accidentally released. On the Stockton and Darlington Railway, the safety valve tended to go off when the engine hit a bump in the track. A better valve used a spring to contain the steam pressure, but these (based on Salter spring balances) could still be screwed down to increase the pressure beyond design limits. In 1856 John Ramsbottom invented a tamper-proof spring safety valve which became universal on railways. Safety valves also evolved to protect equipment such as pressure vessels and heat exchangers. The two general types of protection encountered in industry are thermal protection and flow protection. Thermal relief valves are generally characterized by the relatively small size of the safety valve necessary to provide protection from thermal expansion pressure increases in liquid-packed vessels. As most liquids are considered fairly incompressible, it takes a relatively small amount of fluid discharged through the relief valve to provide an adequate level of protection. Flow protection is characterized by safety valves that are considerably larger than those mounted in thermal protection. They are generally sized for use in situations 38

where significant quantities of gas or high volumes of liquid must be quickly discharged in order to protect the integrity of the vessel or pipeline. Water heaters

Pressure and temperature safety valve on a water heater. They are required on water heaters, where they prevent disaster in certain configurations in the event a thermostat should fail. There are still occasional, spectacular failures of older water heaters that lack this equipment. Houses can be levelled by the force of the blast. Pressure cookers Pressure cookers are pots for cooking with a pressure proof lid. Cooking at pressure allows the temperature to rise above the boiling point of water (100 degrees Celsius at sea level ) which speeds up the cooking and makes the cooking more thorough. Pressure cookers usually have two safety valves. One in a hole upon which a weight sits. The other is a sealed rubber grommet which is ejected in a controlled explosion if the first valve gets blocked. The term safety valve is also used metaphorically.

Introduction to Safety Valves

Any pressurised system requires safety devices to protect people, processes and property. This tutorial details situations when overpressure may occur, the wide and often confusing types of device on offer, how such devices operate and the many codes, standards and approval authorities to note.

Introduction
As soon as mankind was able to boil water to create steam, the necessity of the safety device became evident. As long as 2000 years ago, the Chinese were using cauldrons with hinged lids to allow (relatively) safer production of steam. At the beginning of the 14th century, chemists used conical plugs and later, compressed springs to act as safety devices on pressurised vessels. Early in the 19th century, boiler explosions on ships and locomotives frequently resulted from faulty safety devices, which led to the development of the first safety reliefvalves. In 1848, Charles Retchie invented the accumulation chamber, which increases the 39

compression surface within the safety valve allowing it to open rapidly within a narrow overpressure margin. Today, most steam users are compelled by local health and safety regulations to ensure that their plant and processes incorporate safety devices and precautions, which ensure that dangerous conditions are prevented. The primary function of a safety valve is therefore to protect life and property. The principle type of device used to prevent overpressure in plant is the safety or safety relief valve. The safety valve operates by releasing a volume of fluid from within the plant when a predetermined maximum pressure is reached, thereby reducing the excess pressure in a safe manner. As the safety valve may be the only remaining device to prevent catastrophic failure under overpressure conditions, it is important that any such device is capable of operating at all times and under all possible conditions. Safety valves should be installed wherever the maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of a system or pressure-containing vessel is likely to be exceeded. In steam systems, safety valves are typically used for boiler overpressure protection and other applications such as downstream of pressure reducing controls. Although their primary role is for safety, safety valves are also used in process operations to prevent product damage due to excess pressure. Pressure excess can be generated in a number of different situations, including:

An imbalance of fluid flowrate caused by inadvertently closed or opened isolation valves on a process vessel. Failure of a cooling system, which allows vapour or fluid to expand. Compressed air or electrical power failure to control instrumentation. Transient pressure surges. Exposure to plant fires. Heat exchanger tube failure. Uncontrollable exothermic reactions in chemical plants. Ambient temperature changes.

The terms 'safety valve' and 'safety relief valve' are generic terms to describe many varieties of pressure relief devices that are designed to prevent excessive internal fluid pressure build-up. A wide range of different valves is available for many different applications and performance criteria. Furthermore, different designs are required to meet the numerous national standards that govern the use of safety valves. A listing of the relevant national standards can be found at the end of this tutorial. In most national standards, specific definitions are given for the terms associated with safety and safety relief valves. There are several notable differences between the terminology used in the USA and Europe. One of the most important differences is that a valve referred to as a 'safety valve' in Europe is referred to as a 'safety relief valve' or 'pressure relief valve' in the USA. In addition, the term 'safety valve' in the USA generally refers specifically to the full-lift type of safety valve used in Europe. The ASME / ANSI PTC25.3 standards applicable to the USA define the following generic terms:

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Pressure relief valve - A spring-loaded pressure relief valve which is designed to open to relieve excess pressure and to reclose and prevent the further flow of fluid after normal conditions have been restored. It is characterised by a rapid-opening 'pop' action or by opening in a manner generally proportional to the increase in pressure over the opening pressure. It may be used for either compressible or incompressible fluids, depending on design, adjustment, or application.This is a general term, which includes safety valves, relief valves and safety relief valves. Safety valve - A pressure relief valve actuated by inlet static pressure and characterised by rapid opening or pop action.Safety valves are primarily used with compressible gases and in particular for steam and air services. However, they can also be used for process type applications where they may be needed to protect the plant or to prevent spoilage of the product being processed. Relief valve - A pressure relief device actuated by inlet static pressure having a gradual lift generally proportional to the increase in pressure over opening pressure. Relief valves are commonly used in liquid systems, especially for lower capacities and thermal expansion duty. They can also be used on pumped systems as pressure overspill devices. Safety relief valve - A pressure relief valve characterised by rapid opening or pop action, or by opening in proportion to the increase in pressure over the opening pressure, depending on the application, and which may be used either for liquid or compressible fluid. In general, the safety relief valve will perform as a safety valve when used in a compressible gas system, but it will open in proportion to the overpressure when used in liquid systems, as would a relief valve.

The European standards (BS 6759 and DIN 3320) provide the following definition:

Safety valve - A valve which automatically, without the assistance of any energy other than that of the fluid concerned, discharges a certified amount of the fluid so as to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being exceeded, and which is designed to re-close and prevent the further flow of fluid after normal pressure conditions of service have been restored.

Typical examples of safety valves used on steam systems are shown in Figure 9.1.1.

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Fig. 9.1.1 Typical safety valves

Safety valve design

The basic spring loaded safety valve, referred to as 'standard' or 'conventional' is a simple, reliable self-acting device that provides overpressure protection. The basic elements of the design consist of a right angle pattern valve body with the valve inlet connection, or nozzle, mounted on the pressure-containing system. The outlet connection may be screwed or flanged for connection to a piped discharge system. However, in some applications, such as compressed air systems, the safety valve will not have an outlet connection, and the fluid is vented directly to the atmosphere.

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Fig. 9.1.2 Typical safety valve designs The valve inlet (or approach channel) design can be either a full-nozzle or a seminozzle type. A full-nozzle design has the entire 'wetted' inlet tract formed from one piece. The approach channel is the only part of the safety valve that is exposed to the process fluid during normal operation, other than the disc, unless the valve is discharging. Full-nozzles are usually incorporated in safety valves designed for process and high pressure applications, especially when the fluid is corrosive. Conversely, the semi-nozzle design consists of a seating ring fitted into the body, the top of which forms the seat of the valve. The advantage of this arrangement is that the seat can easily be replaced, without replacing the whole inlet. The disc is held against the nozzle seat (under normal operating conditions) by the spring, which is housed in an open or closed spring housing arrangement (or bonnet) mounted on top of the body. The discs used in rapid opening (pop type) safety valves are surrounded by a shroud, disc holder or huddling chamber which helps to produce the rapid opening characteristic.

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Fig. 9.1.3 A full-nozzle valve (a) and a semi-nozzle valve (b) The closing force on the disc is provided by a spring, typically made from carbon steel. The amount of compression on the spring is usually adjustable, using the spring adjuster, to alter the pressure at which the disc is lifted off its seat. Standards that govern the design and use of safety valves generally only define the three dimensions that relate to the discharge capacity of the safety valve, namely the flow (or bore) area, the curtain area and the discharge (or orifice) area (see Figure 9.1.4). 1. Flow area - The minimum cross-sectional area between the inlet and the seat, at its narrowest point. The diameter of the flow area is represented by dimension 'd' in Figure 9.1.4.

Equation 9.1.1 2. Curtain area - The area of the cylindrical or conical discharge opening between the seating surfaces created by the lift of the disk above the seat. The diameter of the curtain area is represented by dimension 'd1' in Figure 9.1.4.

Equation 9.1.2 3. Discharge area - This is the lesser of the curtain and flow areas, which determines the flow through the valve.

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Fig. 9.1.4 Illustration of the standard defined areas Valves in which the flow area and not the curtain area determines the capacity are known as full lift valves. These valves will have a greater capacity than low lift or high lift valves. This issue will be discussed in greater depth in Tutorial 9.2. Although the principal elements of a conventional safety valve are similar, the design details can vary considerably. In general, the DIN style valves (commonly used throughout Europe) tend to use a simpler construction with a fixed skirt (or hood) arrangement whereas the ASME style valves have a more complex design that includes one or two adjustable blowdown rings. The position of these rings can be used to fine-tune the overpressure and blowdown values of the valve. For a given orifice area, there may be a number of different inlet and outlet connection sizes, as well as body dimensions such as centreline to face dimensions. Furthermore, many competing products, particularly of European origin have differing dimensions and capacities for the same nominal size. An exception to this situation is found with steel ASME specification valves, which invariably follow the recommendations of the API Recommended Practice 526, where centreline to face dimensions, and orifice sizes are listed. The orifice area series are referred to by a letter. It is common for valves with the same orifice letter to have several different sizes of inlet and outlet connection. For example, 2" x J x 3" and 3" x J x 4" are both valves which have the same size ('J) orifice, but they have differing inlet and outlet sizes as shown before and after the orifice letter respectively. A 2" x J x 3" valve would have a 2" inlet, a 'J' size orifice and a 3" outlet. This letter series is also referenced in other standards, for example, BS 6759 part 3, which deals with valves

Basic operation of a safety valve

Lifting When the inlet static pressure rises above the set pressure of the safety valve, the disc will begin to lift off its seat. However, as soon as the spring starts to compress, the spring force will increase; this means that the pressure would have to continue to rise before any further lift can occur, and for there to be any significant flow through the valve.

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The additional pressure rise required before the safety valve will discharge at its rated capacity is called the overpressure. The allowable overpressure depends on the standards being followed and the particular application. For compressible fluids, this is normally between 3% and 10%, and for liquids between 10% and 25%. In order to achieve full opening from this small overpressure, the disc arrangement has to be specially designed to provide rapid opening. This is usually done by placing a shroud, skirt or hood around the disc. The volume contained within this shroud is known as the control or huddling chamber.

Fig. 9.1.5 Typical disc and shroud arrangement used on rapid opening safety valves As lift begins (Figure 9.1.6b), and fluid enters the chamber, a larger area of the shroud is exposed to the fluid pressure. Since the magnitude of the lifting force (F) is proportional to the product of the pressure (P) and the area exposed to the fluid (A); (F = P x A), the opening force is increased. This incremental increase in opening force overcompensates for the increase in spring force, causing rapid opening. At the same time, the shroud reverses the direction of the flow, which provides a reaction force, further enhancing the lift. These combined effects allow the valve to achieve its designed lift within a relatively small percentage overpressure. For compressible fluids, an additional contributory factor is the rapid expansion as the fluid volume increases from a higher to a lower pressure area. This plays a major role in ensuring that the valve opens fully within the small overpressure limit. For liquids, this effect is more proportional and subsequently, the overpressure is typically greater; 25% is common.

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Fig. 9.1.6 Operation of a conventional safety valve Reseating Once normal operating conditions have been restored, the valve is required to close again, but since the larger area of the disc is still exposed to the fluid, the valve will not close until the pressure has dropped below the original set pressure. The difference between the set pressure and this reseating pressure is known as the 'blowdown', and it is usually specified as a percentage of the set pressure. For compressible fluids, the blowdown is usually less than 10%, and for liquids, it can be up to 20%.

Fig. 9.1.7 Relationship between pressure and lift for a typical safety valve The design of the shroud must be such that it offers both rapid opening and relatively small blowdown, so that as soon as a potentially hazardous situation is reached, any overpressure is relieved, but excessive quantities of the fluid are prevented from being discharged. At the same time, it is necessary to ensure that the system pressure is reduced sufficiently to prevent immediate reopening. The blowdown rings found on most ASME type safety valves are used to make fine adjustments to the overpressure and blowdown values of the valves (see Figure 9.1.8). The lower blowdown (nozzle) ring is a common feature on many valves where the tighter overpressure and blowdown requirements require a more sophisticated designed solution. The upper blowdown ring is usually factory set and essentially 47

takes out the manufacturing tolerances which affect the geometry of the huddling chamber. The lower blowdown ring is also factory set to achieve the appropriate code performance requirements but under certain circumstances can be altered. When the lower blowdown ring is adjusted to its top position the huddling chamber volume is such that the valve will pop rapidly, minimising the overpressure value but correspondingly requiring a greater blowdown before the valve re-seats. When the lower blowdown ring is adjusted to its lower position there is minimal restriction in the huddling chamber and a greater overpressure will be required before the valve is fully open but the blowdown value will be reduced.

Fig. 9.1.8 The blowdown rings on an ASME type safety valve

Approval authorities
For most countries, there are independent bodies who will examine the design and performance of a product range to confirm conformity with the relevant code or standard. This system of third party approval is very common for any safety related products and is often a customer requirement before purchase, or a requirement of their insurance company. The actual requirements for approval will vary depending on the particular code or standard. In some cases, revalidation is necessary every few years, in others approval is indefinite as long as no significant design changes are made, in which case the approval authority must be notified, and re-approval sought. In the USA, the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors represents the US and Canadian government agencies empowered to assure adherence to code construction and repair of boilers and pressure vessels. Some of the more commonly encountered bodies are listed in Table 9.2.1.

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Table 9.1.1 Approval authorities

Codes and Standards

Standards relevant to safety valves vary quite considerably in format around the world, and many are sections within codes relevant to Boilers or Pressure Containing Vessels. Some will only outline performance requirements, tolerances and essential constructional detail, but give no guidance on dimensions, orifice sizes etc. Others will be related to installation and application. It is quite common within many markets to use several in conjunction with each other.

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Table 9.1.2 Standards relating to safety valves For steam boiler applications there are very specific requirements for safety valve performance, demanded by national standards and often, insurance companies. Approval by an independent authority is often necessary, such as British Engine, TV or Lloyd's Register. Safety valves used in Europe are also subject to the standards associated with the Pressure Equipment Directive (PED). Being classified as 'Safety accessories', safety valves are considered as 'Category 4' equipment, which require the most demanding level of assessment within the PED regime. This can usually be met by the manufacturer having an ISO 9000 quality system and the safety valve design and performance certified by an officially recognised approval authority referred to as a 'Notified Body'.

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Types of Safety Valves

There is a wide range of safety valves available to meet the many different applications and performance criteria demanded by different industries. Furthermore, national standards define many varying types of safety valve. The ASME standard I and ASME standard VIII for boiler and pressure vessel applications and the ASME / ANSI PTC 25.3 standard for safety valves and relief valves provide the following definition. These standards set performance characteristics as well as defining the different types of safety valves that are used:

ASME I valve - A safety relief valve conforming to the requirements of Section I of the ASME pressure vessel code for boiler applications which will open within 3% overpressure and close within 4%. It will usually feature two blowdown rings, and is identified by a National Board 'V' stamp. ASME VIII valve - A safety relief valve conforming to the requirements of Section VIII of the ASME pressure vessel code for pressure vessel applications which will open within 10% overpressure and close within 7%. Identified by a National Board 'UV' stamp. Low lift safety valve - The actual position of the disc determines the discharge area of the valve. Full lift safety valve - The discharge area is not determined by the position of the disc. Full bore safety valve - A safety valve having no protrusions in the bore, and wherein the valve lifts to an extent sufficient for the minimum area at any section, at or below the seat, to become the controlling orifice. Conventional safety relief valve - The spring housing is vented to the discharge side, hence operational characteristics are directly affected by changes in the backpressure to the valve. Balanced safety relief valve - A balanced valve incorporates a means of minimising the effect of backpressure on the operational characteristics of the valve. Pilot operated pressure relief valve - The major relieving device is combined with, and is controlled by, a self-actuated auxiliary pressure relief device. Power-actuated safety relief valve - A pressure relief valve in which the major pressure relieving device is combined with, and controlled by, a device requiring an external source of energy.

The following types of safety valve are defined in the DIN 3320 standard, which relates to safety valves sold in Germany and other parts of Europe:

Standard safety valve - A valve which, following opening, reaches the degree of lift necessary for the mass flowrate to be discharged within a pressure rise of not more than 10%. (The valve is characterised by a pop type action and is sometimes known as high lift). Full lift (Vollhub) safety valve - A safety valve which, after commencement of lift, opens rapidly within a 5% pressure rise up to the full lift as limited by the design. The amount of lift up to the rapid opening (proportional range) shall not be more than 20%.

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Direct loaded safety valve - A safety valve in which the opening force underneath the valve disc is opposed by a closing force such as a spring or a weight. Proportional safety valve - A safety valve which opens more or less steadily in relation to the increase in pressure. Sudden opening within a 10% lift range will not occur without pressure increase. Following opening within a pressure of not more than 10%, these safety valves achieve the lift necessary for the mass flow to be discharged. Diaphragm safety valve - A direct loaded safety valve wherein linear moving and rotating elements and springs are protected against the effects of the fluid by a diaphragm. Bellows safety valve - A direct loaded safety valve wherein sliding and (partially or fully) rotating elements and springs are protected against the effects of the fluids by a bellows. The bellows may be of such a design that it compensates for influences of backpressure. Controlled safety valve - Consists of a main valve and a control device. It also includes direct acting safety valves with supplementary loading in which, until the set pressure is reached, an additional force increases the closing force.

The British Standard BS 6759 lists the following types of safety valve:

Direct loaded - A safety valve in which the loading due to the fluid pressure underneath the valve disc is opposed only by direct mechanical loading such as a weight, a lever and weight, or a spring. Conventional safety valve - A safety valve of the direct loaded type, the set pressure of which will be affected by changes in the superimposed backpressure. Assisted safety valve - A direct loaded safety valve which, by means of a powered assistance mechanism, is lifted at a pressure below the unassisted set pressure and will, even in the event of failure of the assistance mechanism, comply with all the relevant requirements for safety valves. Pilot operated (indirect loaded) safety valve - The operation is initiated and controlled by the fluid discharged from a pilot valve, which is itself a direct loaded safety valve. Balanced bellows safety valve - A valve incorporating a bellows which has an effective area equal to that of the valve seat, to eliminate the effect of backpressure on the set pressure of the valve, and which effectively prevents the discharging fluid entering the bonnet space. Balanced bellows safety valve with auxiliary piston - A balanced bellows valve incorporating an auxiliary piston, having an effective area equal to the valve seat, which becomes effective in the event of bellows failure. Balanced piston safety valve - A valve incorporating a piston which has an area equal to that of the valve seat, to eliminate the effect of backpressure on the set pressure of the valve. Bellows seal safety valve - A valve incorporating a bellows, which prevents discharging fluid from entering the bonnet space.

In addition, the BS 759 standard pertaining to safety fittings for application to boilers, defines full lift, high lift and lift safety valves:

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Lift safety valve (ordinary class) - The valve member lifts automatically a distance of at least 1/24th of the bore of the seating member, with an overpressure not exceeding 10% of the set pressure. High lift safety valve - Valve member lifts automatically a distance of at least 1 /12th of the bore of the seating member, with an overpressure not exceeding 10% of the set pressure. Full lift safety valve - Valve member lifts automatically to give a discharge area between 100% and 80% of the minimum area, at an overpressure not exceeding 5% of the set pressure.

The following table summarises the performance of different types of safety valve set out by the various standards.

Table 9.2.1 Safety valve performance summary

Conventional safety valves

The common characteristic shared between the definitions of conventional safety valves in the different standards, is that their operational characteristics are affected by any backpressure in the discharge system. It is important to note that the total backpressure is generated from two components; superimposed backpressure and the built-up backpressure:

Superimposed backpressure - The static pressure that exists on the outlet side of a closed valve. Built-up backpressure - The additional pressure generated on the outlet side when the valve is discharging.

Subsequently, in a conventional safety valve, only the superimposed backpressure will affect the opening characteristic and set value, but the combined backpressure will alter the blowdown characteristic and re-seat value. The ASME/ANSI standard makes the further classification that conventional valves have a spring housing that is vented to the discharge side of the valve. If the spring 53

housing is vented to the atmosphere, any superimposed backpressure will still affect the operational characteristics. This can be seen from Figure 9.2.1, which shows schematic diagrams of valves whose spring housings are vented to the discharge side of the valve and to the atmosphere.

Fig. 9.2.1 Schematic diagram of safety valves with bonnets vented to (a) the valve discharge and (b) the atmosphere By considering the forces acting on the disc (with area AD), it can be seen that the required opening force (equivalent to the product of inlet pressure (PV) and the nozzle area (AN)) is the sum of the spring force (FS) and the force due to the backpressure (PB) acting on the top and bottom of the disc. In the case of a spring housing vented to the discharge side of the valve (an ASME conventional safety relief valve, see Figure 9.2.1 (a)), the required opening force is:

Equation 9.2.1 Where: PV = Fluid inlet pressure AN = Nozzle area FS = Spring force PB = Backpressure Therefore, any superimposed backpressure will tend to increase the closing force and the inlet pressure required to lift the disc is greater. In the case of a valve whose spring housing is vented to the atmosphere (Figure 9.2.1b), the required opening force is:

Equation 9.2.2

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Where: PV = Fluid inlet pressure AN = Nozzle area FS = Spring force PB = Backpressure AD = Disc area Thus, the superimposed backpressure acts with the vessel pressure to overcome the spring force, and the opening pressure will be less than expected. In both cases, if a significant superimposed backpressure exists, its effects on the set pressure need to be considered when designing a safety valve system. Once the valve starts to open, the effects of built-up backpressure also have to be taken into account. For a conventional safety valve with the spring housing vented to the discharge side of the valve, see Figure 9.2.1 (a), the effect of built-up backpressure can be determined by considering Equation 9.2.1 and by noting that once the valve starts to open, the inlet pressure is the sum of the set pressure, P S, and the overpressure, PO.

Equation 9.2.3 Where: PS = Set pressure of safety valves AN = Nozzle area FS = Spring force PB = Backpressure PO = Overpressure Therefore, if the backpressure is greater than the overpressure, the valve will tend to close, reducing the flow. This can lead to instability within the system and can result in flutter or chatter of the valve. In general, if conventional safety valves are used in applications, where there is an excessive built-up backpressure, they will not perform as expected. According to the API 520 Recommended Practice Guidelines: A conventional pressure relief valve should typically not be used when the built-up backpressure is greater than 10% of the set pressure at 10% overpressure. A higher maximum allowable built-up backpressure may be used for overpressure greater than 10%.

The British Standard BS 6759, however, states that the built-up backpressure should be limited to 12% of the set pressure when the valve is discharging at the certified capacity.

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For the majority of steam applications, the backpressure can be maintained within these limits by carefully sizing any discharge pipes. This will be discussed in Tutorial 9.4. If, however, it is not feasible to reduce the backpressure, then it may be necessary to use a balanced safety valve.

Balanced safety valves

Balanced safety valves are those that incorporate a means of eliminating the effects of backpressure. There are two basic designs that can be used to achieve this:

Piston type balanced safety valve

Although there are several variations of the piston valve, they generally consist of a piston type disc whose movement is constrained by a vented guide. The area of the top face of the piston, AP, and the nozzle seat area, AN, are designed to be equal. This means that the effective area of both the top and bottom surfaces of the disc exposed to the backpressure are equal, and therefore any additional forces are balanced. In addition, the spring bonnet is vented such that the top face of the piston is subjected to atmospheric pressure, as shown in Figure 9.2.2.

Fig. 9.2.2 Schematic diagram of a piston type balanced safety valve By considering the forces acting on the piston, it is evident that this type of valve is no longer affected by any backpressure:

Where: PV = Fluid inlet pressure AN = Nozzle area FS = Spring force PB = Backpressure AD = Disc area

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AP = Piston area Since AP equals AN, the last two terms of the equation are equal in magnitude and cancel out of the equation. Therefore, this simplifies to Equation 9.2.4.

Equation 9.2.4 Where: PV = Fluid inlet pressure AN = Nozzle area FS = Spring force

Bellows type balanced safety valve

A bellows with an effective area (AB) equivalent to the nozzle seat area (AN) is attached to the upper surface of the disc and to the spindle guide. The bellows arrangement prevents backpressure acting on the upper side of the disc within the area of the bellows. The disc area extending beyond the bellows and the opposing disc area are equal, and so the forces acting on the disc are balanced, and the backpressure has little effect on the valve opening pressure. The bellows vent allows air to flow freely in and out of the bellows as they expand or contract. Bellows failure is an important concern when using a bellows balanced safety valve, as this may affect the set pressure and capacity of the valve. It is important, therefore, that there is some mechanism for detecting any uncharacteristic fluid flow through the bellows vents. In addition, some bellows balanced safety valves include an auxiliary piston that is used to overcome the effects of backpressure in the case of bellows failure. This type of safety valve is usually only used on critical applications in the oil and petrochemical industries. In addition to reducing the effects of backpressure, the bellows also serve to isolate the spindle guide and the spring from the process fluid, this is important when the fluid is corrosive. Since balanced pressure relief valves are typically more expensive than their unbalanced counterparts, they are commonly only used where high pressure manifolds are unavoidable, or in critical applications where a very precise set pressure or blowdown is required.

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Fig. 9.2.3 Schematic diagram of the bellows balanced safety valve

Pilot operated safety valve

This type of safety valve uses the flowing medium itself, through a pilot valve, to apply the closing force on the safety valve disc. The pilot valve is itself a small safety valve. There are two basic types of pilot operated safety valve, namely, the diaphragm and piston type. The diaphragm type is typically only available for low pressure applications and it produces a proportional type action, characteristic of relief valves used in liquid systems. They are therefore of little use in steam systems, consequently, they will not be considered in this text. The piston type valve consists of a main valve, which uses a piston shaped closing device (or obturator), and an external pilot valve. Figure 9.2.4 shows a diagram of a typical piston type, pilot operated safety valve.

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Fig. 9.2.4 A piston type, pilot operated safety valve The piston and seating arrangement incorporated in the main valve is designed so that the bottom area of the piston, exposed to the inlet fluid, is less than the area of the top of the piston. As both ends of the piston are exposed to the fluid at the same pressure, this means that under normal system operating conditions, the closing force, resulting from the larger top area, is greater than the inlet force. The resultant downward force therefore holds the piston firmly on its seat. If the inlet pressure were to rise, the net closing force on the piston also increases, ensuring that a tight shut-off is continually maintained. However, when the inlet pressure reaches the set pressure, the pilot valve will pop open to release the fluid pressure above the piston. With much less fluid pressure acting on the upper surface of the piston, the inlet pressure generates a net upwards force and the piston will leave its seat. This causes the main valve to pop open, allowing the process fluid to be discharged. When the inlet pressure has been sufficiently reduced, the pilot valve will reclose, preventing the further release of fluid from the top of the piston, thereby reestablishing the net downward force, and causing the piston to reseat.

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Pilot operated safety valves offer good overpressure and blowdown performance (a blowdown of 2% is attainable). For this reason, they are used where a narrow margin is required between the set pressure and the system operating pressure. Pilot operated valves are also available in much larger sizes, making them the preferred type of safety valve for larger capacities. One of the main concerns with pilot operated safety valves is that the small bore, pilot connecting pipes are susceptible to blockage by foreign matter, or due to the collection of condensate in these pipes. This can lead to the failure of the valve, either in the open or closed position, depending on where the blockage occurs. The British Standard BS 6759 states that all pilot operated safety valves should have at least two independent pilot devices, which are connected individually and arranged such that failure of either of the pilot will still enable the safety valve to continue to operate effectively.

Full lift, high lift and low lift safety valves

The terms full lift, high lift and low lift refer to the amount of travel the disc undergoes as it moves from its closed position to the position required to produce the certified discharge capacity, and how this affects the discharge capacity of the valve. A full lift safety valve is one in which the disc lifts sufficiently, so that the curtain area no longer influences the discharge area. The discharge area, and therefore the capacity of the valve are subsequently determined by the bore area. This occurs when the disc lifts a distance of at least a quarter of the bore diameter. A full lift conventional safety valve is often the best choice for general steam applications. The disc of a high lift safety valve lifts a distance of at least 1/12th of the bore diameter. This means that the curtain area, and ultimately the position of the disc, determines the discharge area. The discharge capacities of high lift valves tend to be significantly lower than those of full lift valves, and for a given discharge capacity, it is usually possible to select a full lift valve that has a nominal size several times smaller than a corresponding high lift valve, which usually incurs cost advantages. Furthermore, high lift valves tend to be used on compressible fluids where their action is more proportional. In low lift valves, the disc only lifts a distance of 1/24th of the bore diameter. The discharge area is determined entirely by the position of the disc, and since the disc only lifts a small amount, the capacities tend to be much lower than those of full or high lift valves.

Materials of construction
Except when safety valves are discharging, the only parts that are wetted by the process fluid are the inlet tract (nozzle) and the disc. Since safety valves operate infrequently under normal conditions, all other components can be manufactured from standard materials for most applications. There are however several exceptions, in which case, special materials have to be used, these include:

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Cryogenic applications. Corrosive fluids. Where contamination of discharged fluid is not permitted. When the valve discharges into a manifold that contains corrosive media discharged by another valve. The principal pressure-containing components of safety valves are normally constructed from one of the following materials: o Bronze - Commonly used for small screwed valves for general duty on steam, air and hot water applications (up to 15 bar). o Cast iron - Used extensively for ASME type valves. Its use is typically limited to 17 bar g. o SG iron - Commonly used in European valves and to replace cast iron in higher pressure valves (up to 25 bar g). o Cast steel - Commonly used on higher pressure valves (up to 40 bar g). Process type valves are usually made from a cast steel body with an austenitic full nozzle type construction. o Austenitic stainless steel - Used in food, pharmaceutical or clean steam applications.

For extremely high pressure applications, pressure containing components may be forged or machined from solid. For all safety valves, it is important that moving parts, particularly the spindle and guides are made from materials that will not easily degrade or corrode. As seats and discs are constantly in contact with the process fluid, they must be able to resist the effects of erosion and corrosion. For process applications, austenitic stainless steel is commonly used for seats and discs; sometimes they are 'stellite faced' for increased durability. For extremely corrosive fluids, nozzles, discs and seats are made from special alloys such as 'monel' or 'hastelloy'. The spring is a critical element of the safety valve and must provide reliable performance within the required parameters. BS 6759 lists recommended materials, but most other standards just insist on sensible materials based on sound engineering practice. Standard safety valves will typically use carbon steel for moderate temperatures. Tungsten steel is used for higher temperature, non-corrosive applications, and stainless steel is used for corrosive or clean steam duty. For sour gas and high temperature applications, often special materials such as monel, hastelloy and 'inconel' are used.

Safety valve options and accessories

Due to the wide range of applications in which safety valves are used, there are a number of different options available: Seating material A key option is the type of seating material used. Metal-to-metal seats, commonly made from stainless steel, are normally used for high temperature applications such as steam. Alternatively, resilient discs can be fixed to either or both of the seating surfaces where tighter shut-off is required, typically for gas or liquid applications.

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These inserts can be made from a number of different materials, but Viton, nitrile or EPDM are the most common. Soft seal inserts are not recommended for steam use.

Table 9.2.2 Seating materials used in safety valves Levers Standard safety valves are generally fitted with an easing lever, which enables the valve to be lifted manually in order to ensure that it is operational at pressures in excess of 75% of set pressure. This is usually done as part of routine safety checks, or during maintenance to prevent seizing. The fitting of a lever is usually a requirement of national standards and insurance companies for steam and hot water applications. For example, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code states that pressure relief valves must be fitted with a lever if they are to be used on air, water over 60C, and steam. A standard or open lever is the simplest type of lever available. It is typically used on applications where a small amount of leakage of the fluid to the atmosphere is acceptable, such as on steam and air systems, (see Figure 9.2.5 (a)). Where it is not acceptable for the media to escape, a packed lever must be used. This uses a packed gland seal to ensure that the fluid is contained within the cap, (see Figure 9.2.5 (b))

Fig. 9.2.5 Levers For service where a lever is not required, a cap can be used to simply protect the adjustment screw. If used in conjunction with a gasket, it can be used to prevent emissions to the atmosphere, (see Figure 9.2.6).

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Fig. 9.2.6 A gas tight cap

Fig. 9.2.7 A test gag A test gag (Figure 9.2.7) may be used to prevent the valve from opening at the set pressure during hydraulic testing when commissioning a system. Once tested, the gag screw is removed and replaced with a short blanking plug before the valve is placed in service. Open and closed bonnets Unless bellows or diaphragm sealing is used, process fluid will enter the spring housing (or bonnet). The amount of fluid depends on the particular design of safety valve. If emission of this fluid into the atmosphere is acceptable, the spring housing may be vented to the atmosphere - an open bonnet. This is usually advantageous when the safety valve is used on high temperature fluids or for boiler applications as, otherwise, high temperatures can relax the spring, altering the set pressure of the valve. However, using an open bonnet exposes the valve spring and internals to environmental conditions, which can lead to damage and corrosion of the spring. When the fluid must be completely contained by the safety valve (and the discharge system), it is necessary to use a closed bonnet, which is not vented to the atmosphere. This type of spring enclosure is almost universally used for small screwed valves and, it is becoming increasingly common on many valve ranges since, particularly on steam, discharge of the fluid could be hazardous to personnel.

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Fig. 9.2.8 Spring housings Bellows and diaphragm sealing Some safety valves, most commonly those used for water applications, incorporate a flexible diaphragm or bellows to isolate the safety valve spring and upper chamber from the process fluid, (see Figure 9.2.9).

Fig. 9.2.9 A diaphragm sealed safety valve An elastomer bellows or diaphragm is commonly used in hot water or heating applications, whereas a stainless steel one would be used on process applications employing hazardous fluids. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Although safety valves are by far the most common devices used for plant protection in steam systems, there are several other devices available to protect plant from overpressure conditions. Whilst some of them can be used in place of a safety valve, most have their own unique applications and indeed some devices, such as the bursting disc, may be used to complement the safety valve.

Weighted pallet - This is the simplest type of overpressure protection device, and it is on low-pressure tanks and condensers, for pressure relief, vacuum relief or both.

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A weight is applied to the top of a disc, keeping it closed until the pressure acting on the underside of the pallet equals the weight. Due to the large weights required to keep a pallet closed, this type of valve is designed for low pressure applications below 0.1 bar. For higher set pressures, the weight required would be prohibitive and dangerous if oscillation of the pallet occurred at valve opening.

Counterweight safety valve - Although these have been largely superseded by spring-loaded safety valves, they are still sometimes used for low-pressure applications. The closing force of the safety valve is provided by a weight rather than a spring. As the closing force is provided by a weight, it will remain constant and once the set pressure is reached, the safety valve will open fully.

Fig. 9.6.1 A counterweight safety valve Supplementary loaded safety valve - A supplementary loaded safety valve consists of a conventional safety valve provided with an additional sealing force that is released once the set pressure is reached. One of the main concerns with this type of device is ensuring that the load is suitably released when the set pressure is reached. The BS 6759 standard states that even in the event of the release mechanism failing, the valve must attain its certified discharge capacity within 115% of the set pressure. Supplementary loaded safety valves tend only to be used where any leakage of the fluid below set pressure is unacceptable, or on very high pressure systems where maintaining a tight shut-off is otherwise difficult.

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Fig. 9.6.2 Typical supplementary loaded safety valves Controlled safety pressure relief systems (CSPRS) - These are electric or electropneumatic systems, which are not self-acting. When an overpressure situation is detected, a control device acts to correct the situation.

Non-reclosing pressure relief devices

Non-reclosing devices are those which are designed to remain open after operation. A manual means of resetting is usually provided.

Bursting or rupture discs - This consists of an elastomeric membrane or thin metal disk that will burst at a set pressure, relieving any overpressure. Although they can be used by themselves, on many applications, they are used in conjunction with a safety valve. A rupture disc can be installed either on the inlet or outlet side of the safety valve. If installed on the inlet, it isolates the contained media from the safety valve. When there is an overpressure situation; the rupture disc bursts allowing the fluid to flow into the safety valve, which will then subsequently lift. This arrangement is used to protect the internals of the safety valve from corrosive fluids. Alternatively, if the safety valve discharges into a manifold containing corrosive media, a rupture disc can be installed on the safety valve outlet, preventing any of the fluid from the manifold contacting the internals of the safety valve in normal use. Rupture discs can also be installed alongside a safety valve as a secondary relief device. Rupture discs are leak tight and low cost, but they require replacing after each operation. Most rupture disc installations contain a mechanism to indicate when the disc has ruptured and that it needs to be replaced. Typically, a pressure gauge is used (see Figure 9.6.3b). Explosion panels or explosion rupture discs are similar to rupture discs but are designed for use at higher rates of pressure rise, and for larger capacities.

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Fusible plug devices - These consist of a plug with a lower melting point than the maximum operating temperature of the system that it is to protect. In old steam locomotives, this type of device was used to dump the boiler water onto the fire if overtemperature occurred.

Fig. 9.6.3 A rupture/bursting disc device (a) and a rupture disk installed on the inlet of a safety valve (b)

Fig. 9.6.4 An example of a fusible plug device Breaking or shear pin devices - A breaking pin device is a non-reclosing pressure relief device actuated by inlet static pressure and designed to function by the breakage of a load carrying section of a pin, which supports a pressure-containing member. The force of overpressure forces the pin to buckle and the valve to open. The valve can then be reseated after the pressure is removed and a new pin can be installed. These devices are usually installed on low-pressure applications and large gas distribution systems. They have limited process applications.

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Solenoid valve
A solenoid valve is an electromechanical valve for use with liquid or gas controlled by running or stopping an electrical current through a solenoid, which is a coil of wire, thus changing the state of the valve. The operation of a solenoid valve is similar to that of a light switch, but typically controls the flow of air or water, whereas a light switch typically controls the flow of electricity. Solenoid valves may have two or more ports: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold How they work A solenoid valve has two main parts: the solenoid and the valve. The solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical energy which, in turn, opens or closes the valve mechanically. Solenoid valves may use metal seals or rubber seals, and may also have electrical interfaces to allow for easy control. A spring may be used to hold the valve opened or closed while the valve is not activated.

A-Input side B-Diaphragm C-Pressure chamber D-Pressure relief conduit E-Solenoid F- Output side

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In some solenoid valves the solenoid provides the full power for the operation of the main valve while there is a certain type where the solenoid, using very little power, controls a secondary pilot valve and it is the pressure of the fluid itself which provides the power for the actuation of the main valve. These types of valves are commonly used in washing machines, gardening and similar uses. The diagram to the right shows the design of one such valve. If we look at the top figure we can see the valve in its closed state. The water under pressure enters at A. B is an elastic diaphragm and above it is a weak spring pushing it down. The function of this spring is irrelevant for now as the valve would stay closed even without it. The diaphragm has a pinhole through its center which allows a very small amount of water to flow through it. This water fills the cavity C on the other side of the diaphragm so that pressure is equal on both sides of the diaphragm. While the pressure is the same on both sides of the diaphragm, the force is greater on the upper side which forces the valve shut against the incoming pressure. By looking at the figure we can see the surface being acted upon is greater on the upper side which results in greater force. On the upper side the pressure is acting on the entire surface of the diaphragm while on the lower side it is only acting on the incoming pipe. This results in the valve being securely shut to any flow and, the greater the input pressure, the greater the shutting force will be. Now let us turn our attention to the small conduit D. Until now it was blocked by a pin which is the armature of the solenoid E and which is pushed down by a spring. If we now activate the solenoid, the water in chamber C will flow through this conduit D to the output side of the valve. The pressure in chamber C will drop and the incoming pressure will lift the diaphragm thus opening the main valve. Water now flows directly from A to F. When the solenoid is again deactivated and the conduit D is closed again, the spring needs very little force to push the diaphragm down again and the main valve closes. From this explanation it can be seen that this type of valve relies on a differential of pressure between input and output as the pressure at the input must always be greater than the pressure at the output for it to work. Should the pressure at the output, for any reason, rise above that of the input then the valve would open regardless of the state of the solenoid and pilot valve. The thermostatically controlled gas valve in a water heater is generally of this type. The tiny solenoid is controlled by the weak current provided by a thermocouple which gets its energy from the heat in the water. This obviates the need for any external power source for the solenoid or the valve. This type of valve is also used in household washing machines, dishwashers, garden automatic watering systems and other similar uses. A common use for 2 way solenoid valves is in central heating. The solenoid valves are controlled by an electrical signal from the thermostat to regulate the flow of heated water from a heat pump to the in room radiators. Such valves are particularly useful when multiple heating zones are driven by a single heat pump. Commercially available solenoid valves for this purpose are often referred to as Zone valves. Solenoid valves are also used in industry to control the flow of all sorts of fluids.

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Solenoid

Magnetic field created by a solenoid A solenoid is a 3-dimensional shape where a coil is wrapped around a central object. In physics, the term solenoid refers to a loop of wire, often wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a magnetic field when an electrical current is passed through it. Solenoids are important because they can create controlled magnetic fields and can be used as electromagnets. The term solenoid refers specifically to a magnet designed to produce a uniform magnetic field in a volume of space (where some experiment might be carried out). In engineering, the term solenoid may also refer to a variety of transducer devices that convert energy into linear motion. The term is also often used to refer to a solenoid valve, which is an integrated device containing an electromechanical solenoid which actuates either a pneumatic or hydraulic valve, or a solenoid switch, which is a specific type of relay that internally uses an electromechanical solenoid to operate an electrical switch; for example, an automobile starter solenoid, or a linear solenoid, which is an electromechanical solenoid. Electromechanical solenoids Electromechanical solenoids consist of an electromagnetically inductive coil, wound around a movable steel or iron slug (termed the armature). The coil is shaped such that the armature can be moved in and out of the center, altering the coil's inductance and thereby becoming an electromagnet. The armature is used to provide a mechanical force to some mechanism (such as controlling a pneumatic valve). Although typically weak over anything but very short distances, solenoids may be controlled directly by a controller circuit, and thus have very low reaction times. The force applied to the armature is proportional to the change in inductance of the coil with respect to the change in position of the armature, and the current flowing through the coil. The force applied to the armature will always move the armature in a direction that increases the coil's inductance. The magnetic field inside a solenoid is given by: B = 0NI = 0I(n / l) where henries per metre, N is the number of turns per metre, and I is the current in amperes. Alternatively, n is the number of turns and l is the length of the solenoid in metres. See Electromagnet. Electromechanical solenoids are commonly seen in electronic paintball markers, and dot matrix printers. Derivation of magnetic field around a long solenoid 70

This is a derivation of the magnetic field around a solenoid, that is long enough so that fringe effects can be ignored.

A solenoid with 3 Amprian loops In the diagram to the right, we immediately know that the field points in the positive z direction inside the solenoid, and in the negative z direction outside the solenoid. We see this by applying the right-hand rule for the field around a wire. If we wrap our right hand around a wire with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers show how the field behaves. Since we are dealing with a long solenoid, all of the components of the magnetic field not pointing upwards cancel out by symmetry. Outside, a similar cancellation occurs, and the field is only pointing downwards. Now consider loop "c". By Ampre's law, we know that the path integral of B around this loop is zero, since no current passes through it. We have shown above that the field is pointing upwards inside the solenoid, so the horizontal portions of loop "c" don't contribute anything to the integral. Thus the integral up side 1 is equal to the integral down side 2. Since we can arbitrarily change the dimensions of the loop and get the same result, the only physical explanation is that the integrands are actually equal, that is, the magnetic field inside the solenoid is constant. A similar argument can be applied to loop "a" to conclude that the field outside the solenoid is constant.

A solenoid with a looping magnetic field line An intuitive argument can be used to show that the field outside the solenoid is actually zero. Magnetic field lines only exist as loops, they cannot diverge from or converge to a point like electric field lines can. The magnetic field lines go up the inside of the solenoid, so they must go down the outside so that they can form a loop. However, the volume outside the solenoid is much greater than the volume inside, so the density of magnetic field lines outside is greatly reduced. Recall also that the field outside is constant. In order for the total number of field lines to be conserved, the field outside must go to zero as the solenoid gets longer.

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Now we can consider loop "b". Take the path integral of B around the loop, with the height of the loop set to L. The horizontal components vanish, and the field outside is zero, so Ampre's Law gives us: BL = 0NLI From which we get: B = 0NI Rotary Voice Coil This is a rotational version of a solenoid. Typically the fixed magnet is on the outside, and the coil part moves in an arc controlled by the current flow through the coils. Rotary voice coils are widely employed in devices such as disk drives. Pneumatic solenoid valves A pneumatic solenoid valve is a switch for routing air to any pneumatic device, usually an actuator of some kind. A solenoid consists of a balanced or easily moveable core, which channels the gas to the appropriate port, coupled to a small linear solenoid. The valve allows a small current applied to the solenoid to switch a large amount of high pressure gas, typically at around 100 psi (7 bar, 0.7 MPa, 0.7 MN/m). Pneumatic solenoids may have one, two, or three output ports, and the requisite number of vents. The valves are commonly used to control a piston or other linear actuator. The pneumatic solenoid is akin to a transistor, allowing a relatively small signal to control a large device. It is also the interface between electronic controllers and pneumatic systems. Hydraulic solenoid valves Hydraulic solenoid valves are in general similar to pneumatic solenoid valves except that they control the flow of hydraulic fluid (oil), often at around 3000 psi (210 bar, 21 MPa, 21 MN/m). Hydraulic machinery uses solenoids to control the flow of oil to rams or actuators to (for instance) bend sheets of titanium in aerospace manufacturing. Transmission solenoids control fluid flow through an automatic transmission and are typically installed in the transmission valve body. The basics of solenoid valves Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design. Besides the plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature actuators and rocker actuators are also used. Solenoids in fiction

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The use of the word solenoid (particularly in science fiction) could be grouped in with other terms such as conduit, socket, firewall, capacitor, wormhole and laser to lend some kind of scientific/engineering credibility from a layman's perspective. In the anime and manga series Neon Genesis Evangelion, one plot device was a "Super Solenoid Engine" (or S), a limitless power source. In Steven Spielberg's 2005 War of the Worlds movie, the alien tripods disable all flow of electric current in a wide area, thus rendering vehicles useless; the problem is fixed by replacing the solenoid. In Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda TV-Series, an Anti-Proton Solenoid Valve is used to control the flow of the anti-protons which are used to power the ship and propel it through space. In the Episode "The Vault of The Heavens" (3.18), Engineer Harper orders Trance to shut it, filling the Anti Proton tanks to capacity, then expelling it quickly, thereby accelerating the ship much more than normal.

Poppet valve
A poppet valve is a valve consisting of a hole, usually round or oval, and a tapered plug, usually a disk shape on the end of a shaft also called a valve stem. The shaft guides the plug portion by sliding through a valve guide. In most applications a pressure differential helps to seal the valve and in some applications also open it. Presta and Schrader valves used on tires are examples of poppet valves. The Presta valve has no spring and relies on a pressure differential for opening and closing while being inflated. Poppet valves are used in many industrial process from controlling the flow of rocket fuel to controlling the flow of milk.

Piston valve

Piston valve in a brass instrument. A piston valve is a device used to control the motion of a fluid along a tube or pipe by means of the linear motion of a piston within a chamber or cylinder. Examples of piston valves are: The valves used in the valve gear of many stationary steam engines and most steam locomotives. The valves used in many brass instruments.

Spud guns

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Piston valves are some of the most powerful available in spudgunning, with the ability to dump several litres of pressurised air in a few thousands of a second. This fast moving air is used to fire a projectile from the exhaust barrel. As the name suggests they are used to fire vegetables, such as potatoes; wood, to simulate hurricanes; and tshirts. They are used extensively in the film and special effects industry to simulate explosions in war films. Steam engines Piston valves were used by James Watt in his stationary steam engines, and in many of the engines that followed. In the 19th century, most steam locomotives used slide valves to control the flow of steam into and out of the cylinders. In the 20th century, slide valves were gradually superseded by piston valves, particularly in engines using superheated steam. There were two reasons for this: With piston valves, the steam passages can be made shorter. This reduces resistance to the flow of steam and improves efficiency It is difficult to lubricate slide valves adequately in the presence of superheated steam The usual locomotive valve gears, e.g. Stephenson valve gear, Walschaert valve gear, and Baker valve gear can be used with either slide valves or piston valves. Where poppet valves are used, a different gear, such as Caprotti valve gear is needed. Brass instruments Cylindrical piston valves are used to change the pitch in the playing of many brass instruments. Brass instruments can be grouped into four categories, according to the primary means used to change the pitch: Those using piston valves. These include most trumpets, all cornets and almost all tubas, and many others. Those using rotary valves. These include French horns and some specialist trumpets. Those using a slide, such as the trombone family. Those using keys, such as the serpent and the keyed bugle. There is some overlap between these categories. In addition to its three valves, the trumpet uses a small slide for pitch correction, while the tenorbass and bass trombone both use one or two rotary valves in addition to the slide. The superbone does not fit in to any of the above categories. Where piston (or rotary) valves are used, three is the normal minimum (as on a trumpet) and four is not uncommon. When a piston valve is opened ("pressed" and "pushed down"), each valve changes the pitch by diverting the air stream through additional tubing, thus lengthening the instrument and lowering the harmonic series on which the instrument is vibrating. The following list shows how each valve or combination of valves will affect the pitch from the fundamental. This is true of all brass instruments, however some alternative fingerings are necessary to provide accurate pitch using the fourth and subsequent valves in instruments which have them. 74

second valve - one half step first valve - one whole step first and second valves - one and a half steps. Also achievable by third valve alone but the note will usually be flat second and third valves - two whole steps first and third valves - a perfect fourth, or two and a half steps. Will be sharp unless some means of compensation is used. first, second, and third valves - a tritone, or three whole steps. Will be very sharp unless some means of compensation is used.

A fourth valve is sometimes found on more professional instruments, which creates a perfect fourth, or two and a half steps. Instruments such as the tuba, euphonium, and piccolo trumpet have this valve. Also, on rare instruments, there is a fifth valve, which creates a lower octave of the note, or six tones. These valves are found mostly on tubas and other low brass instruments. More valves than five is ultra rare, but they have been seen, such as on the six-valved cimbasso. The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the 19th century. The Stlzel valve (invented by Heinrich Stoelzel in 1814) was an early variety. In the mid 19th century the Vienna valve was an improved design. However most professional musicians preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves were mass manufactured in towards the end of the 19th century. Since the early decades of the 19th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments.

Pilot valve
A Pilot valve is a dead man's switch which requires a human operator to hold it in the mid-position and take some action if the operator takes off pressure or applies full pressure. Often (especially in heavy rail applications) this type of fail-safe braking is provided with one foot and one hand control to reduce driver fatigue by giving them the option to switch between the two.

Choke valve
A choke valve is a valve that lifts up and down a solid cylinder (called a "plug" or "stem") which is placed around or inside another cylinder which has holes or slots. The design of a choke valve means fluids flowing through the cage are coming from all sides and that the streams of flow (through the holes or slots) collide with each other at the center of the cage cylinder, thereby dissipating the energy of the fluid through "flow impingement". The main advantage of choke valves is that they can be designed to be totally linear in their flow rate.

Industrial Heavy duty industrial choke valves control the flow to a certain Flow Coefficient (Cv) determined by how far the valve is opened. They are regularly used in the oil industry

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and for highly erosive and corrosive purposes, they are often made of tungsten carbide or inconel. Automotive A choke valve is sometimes installed in the carburetor of internal combustion engines. Its purpose is to restrict the flow of air, thereby enriching the fuel-air mixture while starting the engine. Depending on engine design and application, the valve can be activated manually by the operator of the engine (via a lever or pull handle) or automatically by a temperature-sensitive mechanism called an autochoke. Choke valves are important for carbureted gasoline engines because small droplets of gasoline do not evaporate well within a cold engine. By restricting the flow of air into the throat of the carburetor, the choke valve raises the level of vacuum inside the throat, which causes a proportionally greater amount of fuel to be sucked out of the main jet and into the combustion chamber during cold-running operation. Once the engine is warm (from combustion), opening the choke valve restores the carburetor to normal operation, supplying fuel and air in the correct stoichiometric ratio for clean, efficient combustion. Chokes were nearly universal in automobiles until fuel injection replaced carburetion in the late 1980s. Choke valves are still extremely common in other internalcombustion applications, including most small portable engines, motorcycles, small prop-powered airplanes, and carbureted marine engines

Freeze plug
Freeze plug is a misnomer for core plug or expansion plug. Freeze plugs are a subset of the plugs on a car engine cylinder block or cylinder head. The traditional plug is a thin, domed, disc of metal which fits into a machined hole in the casting and is secured by striking or pressing the centre to expand the disc. A true Freeze Plug is an expansion plug located in the side of an engine block that is supposed to protect the block against freeze damage. Water expands when it turns to ice, and if the coolant doesn't have enough antifreeze protection it can freeze and crack the engine block. (The next sentence is utter bullshit) The freeze plugs (there are usually several) are supposed to pop out under such conditions to relieve the pressure on the block. The following paragraph is completely true. Most of the plugs to be found on an engine are actually to plug the holes where sand cores have been held. The sand cores are used in the casting process to form internal cavities in the engine block or cylinder head, for cooling water for example, and so should really be referred to as core plugs. Freeze/core plugs can often be a source of troublesome leaks as a result of internal cooling system corrosion. Ease of replacement depends on accessibility. In many cases the plug area will be difficult to reach and using a mallet to perform maintenance or replacement will be nearly impossible without special facilities. Expanding rubber plugs are available as replacements when access is a problem. A variety of block heater called a "freeze plug heater" can be installed, replacing the freeze plugs, to warm the engine before start up.

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Double check valve

A double check valve or double check assembly (DCA) is a backflow prevention device designed to protect water supplies from contamination. It consists of two check valves assembled in series usually with a ball valve or gate valve installed at each end for isolation and testing. Often, test cocks (very small ball valves) are in place to attach test equipment for evaluating whether the double check assembly is still functional. The double check valve assembly is suitable for prevention of back pressure and back siphonage, but is not suitable for high hazard applications. It is commonly used on lawn irrigation, fire sprinkler and combi-boiler systems.

Blast valve
A blast valve is used to protect a shelter, such as a fallout shelter or bunker, from the effects of sudden outside air pressure changes. A nuclear weapon creates a shock wave, which may produce sudden pressure changes of more than an atmosphere (about 14 pounds per square inch) even several miles or kilometers from the detonation point. After the shock wave passes, a sudden negative pressure follows. If such pressure waves enter a shelter, they will likely do substantial harm to occupants and equipment. A blast valve is placed in air intake/exhaust pipes, that remains open normally, but automatically closes when strong pressure is applied in either direction. A typical blast valve has entries of 6-12" diameter (150-300 mm), and a larger center section. Within the center section is a disk mounted on an axle, with weak springs that keep it centered, away from both entries. Pressure displaces the disk along the axle, until it plugs one entry or the other. After the blast, the springs return the disk to the center, re-opening the valve.

Actuator

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An actuator is a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. The actuator is usually a physical mechanism but also refers to an artificial agent intelligent agent. Examples and applications Examples include: Mechanics - motors, hydraulic pistons, etc. Human - Arms, hands, fingers, legs Mail transfer agent - Update software In engineering, actuators are a subdivision of transducers. They are devices which transform an input signal (mainly an electrical signal) into motion. Specific examples are Electrical motors, pneumatic actuators, hydraulic pistons, relays, comb drive, piezoelectric actuators, thermal bimorphs, Digital Micromirror Devices and electroactive polymers. Motors are mostly used when circular motions are needed, but can also be used for linear applications by transforming circular to linear motion with a bolt and screw transducer. On the other hand, some actuators are intrinsically linear, such as piezoelectric actuators. In virtual instrumentation actuators and sensors are the hardware complements of virtual instruments. Computer programs of virtual instruments use actuators to act upon real world objects.

Isolation Valves - Linear Movement

Isolation valves are used for diverting process media, facilitating maintenance, equipment removal and shutdown. The operation, application and construction of gate, globe, piston and diaphragm valves are studied in this tutorial. Isolation valves are a key component in any fluid system as they are used to stop the flow of fluid into a particular area of the system. They are also sometimes used to manually control the flow of the fluid. The European standard EN 736-1:1995 distinguishes between isolating, regulating and control valves as follows: Isolating valve - A valve intended for use only in the closed or fully open position. Regulating valve - A valve intended for use in any position between closed and fully open. Control valve - A power-operated device which changes the fluid flowrate in a process control system.

Isolation valves are used in a wide variety of different applications where on/off type control is required, these include: Diverting process media. Flow isolation to: Facilitate maintenance Allow the removal of equipment Allow the shut down of plant 78

A multitude of different types and designs of isolation valve have been developed in order to meet this range of applications and the diverse operating conditions in which they are used. Valves are commonly classified into two groups (see Table 12.1.1), according to the operating motion of the closure device (or obturator): Linear movement valves - The obturator moves in a straight line. Included in this category are gate valves, globe valves, diaphragm valves and pinch valves. These valves are covered in greater depth within this tutorial. Rotary movement valves - The obturator rotates about an axis at right angles to the direction of flow. Ball valves and butterfly valves are the two most important rotary valves associated with steam applications and are covered in greater depth in Tutorial 12.2, Isolation Valves - Rotary Movement.

Table 12.1.1 Obturator motion in the basic valve types

Linear movement valves

Linear movement valves have been developed from the early forms of sluice gates used to control the flow of water in irrigation channels. Since then, a large number of different designs and types have been developed for use in almost every type of flow application. Although linear movement valves are characterised by straight-line 79

obturator movement, the flow of the fluid may be at right angles to this movement (as in the case of gate valves), or in the same direction, as with globe valves. The main feature of the linear movement valve is that tight shut-off may be achieved by tightening down the obturator on a threaded stem.

Gate valves
Gate valves are probably the most common valves in use today due to their widespread use in domestic water systems, but it should be noted that their popularity in industry has declined in recent years. However, they are still used where an uninterrupted flow is required, because the gate fully retracts into the bonnet, creating a minimal pressure drop, when the valve is in an open position. Gate valves are specifically intended for use in isolation applications. A gate valve consists of four main components, the body, bonnet (or cover), gate and stem. A typical gate valve is shown in Figure 12.1.1.

Fig. 12.1.1 Typical wedge gate valve The gate, which slides between the seats, is lifted in a direction at right angles to the flow until clear of the flow path. The fact that the gate fully retracts into the bonnet ensures that the pressure drop across the valve is low. Gate valves are divided into a number of different classes, depending on the design of the gate and its seating faces.

Solidwedge gate valve

The gate is wedge shaped and it seats on corresponding faces in the valve body. The mechanical advantage of the activating thread, together with the wedge angle, enables

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adequate seating forces to be applied against the fluid pressure without excessive handwheel effort. The seat can sometimes be coated with PTFE to assist a high integrity shut-off. A typical solid wedge gate valve is shown in Figure 12.1.1. Flexible wedge gate valve Although there are several types of flexible wedge gate valves, they all make use of a flexible two-part disc, which is shaped like two wheels on a very short axle. The flexibility of the disc ensures tight seating over a wide range of temperatures and pressures. The most common type of flexible wedge gate valve used in steam applications is the parallel slide valve. The two plates that constitute the gate are held against the seat by a spring, encased between them. The fluid pressure moves the upstream disc off its seat, and the force is transferred onto the downstream disc, thereby ensuring a tight shut-off. The high degree of flexibility in the gate allows for expansion and contraction when subjected to temperature variations, making it suitable for use in steam systems. Globe valves Globe valves constitute a major class of linear movement valves; they have become more popular than gate valves as there is a wide variety of configurations available to suit most applications. The movement of fluid through the valve seat is longitudinal to the operating motion of the obturator; this means that for a valve in which the inlet and outlet are horizontally opposed, the fluid must follow a changing course. The main advantage of this arrangement is that a globe valve opens more rapidly than a gate valve as the disc only needs to move a small distance from its seat to allow full flow. This is an advantage when there is frequent operation of the valve. The disadvantage is that the fluid has to change course, increasing the resistance to flow and generating turbulence. This results in a higher pressure drop across a globe valve than a gate valve.

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Fig. 12.1.2 A conventional globe valve Globe valves are less likely to leak than gate valves, which means that they can be used for higher pressure or higher volume applications, for example in steam systems, or where fluid loss can be hazardous or costly. The increased cost of globe valves over gate valves is therefore offset by the additional safety they provide, and a reduced chance of fluid loss. The pressure of the fluid acting over the area of the disc generates an axial load on the stem. This makes closing the valve difficult, so much so, that it limits the size of a standard globe valve to DN250. On high differential pressure closed systems, balancing plugs can be used to overcome this effect, allowing valves with a nominal diameter of up to 500 mm to be used (Figure 12.1.3(a)). The balancing plug contains a pre-lifting plug that acts as a pilot valve. When the valve is opened, the pre-lifting plug opens first, allowing the medium to pass through it at a controlled rate (Figure 12.1.3(b)). This reduces the differential pressure across the valve, enabling the disc to be easily lifted off its seat (Figure 12.1.3(c)). To assist closing of the valve, isolation valves fitted with a balancing plug have to be fitted in reverse so that the top of the plug is acted on by the upstream pressure.

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Fig. 12.1.3 Schematic of a typical balancing plug valve Piston valves One of the main disadvantages of linear movement valves is the fact that their seats are prone to damage from dirt and wiredrawing, and therefore, depending on the application may require regular maintenance. Although these seats are replaceable in theory, it usually involves significant time and cost, and it is often more advantageous to replace the entire valve. To overcome this problem, piston valves have been developed. The piston valve is a variant of the conventional globe valve, with the traditional seat and cone replaced by a piston and lantern bush. The piston is connected to the valve stem and handwheel, and passes through two sealing rings that are separated by a lantern bush. When assembled, the two sets of sealing rings are compressed around the piston by the load exerted along the stem. The upper set of sealing rings acts as 83

conventional gland packing, and the lower set acts as the seat. Furthermore, the large sealing area between the piston and rings assures a high level of shut-off tightness. The piston valve is not designed for throttling duties and must be used in the fully open or closed positions. When the valve is fully opened, only the bottom face of the piston is exposed to the fluid as the rest of the body is protected by the upper sealing rings. This means that the sealing surfaces (the sides of the piston) are protected from erosion by the fluid flow.

Fig. 12.1.4 A piston valve If the valve requires maintenance, all the internals can be easily removed by undoing the cover nuts and withdrawing the piston. The rings and the lantern bush can then be removed using an extractor tool. This operation is simple and can be undertaken without having to remove the valve from the pipeline. In general, the piston should never have to be replaced, but the sealing rings may wear over a long period with frequent operation. Diaphragm valves Diaphragm valves constitute the third major type of linear movement valves. The stem of the valve is used to push down a flexible diaphragm, which in turn blocks the path of the fluid. There are two different classifications of diaphragm valve based on the geometry of the valve body:

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Weir type - A weir is cast into the body, and when closed, the diaphragm rests on the weir, restricting the flow (see Figure 12.1.5 (a)). Straight-through type - The bore runs laterally through the body and a wedge shaped diaphragm is used to make the closure (see Figure 12.1.5 (b)).

Fig. 12.1.5 The weir type (a) and straight-through type (b) diaphragm valves The main advantage of a diaphragm valve is the fact that the diaphragm isolates the moving parts of the valve from the process fluid. They are therefore suitable for handling aggressive fluids and for those containing suspended solids. In addition, as the bonnet assembly is not exposed to the fluid, it can be made from inexpensive materials such as cast iron, thereby reducing the overall cost. The development of new diaphragm materials enables diaphragms to be used on most fluids. Their application

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is however limited by the temperature that the diaphragm can withstand - typically less than 175C. Diaphragm valves are generally used on process fluid applications. Linear movement valve stem options Linear movement valves are available with a number of different stem arrangements: Rising/non-rising stems - If the stem is rising, it will move vertically upwards when the valve is opened, as opposed to only rotating, as with a non-rising stem. The rising stem indicates the degreee of valve opening, which in turn roughly reflects the amount of flow through the valve. Valves with rising stems do however require more space above the bonnet to accommodate the stem in the fully open position. The use of non-rising stems is recommended on gland packed valves, as they reduce the wear on the packing.

Fig. 12.1.6 Rising (a) and non-rising (b) stem valves Inside/outside stem screws - On a stem with an outside screw, the actuating threads on the stem are situated outside the valve body and are not exposed to the process fluid. As screw threads are particularly susceptible to corrosion, outside screws should always be used on fluids with corrosive or erosive properties. They are also beneficial where the valve is frequently exposed to large temperature variations, as the expansion and contraction of the stem may cause binding of the threads inside the body.

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Fig. 12.1.7 Outside (a) and inside (b) stem valves Stem sealing In order to prevent leakage of the process media from around the stem of a valve, a barrier must be placed between the fluid and the environment. Stem sealing is usually achieved by one of two methods, namely gland packing and bellows sealing. Gland packing consists of a polymeric material, typically PTFE, packed tightly between the stem and the bonnet of the valve, thereby preventing any process media escaping.

Fig. 12.1.8 Bellows sealed valve 87

In bellows sealed valves, a flexible metallic bellows is used. It is connected on one end to the stem and the other end is connected to the bonnet, effectively producing a barrier between the fluid and the environment. This bellows extends and contracts as the stem moves up and down. The bellows is so effective, it produces a 'zero emissions' seal. Fitted to the bellows is an anti-torsion device, which prevents the bellows from rotating with the stem. Such a device is essential, otherwise the repeated twisting of the bellows would lead to the failure of the seal. Although less costly than the bellows sealed valves, the gland packed valve does not produce such a tight seal as the bellows. If a gland packed valve is not used for a significant period, the gland packing can stiffen, and leakage will occur the next time the valve is used. The bellows sealed valve does not suffer from this problem. Furthermore, gland packed valves require regular re-packing of the gland, whereas a typical bellows requires no maintenance for over 10 000 cycles. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PUMPS
Pumps are used in flow transfer and control to move a material (liquid, gas, or colloids and slurries) from one area to another. Major product areas include cantilever, centrifugal, dosing diaphragm, dosing syringe, double diaphragm, gear (positive displacement), jet, lobe, metering, peristaltic, piston / plunger, rotary vane, screw, turbine, vacuum and waste pumps. Flow transfer and control sensors include a wide variety of flow controllers, switches, meters and detectors. They are designed to analyze flow quality, meter flow and transfer rates, or detect leaks of either liquids or gases. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Rupture disc
A rupture disk is a pressure relief device that protects a vessel or system from overpressurization. Rupture discs have a one-time-use membrane that fails at a fixed pressure, either positive or vacuum. The membrane is usually a thin metal foil, but nearly any material can be used to suit a particular application. Rupture discs provide fast response to an increase in system pressure but once the membrane has failed it will not reseal. Rupture discs are commonly used in aerospace, aviation, defense, nuclear and oilfield applications. They are often used as a backup device for a conventional safety valve; if the pressure increases and the safety valves fails to operate (or can't relieve enough pressure fast enough), the rupture disk will operate.

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Membrane
In medicine, microbiology, cellular physiology and biochemistry a membrane is a thin layer that separates various cellular structures or organs. It usually includes lipid bilayer reinforced by proteins and other macromolecules, and can refer to:

Basement membrane, the combination of the basal lamina and lamina reticularis or of two basal laminae Biological membrane o Cell membrane o Endomembrane system that divides the cell into organelles o Outer membrane or inner membrane of an organelle o S-layer, a cell membrane of bacteria Mucous membrane. Serous membrane and mesothelium that surround organs, including: o Peritoneum that lines the abdominal cavity o Pericardium that surrounds the heart o Pleura that surround the lungs o Periosteum, membrane that surrounds bone o The meninges that surround the brain: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and the pia mater Skin, part of the integumentary system

Membrane may also refer to: Artificial, semipermeable membranes which are used to separate species in a fluid on the basis of size, charge or other characteristics. Such membranes are employed in a range of applications from water and wastewater treatment (see reverse osmosis, diffuser (sewage), landfill liners, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration and microfiltration) to hydrogen fuel cells (see proton exchange membrane). (A rupture disc (also known as rupture disk or bursting disc), is a non-reclosing pressure relief device, which provides a leak-tight seal. If a vessel's internal pressure rises to a predetermined level, the rupture disc bursts, providing an instantaneous, unobstructed full relief, preventing overpressure disasters and damaged equipment. With Fike rupture discs protecting your vessels, you can vastly improve your record for safety, process safety and process continuity ... and reduce your costs! ) Temperature and Backpressure Considerations

Temperature
The rupture disk manufacturer uses both the specified burst pressure and the specified temperature when designing and stamping the disk. (In this instance, I use the term design to mean arriving at the correct burst pressure, not mechanical integrity). However, it is more than likely that the temperature of the rupture disk will not be at the specified temperature when it is called into service. Why is this so?

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The temperature most commonly specified is that of the relieving fluid coincident with the burst pressure, i.e. relieving conditions. Sounds logical, but remember that the disk is continuously exposed to the process stream for hours, days, weeks or even months before it may ever be needed. Or, the disk may be exposed to ambient conditions. Therefore, expect the disk temperature to be approximately equal to its environment during normal operation of the system. When a process upset occurs, system pressure rises until it reaches relief (burst). The temperature of the relieving fluid also rises per thermodynamics. However, the time interval between normal system operation and relief is usually so small that the rupture disks temperature hardly has time to come to equilibrium with the higher process fluid temperature. Therefore the disk can actually be colder than its specified temperature. The affects? In general, burst pressure varies inversely with temperature. For some rupture disks, the burst pressure can be as much as 15psi greater than stamped if the actual temperature is 100oF lower than specified, e.g. a disk specified with a burst pressure of 350 psig at a temperature of 400oF will actually burst at 365 psig if its temperature is only 300oF4. This doesnt sound like a big difference but if 350 psig were the design pressure (or MAWP) of the vessel, then a burst pressure of 365 psig would be in violation of code (LAW). The opposite is also true. A disk at a temperature hotter than specified when called into service will burst at a pressure lower than stamped. Although this is considered to be the more conservative approach because code cant be violated and there is no risk of catastrophic failure of the vessel, specifying too low of a temperature can lead to the not so desirable action of premature bursting. The bottom line is that the specified burst temperature must be carefully considered. Specify the lowest temperature at the time the disk is expected to burst. Consider that this might be the normal process operating temperature or even ambient rather than the calculated relieving temperature. Note that different materials and different types of rupture disks have different sensitivities to temperature. This is an excellent topic of discussion for your rupture disk manufacturer!

Backpressure
A rupture disk is actually a differential pressure device where the specified burst pressure is equal to the difference between the desired upstream pressure (vessel) at the time of rupture disk burst and the downstream pressure (backpressure): Pburst = Pvessel - Pbackpressure Or alternately the desired upstream pressure (vessel) at the time of rupture disk burst is equal to the sum of the specified burst pressure and the downstream pressure (backpressure): Pvessel = Pburst + Pbackpressure Either way, it is apparent that the vessel pressure at the time the rupture disk bursts (commonly called the relief pressure) is directly dependent on backpressure.

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When discussing relief systems, three types of backpressure are considered, these being constant, built-up and superimposed.

Figure 1A: Single Vessel, Single Rupture Disk Protection, Expected Constant Back pressure = 0 psig Figure 1A shows a system comprised of a single vessel protected by a single rupture disk with a specified burst pressure of 100 psig. The relief pipe discharges a few inches below the liquid surface in a knockout drum, which is held at a constant 0-psig pressure. Therefore, the rupture disk sees a constant (fixed) backpressure of 0 psig. If the vessel were to go into relief, this disk will burst at 100 psig and the vessel relief pressure will be 100 psig (100 + 0 = 100).

Figure 1B: Single Vessel, Single Rupture Disk Protection, Actual Constant Back pressure > Expected Figure 1B is the same system however for some reason the pressure in the knockout drum is to be maintained at 5 psig instead of 0 psig. The constant (fixed) backpressure against the rupture disk is now 5 psig. If the vessel were to go into relief, the rupture disk would still burst at 100 psig but the vessel relief pressure would now be 105 psig (100 + 5 = 105) rather than the 100 psig expected. This situation could result in a violation of code3.

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Figure 1C: Single Vessel, Single Rupture Disk Protection, Actual Constant Back pressure < Expected Figure 1C is again the system however for some reason the pressure in the knockout drum is to be maintained at -5 psig instead of 0 psig. The constant (fixed) backpressure against the rupture disk is now -5 psig. If the vessel were to go into relief, the rupture disk would still burst at 100 psig but the vessel relief pressure would now be only 95 psig (100 + (- 5) = 95) rather than the 100 psig expected. There is no particular safety concern here because the vessel cant over pressure. However, the Operating Ratio is affected, which can result in a very premature bursting of the rupture disk. For the vessel relief pressure to be specified correctly, the rupture disk vendor must be told the constant backpressure so that the rupture disk can be designed accordingly. And, if you truly want the vessel relief pressure to be at a specific value then the constant backpressure given to the vendor must be maintained at all times. The key point is that during design, be aware of the constant backpressure and ensure that the vessel relief pressure will not violate code or affect normal operation.

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Figure 2A: Two Vessel System - Common Discharge Built-up and Superimposed Back pressures Now lets look at the system shown in Figure 2A. A second vessel with a single rupture disk also specified to burst at 100 psig is added in close proximity to the first vessel. The relief piping from the two vessels is tied into a common header before discharging into a knockout drum in the same manner as before, the tie-in occurs near the vessels. At the exact moment Vessel No. 2 goes into relief and its rupture disk bursts, Vessel No. 2s relief pressure is 100 psig due to the constant 0-psig backpressure as described above. After the disk bursts, flow is established causing pressure to build up in the piping system (built-up backpressure). The amount of builtup backpressure is dependent on the system pressure drop and possibly even the phenomenon of choked flow. For the purpose of this discussion, assume total built-up backpressure is 10 psig after rupture disk No. 2 bursts and the pressure in Vessel No. 2 is about 110 psig. Because of the proximity of the two discharge pipes and vessels, the pressure near vessel No. 1 will also be at about 110 psig. This pressure, which is exerted or imposed onto rupture disk No. 1, is called the superimposed backpressure with respect to rupture disk No. 1. If vessel No. 1 were to go into relief shortly afterwards, then for rupture disk No. 1 to burst, the pressure in vessel No. 1 would have to build to about 210 psig (100 + 110)! This is clearly unacceptable!!

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One solution to this potentially catastrophic condition is to separate the two relief lines so that one cannot directly affect the other (see Figure 2B below). Of course the answer may very well be that this is not an application for rupture disks but for relief valves! The key point is, avoid combining multiple rupture disk piping into a common relief header.

Figure 2A: Two Vessel System - Common Discharge Built-up and Superimposed Back pressures Note that built-up backpressure is variable and depends on the relieving rate, which is a function of the relieving scenario. Also, built-up backpressure has no affect on the vessels relief pressure for systems such as those shown in Figure 1 above. Built-up backpressure is the result of fluid flow only and there is no fluid flow before the rupture disk bursts. Therefore, along with the Manufacturing Range (MR), Operating Ratio (OR) and Burst Tolerance (BT) that were discussed in Part 3, the process design engineer must also strongly consider the backpressure (especially superimposed backpressure) when specifying the rupture disk. In Summary 94

Generally, burst pressure varies inversely with temperature so the specified burst temperature must be carefully considered. - Specify the lowest temperature at the time the disk is expected to burst. - Different materials and different types of rupture disks have different sensitivities to temperature effects.

The rupture disk is a differential pressure device. - The specified burst pressure is a value equal to the vessel relief pressure minus the backpressure. Or - The vessel relief pressure equals the specified burst pressure plus the backpressure.

There are three types of backpressure to consider, these being constant, builtup and superimposed. - Constant backpressure is the pressure in the system that does not vary. It is generally a predictable component of the superimposed backpressure. - Built-up backpressure is the pressure created in the system as a result of fluid flow. It is a varying component of the superimposed backpressure. - Superimposed backpressure is the total pressure exerted (imposed) on the rupture disk by other sources. It is a variable that directly increases or decreases a vessels relief pressure. It can also interfere with the expected operating ratio of the disk.

Do not pipe multiple vessel relief systems into a common header; keep the piping separate. However, the individual piping may go to a common disposal system. Along with the Manufacturing Range (MR), Operating Ratio (OR) and Burst Tolerance (BT), the process design engineer must also consider backpressure when specifying the rupture disk.

As the title of this column implies, I intend to present various topics related to Process Engineering Design based on my knowledge and experiences. I will convey what approaches I think you should be taking. I will stress "the correct way" so dont expect short cuts and rules of thumbs. Notice, I use the word "I" a lot. These will be my thoughts, my ideas. I will present facts and in instances, my interpretation of the facts. I might even editorialize. This inaugural column starts a series on Relief Valves.

Relief Valve Set Pressure

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The Problem In the May 2000 issue of Chemical Engineering Progress1 (CEP), there was an article entitled "Ease Relief System Design and Documentation". While I'm not intending to discuss the article in whole, the author stated something that appeared to get one reader's attention. The author wrote, "If you want to reduce the size of a relief device for cost savings, then design it at a higher set pressure; however, the MAWP of the weakest link should not be ignored." This statement prompted a "Letters to the Editor" in the October 200 issue of CEP 2 (no, it wasn't me) where a reader wrote, "This is not true; for a certain MAWP, the capacity of the relief device is not a function of its set point, but of MAWP alone. For example, for a MAWP of 100 psig, the relief valve capacity will be same whether it is set at 80 psig or 100 psig. In both cases, the maximum relieving pressure for the ASME non-fire case (or BS 5500 fire case) is 124.7 psia and the discharge capacity will remain identical. The only difference is that if the set point is 80 psig, the allowable overpressure will be 37.5%, while, at the same for a set point of 100 psig, it will be 10%. For the ASME fire case, the values will be 51.25% and 21% respectively. These are defined very clearly in API 520, Tables 2 to 6." I'm seeing that people do not quite understand what API 520 3 and the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 14, are really saying. (For those not familiar with API and ASME, ASME, or the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, is the organization that sets the codes in the United States that determine how pressure vessels are to be designed and protected. These codes are law and must be followed. The American Petroleum Institute, or API, sets the standards by which the codes are followed. API publishes the Recommended Practices 520 and 521, among others.)

MAWP and Design Pressure

In paragraph 1.2.3.2 (b), API 520 defines maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) as " the maximum gauge pressure permissible at the top of a completed vessel in its normal operating position at the designated coincident temperature specified for that pressure." The operative word here is "completed". The vessel is completed when a fabricator, according to the code laid down by ASME, has designed it. The vessel's fabricator, not the Process Engineer, determines MAWP. (Some may try to stretch my definition of "completed" to mean that the vessel is also erected in place. Not quite because the certified vessel drawings, which are delivered way before the vessel is, contains this information). In the same paragraph, API 520 says that the MAWP is normally greater than design pressure. The Process Engineer usually sets the design pressure at the time the vessel specification is being written. The design pressure is the value obtained after adding 96

a margin to the most severe pressure expected during normal operation at a coincident temperature. Depending upon the company the engineer works for, this margin is typically the maximum of 25 psig or 10%. The vessel specification sheet contains the design pressure, along with the design temperature, size, normal operating conditions and material of construction among others. It is this document that will eventually end up in a fabricator's lap and from which the mechanical design is made.

Relief Valve Set Pressure

Unfortunately, project schedules may require that relief valve sizing be carried out way before the fabricator has finished the mechanical design and certified the MAWP. The Process Engineer must use some pressure on which to base the relieving rate calculations. In paragraph 1.2.3.2 (c), API 520 states that the design pressure may be used in place of the MAWP in all cases where the MAWP has not been established. Guess what pressure the Process Engineer usually sets relief valves at? There are even times when the relief valve must be set even lower than design pressure. For example, a high design pressure may be desirable for mechanical integrity but a PSV set at the design pressure may end up with a coincidental temperature that would require the use of exotic materials of construction or that promotes decomposition and/or run-away reaction. So, Why the Confusion? The confusion faced by the reader who wrote the "Letters to the Editor", and probably many others, is due to a number of reasons. First and I think foremost, is the way ASME does not relate the maximum allowable pressure limits to relief valve capacity. ASME, Section VIII, Division 1, refers to MAWP throughout the entire document when talking about relief valve set pressure and allowable overpressure. I believe the reader may have been referring to and interpreting what is stated in paragraph UG-125 of ASME Section VIII, Division 1. It states in part, "All pressure vessels other than unfired steam boilers shall be protected by a pressure relief device that shall prevent the pressure from rising more than 10% or 3psi, whichever is greater, above the maximum allowable working pressure except as permitted in (1) and (2) below." Sub-paragraphs (1) and (2) mention cases where the pressure rise may be higher. However, when ASME talks about certifying the capacity of a relief device, MAWP is never mentioned. ASME Section VIII, Division 1 clearly states in Paragraph UG131 (c)(1) that "Capacity certification tests shall be conducted at a pressure which does not exceed the pressure for which the pressure relief valve is set to operate by more than 10% or 3psi, whichever is greater, except as provided in (c)(2)..." Sub-paragraph (c)(2) covers a fire case. Again, capacity certification is based only on the set pressure of the relief valve and is unrelated to MAWP, unless of course the set pressure is MAWP. Another area of confusion might involve the definition of capacity and how the term is used in ASME and API. Relieving rates are determined from "what can go wrong" scenarios and if allowed to go unchecked, would overpressure the vessel. Once the

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Process Engineer determines the controlling relieving rate from all the scenarios, the required relief valve orifice size is determined using the appropriate equation given in API. Once the required relief valve orifice size is calculated, an actual orifice size equal to or greater than the calculated orifice size is chosen from a selection available from a particular manufacturer. The maximum flow through this actual valve will be the valves capacity. Conclusion The problem and solution can be summarized as follows: MISINTERPRETATION OF Capacity based on MAWP + Overpressure CODE Allowable

CODE AS WRITTEN Capacity based on Set Pressure + Allowable Overpressure Code clearly requires that the relief valves capacity be based solely on set pressure and not on the vessels maximum allowable working pressure. Indeed, as shown above, if the relief valves capacity was based on MAWP, then code might even force the Process Engineer into an unsafe design. A good analogy is highway speed limits. In the United Stated, many highway speed limits are set for 65 miles per hour. This does not mean a driver cannot travel slower and, under certain conditions for safety, it is almost a necessity that one does. If it is safe to do so and the protected vessel can be allowed to pressurize to a greater extent, the relief valve set pressure can be increased, thereby reducing the relief valves size and cost. Remember also that there is piping and possibly downstream equipment to "catch" and process the relieving fluid associated with the relief valve which may also benefit by this reduction. One way of accomplishing a reduction in relief valve size is by increasing the vessels design pressure. There is an economic trade off here as the vessels cost can increase above what you may save by reducing the size of the valve. Another approach to consider is increasing the relief valves set pressure right up to MAWP after receiving the certified vessel drawings. However, depending on project schedule, the cost savings may be offset by the high costs associated with late design changes. Final Say I welcome and encourage your feedback. Feel free to E-Mail me at the Internet address below. All correspondences that include a name will be published in this column. Better yet, I encourage discussion of any topic I cover utilizing The Chemical Engineers' Resource Message Board. This will enable the entire Internet community to join and learn. Problem: This is a real story. A rupture disk manufacturer presented a seminar to a group consisting of junior and more senior level process design engineers (yours truly included) with a few instrument engineers thrown in. After about an hour of hearing

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terms such as bursting pressure, tolerance, manufacturing range, etc., and discussions on the mechanical aspects that differentiate the various types of rupture disks, the seminar ended with many of those attending just shaking their heads. Most of the attendees just wanted to learn how to specify this item so the instrument engineer can buy one or the manufacturer can tell you what is needed. I eventually put together a seminar on rupture disks for process design engineers that went over very well. This series of articles is taken from that seminar. Part 1 covers the whys and when to use a rupture disk. Part 2 (next month) covers how to size the rupture disk. Subsequent parts will include how to set the burst pressure, the Relief Valve/Rupture Disk combination, how to specify the device and some discussion on the type of rupture disks you can purchase.

Before I begin, let me point out that most of what is included in this series of articles can be found in API RP520 1 and API RP5212, and ASME Section VIII, Division 1 3. Much of what is found in these documents can also be found in vendor literature. Part 1: Why and when to use rupture disks. Why do we use a stand-alone rupture disk? A rupture disk is just another pressure relieving device. It is used for the same purpose as a relief valve, to protect a vessel or system from overpressure that can cause catastrophic failure and even a death. When do we use a stand-alone rupture disk? Some of the more common reasons are listed below. You may think of others.

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1. Capital and Maintenance Savings: Rupture disks cost less than relief valves. They generally require little to no maintenance. 2. Contents will be lost, but who cares? A rupture disk is a nonreclosing device, which means once it opens, it doesnt close. Whatever is in the system will get out and continue to do so until stopped by some form of intervention. If loss of contents is not an issue, then a rupture disk may be the relief device of choice. 3. Benign service: It is preferable that the relieving contents be non-toxic, nonhazardous, etc. However, this is not a requirement when deciding to use, or not use, a stand-alone rupture disk.

4. Rupture disks are extremely fast acting: Rupture disks should be considered first when there is a potential for runaway reactions. In this application, relief valves will not react fast enough to prevent a catastrophic failure. A relief valve may still be installed on the vessel to protect against other relieving scenarios. Some engineers prefer to use rupture disks for heat exchanger tube rupture scenarios rather than relief valves. They are concerned that relief valves wont respond fast enough to pressure spikes that may be experienced if gas/vapor is the driving force or liquid flashing occurs. 5. The system contents can plug the relief valve during relief : There are some liquids that may actually freeze when undergoing rapid depressurization. This may cause blockage within a relief valve that would render it useless. Also, if the vessel contains solids, there is a danger of the relief valve plugging during relief. 6. High viscosity liquids. If the system is filled with highly viscous liquids such as polymers, the rupture disk Should seriously be considered as the preferable relieving device. Flow through a relief valve will be very difficult to calculate accurately. Also, very viscous fluid may not relieve fast enough through a relief valve. Cost comparison between comparable stand-alone rupture disk and relief valve. Rupture disk manufacturers burst at least two disks per lot before shipping them to a customer. As a consequence even if you want just one rupture disk you will be buying three. Therefore, the first usable rupture disk is comparatively expensive. Also for new installations, each installed rupture disk must be purchased along with a holder.

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However, the same holder may be used for replacement purchases as long as you buy the exact same rupture disk from the same manufacturer. Below is a capital cost comparison between Continental Disc Corp. (www.contdisc.com) 3 Ultrx Hastelloy C rupture disks with holders and Farris Engineering (www.cwfc.com) 2600 series relief valves, based on a budget estimate in year 2001 dollars. Basis: Continental Disc Basis: Farris Engineering st 3 Ultrx Hast C Disc = $2,600 for 1 3 x 4 Hast C 26KA10-120 = $13,400 usable disk, then $870 each 3 Ultrx Hast C Holder = $3,300 ea. TOTAL for one pair = $5,900 TOTAL for three pair = $14,240 TOTAL for three = $40,200 This capital cost comparison will vary considerably with size and material of construction but you get the point. However please note that everything has a value and the loss of contents should be considered in the overall cost difference between a rupture disk and a relief valve. When do we use a rupture disk-relief valve combination?

Rupture disks are often used in combination with and installed just upstream and/or just downstream of a relief valve. You may want to choose the combination option if: 1. You need to ensure a positive seal of the system (the system contains a toxic substance and you are concerned that the relief valve may leak). Application: rupture disk installed upstream of the relief valve. 2. The system contains solids that may plug the relief valve over time. Remember, the relief valve is continuously exposed to the system. Application: rupture disk installed upstream of the relief valve. 3. TO SAVE MONEY! If the system is a corrosive environment, the rupture disk is specified with the more exotic and corrosion resistant material. It acts as the barrier between the corrosive system and the relief valve. Application: rupture disk installed either upstream and/or downstream of the relief valve.

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Below is a capital cost comparison between combination Hastelloy C rupture disks with stainless steel relief valves and three stand-alone Hastelloy C relief valves. Again, this is based on a budget estimate in year 2001 dollars using Continental Disc Corp. rupture disks and holders and Farris Engineering relief valves. Basis: Continental Disc 3 Ultrx Hast C Holder = $3,300 3 Ultrx Hast C Disc = $2,600 for 1st usable disk, then $870 each Basis: Farris Engineering 3 x 4 Hast C 26KA10-120 = $13,400 3 x 4 SS 26KA10-120 = $4,300

Combination of Hastelloy C Disc & SS Relief Valve

Single Installation Total = $10,200 Total for three installations = $27,140 Three stand-alone Hastelloy C relief valves = $40,200

Summary A stand-alone rupture disk is used when: 1. You are looking for capital and maintenance savings 2. You can afford to loose the system contents 3. The system contents are relatively benign 4. You need a pressure relief device that is fast acting 5. A relief valve is not suitable due to the nature of the system contents A rupture disk / relief valve combination is used when:

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1. You need to ensure a positive seal of the system 2. The system contains solids that may plug the relief valve over time TO SAVE MONEY! If the system is a corrosive environment, the rupture disk is specified with the more exotic and corrosion resistant material.

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Pressure

Pressure (symbol: p) is the force per unit area applied on a surface in a direction perpendicular to that surface. Mathematically:

where: p is the pressure F is the normal force A is the area. Pressure is a scalar, and has SI units of pascals, 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. Pressure is transmitted to solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of fluid normal to these boundaries or sections at every point. It is a fundamental parameter in thermodynamics and it is conjugate to volume. In physics, the normal force (or in some books N) is the component, perpendicular to the surface of contact, of the contact force exerted by, for example, the surface of a floor or wall, on an object, preventing the object from entering the floor or wall. In a static situation it is just enough to balance the force with which the object pushes, e.g. its weight on the floor, or a smaller force if somebody leans against a wall. If an object hits the surface with some speed, the normal force provides for a rapid deceleration, depending on how flexible the floor/wall is (and, of course, if it can provide enough force for braking instead of breaking). Also, if the object is soft, only the outer part needs to decelerate rapidly, the inner part can do that more gradually, while the layer in between is compressed. Note that the sign of the calculated value will be either positive or negative depending upon whether the positive y-axis is taken to be either positive or negative. In general, the magnitude of the normal force is the projection of the surface traction, T, in the normal direction, n, and so the normal force vector can be found by scaling the normal direction by that force. The surface traction, in turn, is equal to the dot product of the unit normal with the stress tensor describing the stress state of the surface. That is, 104

Or, in indicial notation,

Frictional force
The parallel shear component of the contact force is known as the frictional force ( ).

Example
In a simple case such as a 40 kg object resting upon a table, the normal force on the object is equal but in opposite direction to the gravitational force applied on the object i.e. the weight of the object. In this case the normal force is given by, 40 kg 9.81 m/s2=392.4 newtons where 9.81 m/s2 is equal to the acceleration due to gravity (near the Earth's surface).

Terminology
The following definitions are taken from DIN 3320 but it should be noted that many of the terms and associated definitions used are universal and appear in many other standards. Where commonly used terms are not defined in DIN 3320 then ASME / ANSI PTC25.3 has been used as the source of reference. This list is not exhaustive and is intended as a guide only; it should not be used in place of the relevant current issue standard: Operating pressure (working pressure) is the gauge pressure existing at normal operating conditions within the system to be protected. Set pressure is the gauge pressure at which under operating conditions direct loaded safety valves commence to lift. Test pressure is the gauge pressure at which under test stand conditions (atmospheric backpressure) direct loaded safety valves commence to lift. Opening pressure is the gauge pressure at which the lift is sufficient to discharge the predetermined flowing capacity. It is equal to the set pressure plus opening pressure difference. Reseating pressure is the gauge pressure at which the direct loaded safety valve is reclosed. Built-up backpressure is the gauge pressure built up at the outlet side by blowing. Superimposed backpressure is the gauge pressure on the outlet side of the closed valve. Backpressure is the gauge pressure built up on the outlet side during blowing (builtup backpressure + superimposed backpressure). Accumulation is the increase in pressure over the maximum allowable working gauge pressure of the system to be protected.

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Opening pressure difference is the pressure rise over the set pressure necessary for a lift suitable to permit the predetermined flowing capacity. Reseating pressure difference is the difference between set pressure and reseating pressure. Functional pressure difference is the sum of opening pressure difference and reseating pressure difference. Operating pressure difference is the pressure difference between set pressure and operating pressure. Lift is the travel of the disc away from the closed position. Commencement of lift (opening) is the first measurable movement of the disc or the perception of discharge noise. Flow area is the cross sectional area upstream or downstream of the body seat calculated from the minimum diameter which is used to calculate the flow capacity without any deduction for obstructions. Flow diameter is the minimum geometrical diameter upstream or downstream of the body seat. Nominal size designation of a safety valve is the nominal size of the inlet. Theoretical flowing capacity is the calculated mass flow from an orifice having a cross sectional area equal to the flow area of the safety valve without regard to flow losses of the valve. Actual flowing capacity is the flowing capacity determined by measurement. Certified flowing capacity is actual flowing capacity reduced by 10%. Coefficient of discharge is the ratio of actual to the theoretical discharge capacity. Certified coefficient of discharge is the coefficient of discharge reduced by 10% (also known as derated coefficient of discharge). The following terms are not defined in DIN 3320 and are taken from ASME / ANSI PTC25.3: Blowdown (reseating pressure difference) - difference between actual popping pressure and actual reseating pressure, usually expressed as a percentage of set pressure or in pressure units. Cold differential test pressure the pressure at which a valve is set on a test rig using a test fluid at ambient temperature. This test pressure includes corrections for service conditions e.g. backpressure or high temperatures. Flow rating pressure is the inlet static pressure at which the relieving capacity of a pressure relief device is measured. Leak test pressure is the specified inlet static pressure at which a quantitative seat leakage test is performed in accordance with a standard procedure. Measured relieving capacity is the relieving capacity of a pressure relief device measured at the flow rating pressure.

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Rated relieving capacity is that portion of the measured relieving capacity permitted by the applicable code or regulation to be used as a basis for the application of a pressure relieving device. Overpressure is a pressure increase over the set pressure of a pressure relief valve, usually expressed as a percentage of set pressure. Popping pressure is the value of increasing static inlet pressure of a pressure relief valve at which there is a measurable lift, or at which the discharge becomes continuous as determined by seeing, feeling or hearing. Relieving pressure is set pressure plus overpressure. Simmer is the pressure zone between the set pressure and popping pressure. Maximum operating pressure is the maximum pressure expected during system operation. Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) is the maximum gauge pressure permissible at the top of a completed vessel in its operating position for a designated temperature. Maximum allowable accumulated pressure (MAAP) is the maximum allowable working pressure plus the accumulation as established by reference to the applicable codes for operating or fire contingencies.

Pressure vessel
A pressure vessel is a closed, rigid container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure different from the ambient pressure. The end caps fitted to the cylindrical body are called heads. In addition to industrial compressed air receivers and domestic hot water storage tanks, other examples of pressure vessels are: diving cylinder, recompression chamber, distillation towers and many other vessels in oil refineries and petrochemical plants, nuclear reactor vessel, habitat of a space ship, habitat of a submarine, pneumatic reservoir, hydraulic reservoir under pressure, rail vehicle airbrake reservoir, road vehicle airbrake reservoir and storage vessels for liquified gases such as ammonia, chlorine, propane, butane and LPG. In the industrial sector, pressure vessels are designed to operate safely at a specific pressure and temperature, technically referred to as the "Design Pressure" and "Design Temperature". A vessel that is inadequately designed to handle a high pressure constitutes a very significant safety hazard. Because of that, the design and certification of pressure vessels is governed by design codes such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code in North America, the Pressure Equipment Directive of the EU (PED), Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS), CSA B51 in Canada, AS1210 in Australia and other international standards like Lloyd's, Germanischer Lloyd, Det Norske Veritas, Stoomwezen etc.

Shape of a pressure vessel

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Theoretically a sphere would be the optimal shape of a pressure vessel. Most pressure vessels are made of steel. To manufacture a spherical pressure vessel, forged parts would have to be welded together. Some mechanical properties of steel are increased by forging, but welding can sometimes reduce these desirable properties. In case of welding, in order to make the pressure vessel meet international safety standards, carefully selected steel with a high impact resistance should be used. Most pressure vessels are arranged from a pipe and two covers. Disadvantage of these vessels is the fact that larger diameters make them relatively more expensive, so that for example the most economic shape of a 1000 litres, 250 bar pressure vessel might be a diameter of 450 mm and a length of 6500 mm.

Scaling
No matter what shape it takes, the minimum mass of a pressure vessel scales with the pressure and volume it contains. For a sphere, the mass of a pressure vessel is

Where M is mass, p is pressure, V is volume, is the density of the pressure vessel material, and is the maximum working stress that material can tolerate. Other shapes besides a sphere have constants larger than 3/2, although some tanks, such as non-spherical wound composite tanks can approach this. As can be seen from the equation, there is no theoretical efficiency of scale to be had in a pressure vessel; and further, for storing gases, tankage efficiency can be easily shown to be independent of pressure. So, for example, a typical design for a minimum mass tank to hold helium (as a pressurant gas) on a rocket would use a spherical chamber for a minimum shape constant, carbon fiber for best possible / , and very cold helium for best possible M / pV. A spherical tank has less surface area for a given volume than any other tank shape. Also, the hoop stress in the wall of a sphere is half that of a cylinder at the same pressure. Thus if the walls are made of the same material, the spherical tank can hold twice the pressure of the cylindrical tank, or at the same pressure, the spherical tank wall can be half the thickness.

Stress in thin-walled pressure vessels

The stress in a thin-walled pressure vessel in the shape of a sphere is:

Where is the hoop stress, or stress in the radial direction, p is the internal gage pressure, r is the radius of the sphere, and t is the thickness. A vessel can be considered "thin-walled" if the radius is at least 20 times larger than the wall thickness. The stress in a thin-walled pressure vessel in the shape of a cylinder is:

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Where is the hoop stress, or stress in the radial direction, long is the stress in the longitudinal direction, p is the internal gage pressure, r is the radius of the cylinder, and t is the wall thickness.

Hydraulics

Hydraulics is a topic of science and engineering like cerale subject dealing with the mechanical properties of liquids. Hydraulics is part of the more general discipline of fluid power. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties. Hydraulic topics range through most science and engineering disciplines, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluid control circuitry, pumps, turbines, hydropower, computational fluid dynamics, flow measurement, river channel behavior and erosion. The word "hydraulics" originates from the Greek word (hydraulikos) which in turn originates from meaning water organ which in turn comes from (water) and (pipe).

Hydrostatic power transmission

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A hydrostatic power transmission system makes use of fluid under pressure to drive a mechanical load. In this sense, hydrostatic means that energy transfer is brought about by fluid flow and pressure, but not from the kinetic energy of the flow (the latter would be characteristic of a hydrodynamic drive, such as a fluid coupling or torque converter). A basic hydrostatic power transmission system consists of a positive displacement pump driven by the prime mover, a positive displacement hydraulic motor, interconnecting piping (which may be a combination of steel tubing, actual pipe and hoses), and a reservoir. Additional components, such as valves and filters, are often part of such a system, the former to provide control of the transmission system and the latter to protect precision machined parts from damage due to oil-borne contaminants. Motion is transmitted by the pump drawing oil from the reservoir, pumping it into the motor, with the discharge returning to the reservoir. The flow of oil causes the motor to rotate at a speed that is proportional to the pump speed. Any resistance to motor rotation will cause system pressure to rise due to the use of the positive displacement pump, which will translate as torque at the motor. The maximum torque that can be exerted by the motor is determined by the maximum pressure in the system, as well as the ratio between the displacement of the pump and the displacement of the motor, displacement being expressed in cubic inches or cubic centimeters per revolution. For example, a pump specified as displacing 10 cubic inches per revolution will (in theory) pump exactly 10 cubic inches of oil for each revolution (the actual output will be lower due to internal leakage in the pump). If said pump is mated with a motor that displaces 20 cubic inches per revolution, the drive ratio will be 2:1 and the motor will run at one half the speed of the pump, but develop approximately twice the torque applied to the pump. Hence hydrostatic power transmission behaves in a fashion similar to that of a purely mechanical equivalent of gears and shafts. Hydrostatic power transmission is widely used in industrial machinery and earthmoving equipment, and has found some application in transportation. A principle advantage of hydrostatic power transmission systems is the flexibility of pump and motor positioning within the equipment. Since the only connection between the pump and motor is through the piping, which can be routed in whatever fashion is convenient for the machine designer, hydrostatic motors can often be used to drive machinery placed in difficult to access areas. The main disadvantage of hydrostatic drive is its inefficiency relative to other power transmission systems. Most of the inefficiency is brought about by resistance to fluid flow through the piping and fittings. The resulting turbulence wastes some of the energy imparted to the fluid as heat.

Hydraulic Manifold
A hydraulic manifold is a component which regulates fluid flow between pumps and actuators and other components in a hydraulic system. It is like a switchboard in an electrical circuit because it lets the operator control how much fluid flows between which components of a hydraulic machinery. For example, in a backhoe loader a manifold turns on or shuts off or diverts flow to the telescopic arms of the front bucket and the back bucket. The manifold is connected to the levers in the operator's cabin which the operator uses to achieve the desired manifold behaviour.

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A manifold is composed of assorted hydraulic valves connected to each other. It is the various combinations of states of these valves that allow complex control behaviour in a manifold.

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Thermocouple
In electronics, thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor and can also be used as a means to convert thermal potential difference into electric potential difference. They are cheap and interchangeable, have standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is precision; system errors of less than 1 C can be difficult to achieve. 1 Principle of operation o 1.1 Voltage-Temperature Relationship 2 Different types 3 Applications o 3.1 Steel Industry o 3.2 Heating appliance safety o 3.3 Thermopile radiation sensors o 3.4 Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs)

Principle of operation
In 1821, the German-Estonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when any conductor (such as a metal) is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then also experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the metal in use. Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit will have a different voltage generated, leaving a small difference voltage available for measurement, which increases with temperature. This difference can typically be between 1 to about 70 microvolts per degree Celsius for the modern range of available metal combinations. Certain combinations have become popular as industry standards, driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties, stability, and output. It is important to note that thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two points, not absolute temperature.

In traditional applications, one of the junctions the cold junction was maintained at a known (reference) temperature, while the other end was attached to a probe. For example, in the image above, the cold junction will be at copper traces on the circuit board. Another temperature sensor will measure the temperature at this point, so that the temperature at the probe tip can be calculated.

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Thermocouples can be connected in series with each other to form a thermopile, where all the hot junctions are exposed to the higher temperature and all the cold junctions to a lower temperature. Thus, the voltages of the individual thermocouple add up, which allows for a larger voltage. Having available a known temperature cold junction, while useful for laboratory calibrations, is simply not convenient for most directly connected indicating and control instruments. They incorporate into their circuits an artificial cold junction using some other thermally sensitive device (such as a thermistor or diode) to measure the temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special care being taken to minimize any temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate correction applied. This is known as cold junction compensation. Additionally, cold junction compensation can be performed by software. Device voltages can be translated into temperatures by two methods. Values can either be found in look-up tables or approximated using polynomial coefficients. Usually the thermocouple is attached to the indicating device by a special wire known as the compensating or extension cable. The terms are specific. Extension cable uses wires of nominally the same conductors as used at the thermocouple itself. These cables are less costly than thermocouple wire, although not cheap, and are usually produced in a convenient form for carrying over long distances - typically as flexible insulated wiring or multicore cables. They are usually specified for accuracy over a more restricted temperature range than the thermocouple wires. They are recommended for best accuracy. Compensating cables on the other hand, are less precise, but cheaper. They use quite different, relatively low cost alloy conductor materials whose net thermoelectric coefficients are similar to those of the thermocouple in question (over a limited range of temperatures), but which do not match them quite as faithfully as extension cables. The combination develops similar outputs to those of the thermocouple, but the operating temperature range of the compensating cable is restricted to keep the mismatch errors acceptably small. The extension cable or compensating cable must be selected to match the thermocouple. It generates a voltage proportional to the difference between the hot junction and cold junction, and is connected in the correct polarity so that the additional voltage is added to the thermocouple voltage, compensating for the temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions.

Voltage-Temperature Relationship
The relationship between the temperature difference and the output voltage of a thermocouple is nonlinear and is given by a polynomial interpolation.

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The coefficients an are given for n from 0 to between 5 and 9. To achieve accurate measurements the equation is usually implemented in a digital controller or stored in a lookup table. Some older devices use analog filters.

Different types
A variety of thermocouples are available, suitable for different measuring applications (industrial, scientific, food temperature, medical research, etc.). Type K (Chromel (Ni-Cr alloy) / Alumel (Ni-Al alloy)) The "general purpose" thermocouple. It is low cost and, owing to its popularity, it is available in a wide variety of probes. They are available in the 200 C to +1200 C range. The type K was specified at a time when metallurgy was nowhere near as advanced as today and consequently characteristics vary considerably between examples. There is another problem in that one of the constituent metals is magnetic (Nickel). The characteristic of the thermocouple undergoes a step change when a magnetic material reaches its Curie point. This occurs for this thermocouple at 354C. Sensitivity is approximately 41 V/C. Type E (Chromel / Constantan (Cu-Ni alloy)) Type E has a high output (68 V/C) which makes it well suited to low temperature (cryogenic) use. Another property is that it is non-magnetic. Type J (Iron / Constantan) Limited range (40 to +750 C) makes type J less popular than type K. The main application is with old equipment that cannot accept modern thermocouples. J types cannot be used above 760 C as an abrupt magnetic transformation causes permanent decalibration. Type J's have a sensitivity of ~52 V/C Type N (Nicrosil (Ni-Cr-Si alloy) / Nisil (Ni-Si alloy)) High stability and resistance to high temperature oxidation makes type N suitable for high temperature measurements without the cost of platinum (B, R, S) types. They can withstand temperatures above 1200 C. Sensitivity is about 39 V/C at 900C, slightly lower than a Type K. Designed to be an improved type K, it is becoming more popular. Thermocouple types B, R, and S are all noble metal thermocouples and exhibit similar characteristics. They are the most stable of all thermocouples, but due to their low sensitivity (approximately 10 V/C) they are usually only used for high temperature measurement (>300 C). Type B (Platinum-Rhodium/Pt-30% Rh) Suited for high temperature measurements up to 1800 C. Unusually type B thermocouples (due to the shape of their temperature-voltage curve) give the same output at 0 C and 42 C. This makes them useless below 50 C. Type R (Platinum /Platinum with 13% Rhodium) Suited for high temperature measurements up to 1600 C. Low sensitivity (10 V/C) and high cost makes them unsuitable for general purpose use. Type S (Platinum /Platinum with 10% Rhodium) Suited for high temperature measurements up to 1600 C. Low sensitivity (10 V/C) and high cost makes them unsuitable for general purpose use. Due 114

to its high stability type S is used as the standard of calibration for the melting point of gold (1064.43 C). Type T (Copper / Constantan) Suited for measurements in the 200 to 350 C range. The positive conductor is made of copper, and the negative conductor is made of constantan. Often used as a differential measurement since only copper wire touches the probes. As both conductors are non-magnetic Type T thermocouples are a popular choice for applications such as Electrical Generators which contain strong magnetic fields. Type T thermocouples have a sensitivity of ~43 V/C Type C (Tungsten with 5% Rhenium / Tungsten with 26% Rhenium) Suited for measurements in the 32 to 4208F ((0 to 2320C). This thermocouple is well-suited for vacuum furnaces at extremely high temperatures and must never be used in the presence of oxygen at temperatures above 500F. Type M (aka. Ni-Ni Moly) The positive conductor is Nickel Alloy 19, the negative is NickelMolybdenum Alloy 20 (Nickel Alloy 19 vs. Nickel/Molybdenum (Alloy 20)]: This type is used in the vacuum furnaces as well for the same reasons as with type C above. Upper temperature is limited to 2500F (~1400C). Though it is a less common type of thermocouple, look-up tables to correlate temperature to EMF (milli-volt output) are available. Thermocouples are usually selected to ensure that the measuring equipment does not limit the range of temperatures that can be measured. Note that thermocouples with low sensitivity (B, R, and S) have a correspondingly lower resolution.

Applications
Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, up to 1800 K. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0100 C with 0.1 C accuracy. For such applications, thermistors and RTDs are more suitable.

Steel Industry
Type B, S, R and K thermocouples are used extensively in the steel and iron industry to monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process. Disposable, immersible, Type S thermocouples are regularly used in the electric arc furnace process to accurately measure the steel's temperature before tapping. The cooling curve of a small steel sample can be analyzed and used to estimate the carbon content of molten steel.

Heating appliance safety

Many gas-fed heating appliances like ovens and water heaters make use of a pilot light to ignite the main gas burner as required. If the pilot light becomes extinguished for any reason, there is the potential for un-combusted gas to be released into the surrounding area, thereby creating both risk of fire and a health hazard. To prevent such a danger, some appliances use a thermocouple as a fail-safe control to sense

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when the pilot light is burning. The tip of the thermocouple is placed in the pilot flame. The resultant voltage, typically around 20 mV, operates the gas supply valve responsible for feeding the pilot. So long as the pilot flame remains lit, the thermocouple remains hot and holds the pilot gas valve open. If the pilot light goes out, the temperature will fall along with a corresponding drop in electricity, removing power from the valve. The valve closes, shutting off the gas and halting this unsafe condition. Many systems (Millivolt control systems) extend this concept to the main gas valve as well. Not only does the electricity created by the pilot thermocouple activate the pilot gas valve, it is also routed through a thermostat to power the main gas valve as well. Here, a larger voltage is needed than in a pilot flame safety system described above, for which reason a thermopile is used rather than a single thermocouple. Such a system requires no external source of electricity for its operation and so can operate during a power failure, provided all the related system components allow for this. Note that this excludes common forced air furnaces because external power is required to operate the blower motor, but this feature is especially useful for unpowered convection heaters. A similar gas shut-off safety mechanism using a thermocouple is sometimes employed to ensure that the main burner ignites within a certain time period, shutting off the main burner gas supply valve should that not happen. Out of concern for wasted energy, many newer appliances have switched to an electronically controlled pilot-less ignition, also called intermittent ignition. This eliminates the need for a standing pilot flame but loses the benefit of any operation without a continuous source of electricity.

Thermopile radiation sensors

Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation, typically visible or infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold junctions are on a heat sink. It is possible to measure radiative intensities of only a few W/cm 2 with commercially available thermopile sensors. For example, laser power meters are based on such sensors.

Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs)

Thermopiles can also be applied to generate electricity in radioisotope thermoelectric generators.

Thermoelectric effect
The PeltierSeebeck effect, or thermoelectric effect, is the direct conversion of thermal differentials to electric voltage and vice versa. Related effects are the Thomson effect and Joule heating. The PeltierSeebeck and Thomson effects are reversible (in fact, the Peltier and Seebeck effects are reversals of one another); Joule heating cannot be reversible under the laws of thermodynamics.

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Seebeck effect
The Seebeck effect is the conversion of temperature differences directly into electricity. This effect was first discovered, accidentally, by the German-Estonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck in 1821, who found that a voltage existed between two ends of a metal bar when a temperature difference T existed in the bar. He also discovered that a compass needle would be deflected when a closed loop was formed of two metals with a temperature difference between the junctions. This is because the metals respond differently to the temperature difference, which creates a current loop, which produces a magnetic field. The effect is that a voltage, the thermoelectric EMF, is created in the presence of a temperature difference between two different metals or semiconductors. This causes a continuous current to flow in the conductors if they form a complete loop. The voltage created is of the order of several microvolts per degree difference. In the circuit:

(which can be in several different configurations and be governed by the same equations), the voltage developed can be derived from:

SA and SB are the Seebeck coefficients (also called thermoelectric power or thermopower) of the metals A and B, and T1 and T2 are the temperatures of the two junctions. The Seebeck coefficients are non-linear, and depend on the conductors' absolute temperature, material, and molecular structure. If the Seebeck coefficients are effectively constant for the measured temperature range, the above formula can be approximated as: Thus, a thermocouple works by measuring the difference in potential caused by the dissimilar wires. It can be used to measure a temperature difference directly, or to measure an absolute temperature, by setting one end to a known temperature. Several thermocouples in series are called a thermopile. This is also the principle at work behind thermal diodes and thermoelectric generators (such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators or RTGs) which are used for creating power from heat differentials. The Seebeck effect is due to two effects: charge carrier diffusion and phonon drag.

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Thermopower
The thermopower, or thermoelectric power, or Seebeck coefficient of a material is a measure of the magnitude of an induced thermoelectric voltage in response to a temperature difference across that material. The thermopower has units of (V / K). The term thermopower is a misnomer since it measures the voltage or electric field (not the electric power) induced in response to a temperature difference. An applied temperature difference causes charged carriers in the material, whether they are electrons or holes, to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side, similar to a classical gas that expands when heated. Mobile charged carriers migrating to the cold side leave behind their oppositely charged and immobile nuclei at the hot side thus giving rise to a thermoelectric voltage (thermoelectric refers to the fact that the voltage is created by a temperature difference). Since a separation of charges also creates an electric potential, the buildup of charged carriers onto the cold side eventually ceases at some maximum value since there exists an equal amount of charged carriers drifting back to the hot side as a result of the electric field at equilibrium. Only an increase in the temperature difference can resume a buildup of more charge carriers on the cold side and thus lead to an increase in the thermoelectric voltage. Incidentally the thermopower also measures the entropy per charge carrier in the material. The thermopower of a material, represented as S, depends on the material's temperature, and crystal structure. Typically metals have small thermopowers because most have half-filled bands. Electrons (negative charges) and holes (positive charges) both contribute to the induced thermoelectric voltage thus cancelling each other's contribution to that voltage and making it small. In contrast, semiconductors can be doped with an excess amount of electrons or holes and thus can have large positive or negative values of the thermopower depending on the charge of the excess carriers. The sign of the thermopower can determine which charged carriers dominate the electric transport in both metals and semiconductors. If the temperature difference T between the two ends of a material is small, then the thermopower of a material is defined as:

and a thermoelectric voltage V is seen at the terminals. This can also be written in relation to the electric field E and the temperature gradient , by the equation:

In practice one rarely measures the absolute thermopower of the material of interest. This is due to the fact that electrodes attached to a voltmeter must be placed onto the material in order to measure the thermoelectric voltage. The temperature gradient then also typically induces a thermoelectric voltage across one leg of the measurement electrodes. Therefore the measured thermopower is a contribution from the thermopower of the material of interest and the material of the measurement electrodes. This arrangement of two materials is usually called a thermocouple. The measured thermopower is then a contribution from both and can be written as:

Superconductors have zero thermopower since the charged carriers produce no entropy. This allows a direct measurement of the absolute thermopower of the

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material of interest, since it is the thermopower of the entire thermocouple as well. In addition, a measurement of the Thompson coefficient, , of a material can also yield the thermopower through the relation: The thermopower is an important material parameter that determines the efficiency of a thermoelectric material. A larger induced thermoelectric voltage for a given temperature gradient will lead to a larger efficiency. Ideally one would want very large thermopower values since only a small amount of heat is then necessary to create a large voltage. This voltage can then be used to provide power.

Charge carrier diffusion

Charge carriers in the materials (electrons in metals, electrons and holes in semiconductors, ions in ionic conductors) will diffuse when one end of a conductor is at a different temperature than the other. Hot carriers diffuse from the hot end to the cold end, since there is a lower density of hot carriers at the cold end of the conductor. Cold carriers diffuse from the cold end to the hot end for the same reason. If the conductor were left to reach thermodynamic equilibrium, this process would result in heat being distributed evenly throughout the conductor. The movement of heat (in the form of hot charge carriers) from one end to the other is called a heat current. As charge carriers are moving, it is also an electrical current. In a system where both ends are kept at a constant temperature relative to each other (a constant heat current flows from one end to the other), there is a constant diffusion of carriers. If the rate of diffusion of hot and cold carriers in opposite directions were equal, there would be no net change in charge. However, the diffusing charges are scattered by impurities, imperfections, and lattice vibrations (phonons). If the scattering is energy dependent, the hot and cold carriers will diffuse at different rates. This creates a higher density of carriers at one end of the material, and the distance between the positive and negative charges produces a potential difference; an electrostatic voltage. This electric field, however, opposes the uneven scattering of carriers, and an equilibrium is reached where the net number of carriers diffusing in one direction is canceled by the net number of carriers moving in the opposite direction from the electrostatic field. This means the thermopower of a material depends greatly on impurities, imperfections, and structural changes (which often vary themselves with temperature and electric field), and the thermopower of a material is a collection of many different effects. Typical thermoelectric devices are structured as alternating p-type and n-type semiconductor elements connected by metallic interconnects as pictured in the figures below. Current flows through the n-type element, crosses a metallic interconnect, and passes into the p-type element. If a power source is provided, the thermoelectric device may act as a cooler, as in the figure to the left below. Electrons in the n-type element will move opposite the direction of current flow and holes in the p-type element will move in the direction of current flow, both removing heat from one side of the device. If a heat source is provided, the thermoelectric device may function as a power generator, as in the figure to the right below. The heat source will drive electrons in the n-type element toward the cooler region, thus creating a current through the circuit. Holes in the p-type element will then flow in the direction of the current. The current can then be used to power a load, thus converting the thermal energy into electrical energy. 119

Phonon drag
Phonons are not always in local thermal equilibrium; they move along the thermal gradient. They lose momentum by interacting with electrons (or other carriers) and imperfections in the crystal. If the phonon-electron interaction is predominant, the phonons will tend to push the electrons to one end of the material, losing momentum in the process. This contributes to the already present thermoelectric field. This contribution is most important in the temperature region where phonon-electron scattering is predominant. This happens for

where D is the Debye temperature. At lower temperatures there are fewer phonons available for drag, and at higher temperatures they tend to lose momentum in phononphonon scattering instead of phonon-electron scattering. This region of the thermopower-versus-temperature function is highly variable under a magnetic field.

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Peltier effect
The Peltier effect is the reverse of the Seebeck effect; a creation of a heat difference from an electric voltage. It occurs when a current is passed through two dissimilar metals or semiconductors (n-type and p-type) that are connected to each other at two junctions (Peltier junctions). The current drives a transfer of heat from one junction to the other: one junction cools off while the other heats up; as a result, the effect is often used for thermoelectric cooling. This effect was observed in 1834 by Jean Peltier, 13 years after Seebeck's initial discovery.

When a current I is made to flow through the circuit, heat is evolved at the upper junction (at T2), and absorbed at the lower junction (at T1). The Peltier heat absorbed by the lower junction per unit time, is equal to

Where is the Peltier coefficient AB of the entire thermocouple, and A and B are the coefficients of each material. P-type silicon typically has a positive Peltier coefficient (though not above ~550 K), and n-type silicon is typically negative, as the names suggest. The Peltier coefficients represent how much heat current is carried per unit charge through a given material. Since charge current must be continuous across a junction, the associated heat flow will develop a discontinuity if A and B are different. This causes a non-zero divergence at the junction and so heat must accumulate or deplete there, depending on the sign of the current. Another way to understand how this effect could cool a junction is to note that when electrons flow from a region of high density to a region of low density, they expand (as with an ideal gas) and cool. The conductors are attempting to return to the electron equilibrium that existed before the current was applied by absorbing energy at one connector and releasing it at the other. The individual couples can be connected in series to enhance the effect. An interesting consequence of this effect is that the direction of heat transfer is controlled by the polarity of the current; reversing the polarity will change the direction of transfer and thus the sign of the heat absorbed/evolved. A Peltier cooler/heater or thermoelectric heat pump is a solid-state active heat pump which transfers heat from one side of the device to the other. Peltier coolers are also called thermo-electric coolers (TEC).

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Thomson effect
Thomson effect, named for William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), describes the heating or cooling of a current-carrying conductor with a temperature gradient. Any current-carrying conductor, with a temperature difference between two points, will either absorb or emit heat, depending on the material. If a current density J is passed through a homogeneous conductor, heat production per unit volume is where is the resistivity of the material dT/dx is the temperature gradient along the wire is the Thomson coefficient. The first term J is simply the Joule heating, which is not reversible. The second term is the Thomson heat, which changes sign when J changes direction. In metals such as zinc and copper, which have a hotter end at a higher potential and a cooler end at a lower potential, when current moves from the hotter end to the colder end, it is moving from a high to a low potential, so there is an evolution of energy. This is called the positive Thomson effect. In metals such as cobalt, nickel, and iron, which have a cooler end at a higher potential and a hotter end at a lower potential, when current moves from the hotter end to the colder end, it is moving from a low to a high potential, there is an absorption of energy. This is called the negative Thomson effect. In lead, there is zero Thomson effect.

The Thomson relationships

The Seebeck effect is actually a combination of the Peltier and Thomson effects. In fact, in 1854 Thomson found two relationships, now called the Thomson or Kelvin relationships, between the corresponding coefficients. The absolute temperature T, the Peltier coefficient and Seebeck coefficient S are related by the first Thomson relation which predicted the Thomson effect before it was actually formalized. These are related to the Thomson coefficient by the second Thomson relation

Pyroelectric effect - the creation of an electric field in a crystal after uniform heating

Resistivity
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Electrical resistivity (also known as specific electrical resistance) is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the movement of electrical charge. The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm meter.

Definitions

A piece of resistive material with electrical contacts on both ends. The electrical resistivity (rho) of a material is given by

where is the static resistivity (measured in ohm metres, m); R is the electrical resistance of a uniform specimen of the material (measured in ohms, ); l is the length of the specimen (measured in metres, m); A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen (measured in square metres, m). Electrical resistivity can also be defined as

where E is the magnitude of the electric field (measured in volts per metre, V/m); J is the magnitude of the current density (measured in amperes per square metre, A/m). Finally, electrical resistivity is also defined as the inverse of the conductivity (sigma), of the material, or

Table of resistivities
This table shows the resistivity and temperature coefficient of various materials. The values are (but don't seem to be, since they don't match the values given in the respective articles) correct at 20 C (68 F) Material Resistivity (m) Coefficient*

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Silver Copper Gold Aluminium Tungsten Brass Iron Platinum Lead Manganin Constantan Mercury Nichrome Carbon Germanium Silicon

1.47108 1.72108 2.44108 2.82108 5.6108 0.8107 1.0107 1.1107 2.2107 4.4107 4.9107 9.8107 1.10106 3.5105 4.6101 6.40102

.0038 .0039 .0034 .0039 .0045 .0015 .005 .00392 .0039 .000002 .00001 .0009 .0004 -.0005 -.048 -.075

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Glass Hard rubber Sulfur Paraffin

1010 to 1014 1013 1015 1017

none none none none none none none

Quartz (fused) 7.51017 PET Teflon 1020 1022 to 1024

*The numbers in this column increase or decrease the significand portion of the resistivity. For example, at 21C (294.15 K), the resistivity of silver is 1.4738108.

Temperature dependence
In general, electrical resistivity of metals increases with temperature, while the resistivity of semiconductors decreases with increasing temperature. In both cases, electron-phonon interactions can play a key role. At high temperatures, the resistance of a metal increases linearly with temperature. As the temperature of a metal is reduced, the temperature dependence of resistivity follows a power law function of temperature. Mathematically the temperature dependence of the resistivity of a metal is given by the Bloch-Gruneissen formula :

where (0) is the residual resistivity due to defect scattering, A is a constant that depends on the velocity of electrons at the fermi surface, the Debye radius and the number density of electrons in the metal. R is the Debye temperature as obtained from resistivity measurements and matches very closely with the values of Debye temperature obtained from specific heat measurements. n is an integer that depends upon the nature of interaction: 1. n=5 implies that the resistance is due to scattering of electrons by phonons (as it is for simple metals) 2. n=3 implies that the resistance is due to s-d electron scattering (as is the case for transition metals) 3. n=2 implies that the resistance is due to electron-electron interaction.

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As the temperature of the metal is sufficiently reduced (so as to 'freeze' all the phonons), the resistivity usually reaches a constant value, known as the residual resistivity. This value depends not only on the type of metal, but on its purity and thermal history. The value of the residual resistivity of a metal is decided by its impurity concentration. Some materials lose all electrical resistivity at sufficiently low temperatures, due to an effect known as superconductivity. An even better approximation of the temperature dependence of the resistivity of a semiconductor is given by the Steinhart-Hart equation: where A, B and C are the so-called Steinhart-Hart coefficients. This equation is used to calibrate thermistors.

Complex resistivity
When analysing the response of materials to alternating electric fields, as is done in certain types of tomography, it is necessary to replace resistivity with a complex quantity called impeditivity, in analogy to electrical impedance. Impeditivity is the sum of a real component, the resistivity, and an imaginary component, the reactivity (reactance).

Notes:

101.325 kPa = 1 atmosphere = 1.01325 bar 14.696 psi 100.000 kPa = 1 bar 14.504 psi 14.503 psi 750 mmHg 100.0 kPa 1 bar 14.696 psi 1 atm = 101.325 kPa 14.73 psi 30 inHg 1.0156 bar 101.560 kPa All pressures are absolute pressures (not gauge pressures) 59F = 15C 60F 15.6C dry = 0 percent relative humidity = 0 % RH

The full names IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry NIST: National Institute of Standards and Technology ISA: ICAO's International Standard Atmosphere ISO: International Organization for Standardization EEA: European Environment Agency EGIA: Electricity and Gas Inspection Act (of Canada) EPA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency SATP: Standard Ambient Pressure and Temperature CAGI: Compressed Air and Gas Institute SPE: Society of Petroleum Engineers OSHA: U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration SCAQMD: California's South Coast Air Quality Management District OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries EIA: U.S. Energy Information Administration

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Molar volume of a gas

It is equally as important to indicate the applicable reference conditions of temperature and pressure when stating the molar volume of a gas as it is when expressing a gas volume or volumetric flow rate. Stating the molar volume of a gas without indicating the reference conditions of temperature and pressure has no meaning and it can cause much confusion. The molar gas volumes can be calculated with an accuracy that is usually sufficient by using the universal gas law for ideal gases: PV=nRT is the usual expression of the universal gas law and it can be rearranged thus: Vn=RTP where (in SI metric units): P = the gas absolute pressure, in Pa n = number of moles, in mol V n = the gas molar volume, in m/mol T = the gas absolute temperature, in K R = the universal gas law constant of 8.3145 mPa/(molK) or where (in customary USA units): P = the gas absolute pressure, in psia n = number of moles, in lbmol V n = the gas molar volume, in ft/lbmol T = the gas absolute temperature, in R R = the universal gas law constant of 10.7316 ftpsia/(lbmolR) The molar volume of any ideal gas may be calculated at various standard reference conditions as shown below: V n = 8.3145 273.15 101.325 = 22.414 m/kmol at 0 C and 101.325 kPa absolute pressure V n = 8.3145 273.15 100.000 = 22.711 m/kmol at 0 C and 100 kPa absolute pressure V n = 10.7316 519.67 14.696 = 379.48 ft/lbmol at 60 F and 14.696 psia absolute pressure V n = 10.7316 519.67 14.730 = 378.61 ft/lbmol at 60 F and 14.73 psia absolute pressure The technical literature can be very confusing because many authors fail to explain whether they are using the universal gas law constant R which applies to any ideal gas or whether they are using the gas law constant Rs which only applies to a specific individual gas. The relationship between the two constants is Rs = R M, where M is the molecular weight of the gas. It may be of interest to note that the US Standard Atmosphere still uses 8.31432 mPa/(molK) as the value of R for all calculations.

Fail-safe
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The term fail-safe is used to describe: A device which, if (or when) it fails, fails in a way that will cause no harm or at least a minimum of harm to other devices or danger to personnel. Examples include: o Luggage carts in airports in which the hand-brake must be held down at all times. If it is released, the cart will stop. See dead man's switch. o Air brakes on railway trains and trucks. The brakes are held in the 'off' position by air pressure created in the brake system. Should a brake line split, or a carriage become de-coupled, the air pressure will be lost and the brakes applied. It is impossible for the train to be driven with a leak in the brake system. o Avionics using redundant systems to perform the same computation with voting logic to determine the "safe" result. o Motorized gates - In case of power outage the gate can be pushed open by hand with no crank or key required. See also fail-secure. An operation which ensures that a failure of equipment, process, or system does not propagate beyond the immediate environs of the failing entity. The automatic protection of programs and/or processing systems when a hardware or software failure is detected in a computer system. See fail-safe (computer). A control operation or function that prevents improper system functioning or catastrophic degradation in the event of circuit malfunction or operator error. A system which has been structured such that it cannot fail (or that the probability of such failure is extremely low) to accomplish its assigned mission regardless of environmental factors. Examples include: o The hardening of a nuclear missile bunker or the dispersion of nuclear bombers to multiple secret locations A precautionary secondary mechanism that achieves the same task as the primary mechanism. o The activation of grenades when the primary detonator is destroyed. o A device that activates explosives that releases lethal gas when destroyed. Fail-safe (foolproof) devices are also known as Poka-Yoke devices. Poka-yoke, a Japanese term, was coined by Shigeo Shingo, a quality guru.

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Choice and Selection of Controls

This tutorial will concentrate on available automatic control choices (such as selfacting, pneumatic or electric) and the decisions which must be made before selection. Guidance is offered on the basis of the three most important considerations of safety, stability and accuracy.

Application
It is important to reflect on the three basic parameters discussed at the beginning of Tutorial 5.1: Safety, Stability and Accuracy. In order to select the correct control valve, details of the application and the process itself are required. For example:

Are any safety features involved? For instance, should the valve fail-open or fail-closed in the event of power failure? Is separate control required for high and low limit? What property is to be controlled? For instance, temperature, pressure, level, flow? What is the medium and its physical properties. What is the flowrate? What is the differential pressure across a control valve across the load range? What are the valve materials and end connections? What type of process is being controlled? For instance, a heat exchanger used for heating or process purposes? For temperature control, is the set point temperature fixed or variable? Is the load steady or variable and, if it is variable, what is the time scale for change, fast or slow? How critical is the temperature to be maintained? Is a single loop or multi-loop control required? What other functions (if any) are to be carried out by the control? For instance, normal temperature control of a heating system, but with added frost protection during 'off' periods? Is the plant or process in a hazardous area? Is the atmosphere or environment corrosive by nature or is the valve to be fitted externally or in a 'dirty' area? What motive power is available, such as electricity or compressed air, and at what voltage and pressure?

Motive power This is the power source to operate the control and drive the valve or other controlled device. This will usually be electricity, or compressed air for a pneumatic system, or a mixture of both for an electropneumatic system. Self-acting control systems require no external form of power to operate; they generate their own power from an enclosed hydraulic or vapour pressure system. The following features are listed as a general comment on the various power source options:

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Self-acting controls Advantages:

Robust, simple, tolerant of 'unfriendly' environments. Easy to install and commission. Provide proportional control with very high rangeability. Controls can be obtained which fail-open or fail-closed in the event of an unacceptable overrun in temperature. They are safe in hazardous areas. Relatively maintenance free.

Disadvantages:

Self-acting temperature controls can be relatively slow to react, and Integral and Derivative control functions cannot be provided. Data cannot be re-transmitted.

Pneumatic controls Advantages:

Robust. They operate very quickly, making them suitable for processes where the process variables change rapidly. The actuators can provide a high closing or opening force to operate valves against high differential pressures. The use of valve positioners will ensure accurate, repeatable control. Pure pneumatic controls are inherently safe and actuators provide smooth operation. Can be arranged to provide fail-open or fail-closed operation without additional cost or difficulty.

Disadvantages:

The necessary compressed air system can be expensive to install, if no supply already exists. Regular maintenance of the compressed air system may be required. Basic control mode is on/off or proportional although combinations of P+I and P+ I +D are available, but usually at greater cost than an equivalent electronic control system. Installation and commissioning is straightforward and of a mechanical nature.

Electric controls Advantages:

Highly accurate positioning. Controllers are available to provide high versatility with on-off or P+I+D combinations of control mode, and multi-function outputs.

Disadvantages:

Electric valves operate relatively slowly, meaning they are not always suitable for rapidly changing process parameters such as pressure control on loads that change quickly.

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Installation and commissioning involves both electrical and mechanical trades and the cost of wiring and installation of a separate power supply must be taken into account. Electric actuators tend to be less smooth than their pneumatic counterparts. Spring return actuators are required for fail open or fail closed functions: This can substantially reduce the closing force available and they usually cost more. Intrinsically safe or explosion-proof electric controls are needed for use in hazardous areas; they are an expensive proposition and, as such, a pneumatic or electropneumatic solution may be required, as described below. Special installation techniques are required for these types of hazardous areas.

Electropneumatic controls Advantages:

Electropneumatic controls can combine the best features of electronic and pneumatic controls. Such systems can consist of pneumatically actuated valves, electric/electronic controllers, sensors and control systems, plus electropneumatic positioners or converters.The combination provides the force and smooth operation of a pneumatic actuator/valve with the speed and accuracy of an electronic control system. Fail-open or fail-closed operation can be provided without cost penalty and, by using suitable barriers and/or confining the electric/electronic part of the control system to 'safe' (non-hazardous) areas, they can be used where intrinsic safety is required.

Disadvantages:

Electrical and compressed air supplies are required, although this is not normally a problem in industrial processing environments.There are three important factors to take into account when considering the application and the required power source: o Changes in load. o Whether the set value is critical or non-critical. o Whether the set value has to be varied.

The diagrams in Figure 5.4.1 and 5.4.2 help to explain.

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Fig. 5.4.1 Changes in load and time

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Fig. 5.4.2 Critical nature of the set value What type of controls should be installed? Different applications may require different types of control systems. Self-acting and pneumatic controls can be used if load variations are fairly slow and if offset can be accepted, otherwise electropneumatic or electric controls should be used. Figure 5.4.3 shows some different applications and suggestions on which method of control may be acceptable.

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Fig. 5.4.3 Variable set value and its critical nature Types of valves and actuators The actuator type is determined by the motive power which has been selected: selfacting, electrical, pneumatic or electropneumatic, together with the accuracy of control and actuator speed required.

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As far as valve selection is concerned, with steam as the flowing medium, choice is restricted to a two port valve. However, if the medium is water or another liquid, there is a choice of two port or three port valves. Their basic effects on the dynamics of the piping system have already been discussed. A water application will usually determine whether a three port valve is used to mix or divert liquid flow. If changes in system pressure with two port valves are acceptable, their advantages compared with three port valves include lower cost, simplicity and a less expensive installation. The choice of two port valves may also allow the inherent system pressure change to be used to switch on sequential pumps, or to reduce or increase the pumping rate of a variable speed pump according to the load demand. When selecting the actual valve, all the factors considered earlier must be taken into account which include; body material, body pressure/temperature limits, connections required and the use of the correct sizing method. It is also necessary to ensure that the selection of valve/actuator combination can operate against the differential pressure experienced at all load states. (Differential pressure in steam systems is generally considered to be the maximum upstream steam absolute pressure. This allows for the possibility of steam at sub-atmospheric pressure on the downstream side of the valve). Controllers Safety is always of great importance. In the event of a power failure, should the valve fail-safe in the open or closed position? Is the control to be direct-acting (controller output signal rises with increase in measured variable) or reverse-acting (controller output signal falls with increase in measured variable)? If the application only requires on/off control, a controller may not be needed at all. A two-position actuator may be operated from a switching device such as a relay or a thermostat. Where an application requires versatility, the multi-function ability of an electronic controller is required; perhaps with temperature and time control, multiloop, multi-input/output. Having determined that a controller is required, it is necessary to determine which control action is necessary, for instance on/off, P, P I, or P I D. The choice made depends on the dynamics of the process and the types of response considered earlier, plus the accuracy of control required. Before going any further, it is useful to define what is meant by 'good control'. There is no simple answer to this question. Consider the different responses to changes in load as shown in Figure 5.4.4.

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Fig. 5.4.4 Examples of different responses to changes in load Self-acting control is normally suitable for applications where there is a very large 'secondary-side' thermal capacity compared to the 'primary-side' capacity. Consider a hot water storage calorifier as shown in Figure 5.4.5 where the large volume of stored water is heated by a steam coil.

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Fig. 5.4.5 Hot water storage calorifier When the water in the vessel is cold, the valve will be wide open, allowing steam to enter the coil, until the stored water is heated to the desired temperature. When hot water is drawn from the vessel, the cold water which enters the vessel to take its place will reduce the water temperature in the vessel. Self-acting controls will have a relatively large proportional band and as soon as the temperature drops, the valve will start to open. The colder the water, the more open the steam valve. Figure 5.4.6 shows a non-storage plate type heat exchanger with little thermal storage capacity on either the primary or the secondary side, and with a fast reaction time. If the load changes rapidly, it may not be possible for a self-acting control system to operate successfully. A better solution would be to use a control system that will react quickly to load changes, and provide accuracy at the same time.

Fig. 5.4.6 Heat exchanger with little storage capacity

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Flow Measurement
Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid or gas movement. It can be measured in a variety of ways. Dependent on the quantity measured different symbols are used. The volumetric flow rate is usually given the symbol Q and the mass flow rate the symbol .

Units of measurement
Volumetric flow rate is sometimes measured in "standard cubic centimeters per minute" (abbreviation sccm), a unit acceptable for use with SI except that the additional information attached to the unit symbol. The SI standard would be m 3/s (with any appropriate prefix, with temperature and pressure specified). The term "standard" indicates that the given flow rate assumes a standard temperature and pressure. Many other similar abbreviations are also in use, such as standard cubic feet per minute or per second. Other units used include gallons (U.S. liquid or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per minute, and acre-feet per day.

Mechanical flow meters

There are three main types of mechanical meter Piston Meter Woltmann Meter Jet Meter. Piston meters, or Semi-Positive displacement meters are the most common in the UK and are used for almost all meter sizes up to and including 40mm (1 1/2"). The piston meter operates on the principle of a piston rotating within a chamber of known volume. For each rotation, an amount of water passed through the piston chamber. Woltman meters, commonly referred to as Helix meters are popular at larger sizes. Jet meters (single or Multi-Jet) are increasing in popularity in the UK at larger sizes and are commonplace in the EU, largely due to the inferior quality of drinking water compared to the UK. Another method of measurement, known as a venturi meter, is to constrict the flow in some fashion, and measure the differential pressure that results across the constriction. This method is widely used to measure flow rate in the transmission of gas through pipelines, and has been used since Roman Empire times. Another simple method of measurement uses an orifice plate, which is basically a plate with a hole through it. It is placed in the flow and constricts the flow. It uses the same principle as the venturi meter in that the differential pressure relates to the velocity of the fluid flow (Bernoulli's equation). Measurement of the pressure within a pitot tube in the flowing fluid, or the cooling of a heated element by the passing fluid are two other methods that are used. These types of sensors are advantageous in that they are rugged, so not easily damaged in an extreme environment. A pitot tube is an L shaped tube which is also able to measure fluid flow. An advantage is that it does not disturb the flow as much as a venturi meter or an orifice

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plate would. It works by measuring the difference between the static pressure and the dynamic pressure.

Vortex flowmeters
Another method of flow measurement involves placing an object (called a shedder bar) in the path of the fluid. As the fluid passes this bar, disturbances in the flow called vortices are created. The vortices trail behind the cylinder in two rolls, alternatively from the top or the bottom of the cylinder. This vortex trail is called the Von Krmn vortex street after von Karman's 1912 mathematical description of the phenomenon. The speed at which these vortices are created is proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. Inside the shedder bar is a piezoelectric crystal, which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created. The frequency of this voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid flow rate, and is measured by the flowmeter electronics.

Magnetic, ultrasound and coriolis flow meters

Modern innovations in the measurement of flow rate incorporate electronic devices that can correct for varying pressure and temperature (i.e. density) conditions, nonlinearities, and for the characteristics of the fluid.

Magnetic flow meters

The most common flow meter apart from the mechanical flow meters, is the magnetic flow meter, commonly referred to as a "mag meter". A magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The physical principle at work is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow meter requires a conducting fluid, e.g. water, and an electrical insulating pipe surface, e.g. a rubber lined non magnetic steel tube.

Ultrasonic flow meters

Ultrasonic flow meters measure the difference of the propagation time (transit time) of ultrasonic pulses propagating in (normally an inclination angle around 30 to 45 is used) flow direction and against the flow direction. This time difference is a measure for the averaged velocity of the fluid along the path of the ultrasonic beam. By using the absolute transit times both the averaged fluid velocity and the speed of sound can be calculated. Using the two transit times tup and tdown and the distance between receiving and transmitting transducers L and the inclination angle one can write the equations and , where v is the average velocity of the fluid along the sound path and c is the speed of sound. Measurement of the doppler shift resulting in reflecting an ultrasonic beam off the flowing fluid is another recent, accurate innovation made possible by electronics.

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Coriolis flow meters

Using the Coriolis effect that causes a laterally vibrating tube to distort, a direct measurement of mass flow can be obtained in a Coriolis flow meter. Furthermore a direct measure of the density of the fluid is obtained. Coriolis measurement can be very accurate and is very insensitive to variations in the medium that is measured, the same measurement tube can be used for measuring anything between Hydrogen gas and for instance Peanut butter without recalibration.

Biomedical Transit-time Ultrasound Technology

Schematic views of a transit-time ultrasound perivascular ultrasonic volume flowsensor. Using wide beam illumination, two transducers pass ultrasonic signals back and forth, alternately intersecting the flowing liquid in upstream and downstream directions. The flowmeter derives an accurate measure of the "transit time" it takes for the wave of ultrasound to travel from one transducer to the other The difference between the upstream and downstream integrated transit times is a measure of volume flow rather than velocity.

The vessel is placed within a beam that fully and evenly illuminates the entire blood vessel. The transit time of the wide beam then becomes a function of the volume flow intersecting the beam, independent of vessel dimensions.

The ultrasonic beam intersects the vessel twice on its reflective path (top diagram). With each intersection, the transit time through the vessel is modified by a vector 140

component of flow. The full transit time of the ultrasonic beam senses the sum of these two vector components, or flow. With misalignment (bottom diagram),one vector component of flow increases as the other decreases, with little consequence to their sum. Transit-time ultrasound technology for biomedical flow measurement was pioneered by Cornelis J. Drost who, working as a senior researcher at the N.Y.S. School of Veterinary Medicine at Cornell University, Ithaca, NY during the late 1970s, sought a measurement modality that did not have the problems inherent with electromagnetic flowmetry. A transit-time ultrasound perivascular flowprobe (Fig. 1) consists of a probe body which houses ultrasonic transducers and a fixed acoustic reflector. The transducers are positioned on one side of the vessel or tube under study and the reflector is positioned at a fixed position between the two transducers on the opposite side. Electronic ultrasonic circuitry directs a flowprobe through the following cycles:

Upstream Transit-Time Measurement Cycle

An electrical excitation causes the downstream transducer to emit a plane wave of ultrasound. This ultrasonic wave intersects the vessel or tubing under study in the upstream direction, then bounces off the fixed "acoustic reflector." It again intersects the vessel and is received by the upstream transducer where it is converted into electrical signals. From these signals, the flowmeter derives an accurate measure of the "transit time" it takes for the wave of ultrasound to travel from one transducer to the other.

Downstream Transit-Time Measurement Cycle

The same transmit-receive sequence is repeated, but with the transmitting and receiving functions of the transducers reversed so that the flow under study is bisected by an ultrasonic wave in the downstream direction. The flowmeter again derives and records from this transmit-receive sequence an accurate measure of transit time it takes for the wave of ultrasound to travel from one transducer to the other. Just as the speed of a swimmer depends, in part, on water currents, the transit time of ultrasound passing through a conduit is affected by the motion of liquid flowing through that vessel. During the upstream cycle, the sound wave travels against flow and total transit time is increased by a flow-dependent amount. During the downstream cycle, the sound wave travels with the flow and total transit time is decreased by the same flow-dependent amount. Using wide beam ultrasonic illumination, the Transonic flowmeter subtracts the downstream transit times from the upstream transit times. This difference in the integrated transit times is a measure of true volume flow.

Wide Beam Illumination

One ray of the ultrasonic beam undergoes a phase shift in transit time proportional to the average velocity of the liquid times the path length over which this velocity is encountered. With wide-beam ultrasonic illumination (Fig. 2), the receiving transducer sums (integrates) these velocity - chord products over the vessel's full width and yields volume flow: average velocity times the vessel's cross sectional area. Since the transit time is sampled at all points across the vessel diameter, volume flow 141

measurement is independent of the flow velocity profile. Ultrasonic beams which cross the acoustic window without intersecting the vessel do not contribute to the volume flow integral. Volume flow is therefore sensed by perivascular probes even when the vessel is smaller than the acoustic window (Fig. 2).

Laser Doppler Theory

A low intensity beam of monochromatic light, emitted from a laser diode inside a BLF21-Series flowmeter travels via the probes fiber optic light guide through the probe head to illuminate the tissue under study. There, the laser beam is scattered by reflective components within the tissue. A portion of the light is reflected back, via the probes receiving fiber optic light guide, onto a photo detector inside the flowmeter. Generally, this received light has been reflected many times by stationary structures within the tissue as well as by one or more moving particles (mainly red blood cells) within the tissue. It is the moving Doppler effect. The received signal spectrum is processed in the BLF21 monitor in accordance with algorithms derived by Dr. R.F. Bonner for this type of reflective environment1 to calculate volume flow (ml x min-1 x 100-1 g) of tissue. While the actual volume of tissue sampled by the BLF21A varies with the optical properties of the tissue, it is approximately 1mm3. FLOW ml x min-1 x 100-1 g tissue While theory puts output for a laser Doppler flowmeter in units of milliliters per minute per hundred grams sampled (ml x min-1 x 100-1g of tissue), in practice this is somewhat problematic for several reasons. The most significant reason is that the actual volume of tissue sampled is unknown. This volume is assumed in the calculations to be 1 mm3, but it may vary widely with differing optical properties of the tissue. The output of the flow monitor is proportional to absolute flow in the tissue sampled, but since this quantity of tissue sample is different from one spot to another and one patient to another, the constant of proportionality differs for each placement of a probe. Besides being unknown, the volume of tissue sampled is very small; this is both a strength and a weakness. Since the volume sampled is so small, laser Doppler flowmetry can look at very localized perfusion without being influenced by underlying tissues. But it can be misunderstood as, for example, a gauge of a whole organ perfusion rather than very local perfusion. This can be exaggerated by the unit (ml x min-1 x 100-1g of tissue. Assuming the nominal 1 mm3 is sampled, this sample weighs about 0.001 g; therefore, the more correct but unprecedented unit to quote would be hundreths of microliters per minute per milligram of tissue (0.011 x mg-1 of tissue.) Of course, these units have the same ratio of volume to weight but it is important to remember that only about 1/100,000 of that one hundred grams of tissue is being sampled. 142

While typical range for certain tissues (notably free flap donor sites used in microvascular reconstructions) are very desirable and potentially useful, they must be used with upmost care. These ranges are subject to very large tolerances because meter to meter, probe to probe, tissue site to tissue site and patient to patient, variations are all additive. From this discussion, we can conclude that the best and highest usage for laser Doppler flowmetry is for relative measurements. If the probe can be placed at one location, to continually monitor a given site for the duration of the critical period, the changes notes are directly proportional to absolute volume flow changes in the sampled tissue when proper monitoring technique is maintained.

Flow/dilution Technology; The Gold Standard for Hemodynamic Measurements during Hemodialysis
Flow/dilution technology for hemodynamic measurements during hemodialysis was pioneered by Nikolai Krivitski PhD, DSc during the early 1990s. Krivitski sought an easy-to-use method to measure recirculation, access blood flow and cardiac output to assess the quality of hemodialysis during the session. The technology married two well-established technologies: ultrasonic transit time and indicator dilution. Transittime ultrasound had already been used to measure volume flow through sterile tubing with a clip-on tubing sensor. Krivitski developed the patented Krivitski Method where, by temporarily reversing the blood lines at the needle connections, the proper mixing conditions are created to measure assess flow with classical indicator dilution equations. The two principles behind the measurements are outlined below.

Principle I:
Differential Transit-Time Ultrasound - Delivered Blood Flow The clip-on sensor transmits a beam of ultrasound through the blood line. Two transducers pass ultrasonic signals back and forth, alternately intersecting the flowing blood in upstream and downstream directions. The Hemodialysis Monitor derives an accurate measure of the changes in "transit time" (time it takes for the wave of ultrasound to travel from one transducer to the other) resulting from the motion of the blood in the vessel. The difference between the upstream and downstream transit times is a measure of volume flow. During hemodialysis two matched flow/dilution sensors are clipped onto the arterial and venous dialysis lines (Fig 1). The monitor continuously displays delivered blood flow. Comparison of this reading with the pump flow setting (i.e., the flow the pump tries to deliver) provides an opportunity to identify and correct dialysis delivery

Principle II:
Ultrasound Indicator Dilution - Patient Blood Flows & Recirculation The velocity of ultrasound in blood (1560-1590 m/sec) is determined primarily by its blood protein concentration. The Transonic Hemodialysis Monitor and clip-on Flow/dilution Sensors measure ultrasound velocity. A bolus of isotonic saline (ultrasound velocity: 1533 m/sec) introduced into the blood stream dilutes the blood and reduces the ultrasound velocity. The sensor records this saline bolus as a conventional indicator dilution curve.

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A bolus of saline indicator is introduced into the blood line. As the saline passes through the blood lines, the arterial and venous sensors each register an indicator dilution curve. The following measurements can be selected: Access Recirculation: the Hemodialysis Monitor identifies the direct reflux of the venous saline indicator bolus into the arterial line (Fig. 3). The ratio of indicator concentrations equals access recirculation. High timing resolution enables identification of zero access recirculation (Fig. 3).

(Fig. 3) Typical forward-line indicator concentration curves showing 0% access recirculation.

(Fig. 4) Krivitski Method Access Flow Measurement. Dialysis Lines are reversed to induce recirculation from which vascular access flow (Qa) is calculated

(Fig. 5) Typical induced recirculation curves for the Krivitski Method for calculating. - Access Flow is measured by the Krivitski Method, a pioneering Transonic Systems contribution to vascular access management (Fig. 4). The upstream (venous) access needle introduces an indicator into the access flow stream. The downstream (arterial) access needle samples the blood concentration diluted by the indicator (Figs. 5).

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- Cardiac Output: with blood lines in the normal configuration and no direct recirculation present, cardiopulmonary recirculation provides a measure of cardiac output (Fig. 6). The full saline indicator bolus travels into the heart where it is mixed (diluted) into the full cardiac output. Part of this diluted indicator then reappears at the Transonic arterial sensor. Cardiac output and Cardiac Index are calculated via conventional Stewart-Hamilton analysis.

(Fig. 6) Typical foward-line indicator concentration curves cardiac output.

Flow/Dilution Hemodialysis Monitoring System

The Flow-QC Hemodialysis Monitoring System consists of an ultrasonic blood property monitor, clamp-on flow/dilution sensors, and a data analysis software package. This self-contained, compact system is moved from patient to patient during routine dialysis treatments. Monitor: The Flow-QC Monitor processes information collected from the flow/dilution sensors before sending it to the computer for analysis and display. The monitor and computer communicate with each other through a serial cable. The monitor also displays ultrasound signal strength and delivered blood flow. Computerized Data Analysis: The software records, stores and displays dilution curves, measurement values, historical graphs and detailed reports. It also has the capability of documenting interventions and identifying patients at risk for thrombosis, and produces clinic and patient statistics. Sensors: Precision ultrasound flow/dilution sensors detect patient blood property data. One sensor is clipped to the venous blood line and the other to the arterial blood line with a small amount of petroleum jelly serving as ultrasound couplant.

True Delivered Blood Flow (Qb)

Transonic gold standard transit-time ultrasound flow technology is used to verify the actual blood flow delivered by the dialysis machine. Each sensor emits an ultrasound beam which travels through the tubing and blood both in upstream and downstream directions (Fig. 1). When the ultrasound beam travels in the direction of flow, the time it takes for the beam to traverse the distance through the tubing and blood (the transit-time) is decreased by a flow-dependent amount. When the beam travels in the opposite direction, against the flow in the tube, the beams transit time is increased by a flow-dependent amount. By subtracting upstream and downstream transit times, volume flow is calculated.

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Access Recirculation (AR)

Clip-on flow/dilution sensors monitor the ultrasound velocity in blood. Ultrasound travels at 1560 to 1590 m/sec in blood. This velocity is determined primarily by the blood protein concentration. The greater the protein concentration, the faster ultrasound will travel. By introducing a bolus of isotonic saline (1533 m/sec) into the blood, the protein concentration is diluted and the ultrasound velocity is decreased. The reduced ultrasound velocity is recorded by the flow/dilution sensors and the monitor. When Access Recirculation exists, saline will immediately flow back into the arterial line (Fig. 2). Flow-QC software converts the data into conventional dilution curves, the first representing the saline dilution as flow passes through the venous sensor and the second representing the saline dilution as flow passes through the arterial sensor. Recirculation is calculated as a ratio of the area under the arterial curve to the area under the venous curve (Fig. 3). Recirculation is a late indicator of a failing access and generally occurs when access flow (AF) is less than dialysis pump flow (Qb). Because Transonic ultrasound dilution technology is able to separate actual vascular access recirculation from cardio-pulmonary recirculation (Fig. 4), measurement of zero percent access recirculation (0% AR) (Fig. 5) has become a reality.4,5 Technologies which cannot separate cardio-pulmonary recirculation from vascular access recirculation always indicate a false positive recirculation due to the presence of the former recirculation. Figure 6 shows the typical flow of blood in a patienht with recirculation due to a venous stenosis. Access flow is not adequate for the demands of the pump setting. Lack of flow at the arterial needle is compensated for by reclaiming some part of the freshly dialyzed blood from the venous line. A stenosis exists between the needles creates an important exception to the rule that recirculation (AR) usually occurs when access flow (AF) is less than dialysis pump flow (Qb) (Fig. 7). Because a stenosis limits flow through the access, the pump simply bypasses the stenosis (area of greatest hydrodynamic resistance). In this case zero recirculation (0% AR) can be reported although access flow (AF) is less than delivered blood flow (Qb). When Flow-QC monitoring first indicates vascular access recirculation but the recirculation disappears after the blood lines are reversed, the hemodialysis lines have been inadvertently reversed. Published data report that dialysis occurs with the needles inadvertently reversed in 4-20% of cases.

Access Flow (AF)

Access Flow measurements are performed using the Krivitski Method by reversing the blood lines at the needle connections. The dialyzer removes blood from the venous side of the access and returns it to the arterial side (Fig. 8). This creates mixing conditions used by the Krivitski Method to generate an indicator dilution measurement of access flow. By introducing saline into the venous line in the same manner as for access recirculation measurements, the blood protein concentration is diluted and ultrasound velocity is reduced. This change in blood protein concentration is detected by the venous line sensor, producing the blue dilution curve (Fig. 9). The diluted blood from the venous line then enters the access and mixes with the incoming access flow. Upon reaching the arterial needle, a portion of mixed blood is removed from the access by the dialyzer, via the venous needle. The diluted blood is detected by the arterial sensor

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producing a red dilution curve (Fig. 8). Access flow is calculated from the ratio of the area under the venous curve to the area under the arterial curve.

Cardiac Output (CO)

Indicator dilution in systemic flow provides a measure of cardiac output when blood lines are connected in the normal configuration and there is no direct vascular access recirculation (Fig. 4). In this instance, the complete saline indicator bolus travels into the heart where it mixes with (is diluted into) the full volume of blood leaving the heart. Part of this diluted indicator then reappears at the arterial sensor. Cardiac output is calculated via conventional Stewart-Hamilton analysis. Flow-QC software permits entry of additional patient data to calculate: Cardiac Index (CI): cardiac output divided by the estimated Body Surface Area (BSA). Peripheral Resistance (PR): the average resistance to systemic blood flow and is approximated as mean arterial pressure divided by cardiac output. Central Blood Volume (CBV) and Central Blood Volume Index (CBVI) : the volume of blood in the heart, lungs, and the great vessels. CBVI is CBV divided by weight.

Thermal Dilution for Vascular Access Intra-graft Blood Flow Measurement

Fig. 2: Thermal dilution curve generated by the change in temperature between the isotonic saline injected into the AV access and the diluted temperature registered by the catheter thermistor within the access. The HVT100 Endovascular Flowmeter and ReoCath Flow Catheter system uses classical dilution-based equations for flow measurements adapted to the unique hemodynamic conditions that exist within an AV access. Intra-access blood flow measurements obtained using the HVT100 Endovascular Flowmeter are based upon the following equation: Q = k (Tb-Ti) V/S 0.5 V/t Where: Q = intra-access blood flow; k = a coefficient related to the thermal properties of blood, saline = 1.08 Tb = temperature of the blood prior to injection; Ti = temperature of injected saline; V = volume of injected saline (10ml); S = the area under the temperature-time dilution curve resulting from the mixing of blood and injected saline; t = width of the dilution curve at 50% height

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The expression (0.5V/t) is an average expected increase in blood flow due to the saline injection.

How the Catheters Work

Fig. 3: Antegrade catheter (6 F, 35 cm length) is inserted in the same direction as blood flow. Saline is released proximal to the catheter tip and then is measured downstream by the dilution thermister.

Fig. 4: Retrograde catheter (6 F, 48 cm length) is inserted against the direction of blood flow. Saline is released at the catheter tip and is then is measured downstream by the dilution thermister. ReoCath 6 French Antegrade and Retrograde Flow Catheters each have an external injection port connected to its respective central lumen through which room temperature saline is released into the access during angioplasty. Each catheter has two temperature sensors (thermistors). When the room temperature saline is injected into the access, a thermister located close to the proximal end of the catheter (Fig. 3,4) records the temperature of the injected saline solution. The second thermister located close to the distal tip of the catheter (Fig. 3,4) records the thermodilution within the access. The catheter is connected to the HVT100 Endovascular Flowmeter via a two meter extension cable. The flowmeter calculates and displays intra-graft blood flow in milliliters per minute.

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