A THERMIE PROGRAMME ACTION

Oil and Gas Process Technology

The latest advances for use on offshore production installations

European Commission Directorate-General for Energy (DG XVII)

THE THERMIE PROGRAMME THERMIE is an important European Community instrument, designed to promote greater use of innovative energy technologies developed in Europe. THERMIE is a five year programme (1990-1994) contributing approximately 150 MECU each year. The main aims of THERMIE are to: promote innovative energy technologies; disseminate information on these technologies; encourage greater use of new and renewable energy sources; improve energy efficiency; improve environmental protection.

THERMIE has been developed from previous Community programmes and provides enhanced provision for: co-ordination with complementary programmes in Member States; extensive dissemination of proven technologies; evaluation, follow-up, dissemination and co-operation; co-operation with non-member countries; consideration of environment and safety within eligibility criteria; liaison with key intermediary bodies within Member States to aid promotion of innovation.

The THERMIE programme covers a wide range of technologies for the production, transformation and use of energy. These are: rational use of energy in industry, buildings and transport; renewable energy sources including energy from biomass and waste, thermal and photovoltaic solar energy, wind, hydroelectric and geothermal energy; solid fuels, use of gaseous, liquid and solid wastes and gasification with a combined cycle; hydrocarbons; their exploration, production, transport and storage.

THERMIE Publications A key element of the THERMIE programme is the enhanced dissemination of information relating to proven measures. This information is brought together in a wide range of publications. These provide an invaluable source of information for those wishing to appreciate the current state of the art within particular technologies.

THERMIE Colour Coding To enable readers to quickly identify those publications relating to specific parts of the THERMIE programme, each will be colour coded with a stripe in the lower right hand corner of each document, i.e.: RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY RENEWABLE ENERGY SOLID FUELS HYDROCARBONS

Oil and Gas Process Technology

The latest advances installations for use on offshore production

The material contained in this Maxibrochure is extracted from Market Assessment No: HC 6.2 prepared by Tom Malyn and Caroline Davies of John Brown Engineers & Constructors Ltd on behalf of the European Commission.

Other Maxibrochures in the hydrocarbons series: Oil and Gas Technology - Investing in a major European Industry for Future Security and Prosperity Subsea Diverless Intervention Systems in the Offshore Oil Industry The Oil Production Industry in Western Siberia and the Environment Current Practices and Prospects for Change European Technologies for Oil and Gas Exploration in Remote and Poorly Accessible Areas

The Petroleum Science and Technology Institute - OPET For the European Commission Directorate-General for Energy (DGXVII) CONTENTS 1. 2. INTRODUCTION OFFSHORE HYDROCARBON DISCOVERIES 2.1 2.2 2.3 3. Oil Reserves Gas Reserves New Equipment and Processes 1 1 1 2 3 4 4 4 5 6 7

THREE PHASE SEPARATION 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Hydrocyclones Compact Separators Vortex Tubes Electro-coalescence Separation on Floating Facilities

4.

HEAT EXCHANGE 4.1 4.2 4.3 Compact Exchangers Modular Exchangers Uprating Existing Exchangers

7 8 9 9 9 9 10 11 12 12 12 13 14 14 14 15 15 16

5.

GAS TREATMENT 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 IFPEXOL Higee Membrane Technology Enhanced Oil Recovery

6.

PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Hydrocyclones Flotation Cells Electro-coalescers Water Treatment Membranes

7.

INJECTION WATER TREATMENT 7.1 7.2 7.3 Fibre Filter Filtomat Solid/liquid Hydrocyclones

8.

GAS COMPRESSION 8.1 Regenerative Circulator

16 17 17 17 18 18 18 19

9. 10. 11.

MULTIPHASE PUMPING DRILLING FLUIDS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION 11.1 11.2 11.3 Metering Automation The PLATINE Project

Reproduction of the Contents is Subject to Acknowledgement of the European Commission. Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on its behalf: (a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the information contained in this publication; (b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or damage resulting from this information. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the Commission.

1. INTRODUCTION Any study of process technology for offshore applications has to be set within the framework of probable future developments. This publication examines the existing offshore hydrocarbon reserves of the European Union (EU) Member States and Norway, and identifies the developments likely within the next ten years. The new European processing technologies which are available are assessed in relation to the oil and gas discoveries previously analysed. From the data available the majority of finds are in the United Kingdom Continental Shelf (UKCS) North Sea (NS) sector. However, many of the largest undeveloped fields in the North Sea are in Norwegian waters. The majority of UKCS NS finds awaiting development are relatively small, with less than 30 million barrels of recoverable oil. It is unlikely that many large UKCS NS fields are still to be discovered. In contrast, the UK North West Atlantic area currently has three large fields waiting to be developed and since the area is less well explored, there may be additional discoveries to be made. In comparison with the UK and Norway, the other European countries have significantly smaller and fewer fields awaiting development. Consequently, UK and Norwegian fields will have the greatest influence on developments requiring new technology. In most process technology areas there are already new available technologies which could cut costs by reducing plant size or maintenance requirements. The aim of this study is to evaluate recent technologies, providing sufficient detail to allow potential operators, their consultants and contractors to appraise the applicability of the equipment to their own situation, either as part of a new installation or as a retrofit system.

2. OFFSHORE HYDROCARBON DISCOVERIES 2.1 Oil Reserves This section examines known offshore discoveries and aims to identify likely developments within the next ten years. It covers the UKCS and Norwegian sector of the North Sea, which represent the majority of discoveries. It also considers the Danish, German and Dutch sectors of the North Sea and Irish waters, plus the Spanish, Italian and Greek sectors of the Mediterranean Sea. Most fields in these latter sectors are expected to be less than 1,600 m3/d (10 MBOPD) with only a few exceeding 3,200 m3/d (20 MBOPD). A summary of oil discoveries in all sectors is shown in Fig 1. Fig 1 Oil discoveries - all sectors Since the UK and Norway dominate in offshore activities, they will have the greatest impact on technological developments. A summary of UK and Norwegian oil discoveries is shown in Fig 2. Fig 2 UK and Norwegian Oil Discoveries The largest NS fields have already been exploited or are under development. Smaller fields and those which are more difficult to exploit have been deferred until they become commercially attractive. The UK has discoveries in the North Western Atlantic, the development of which has been delayed due to lack of infrastructure and high cost. Most fields waiting development are less than 5 million m3 (30 million barrels) of recoverable oil, with daily production rates peaking at around 2,400 to 3,200 m3/day (15 to 20 MBOPD). Subsea tiebacks are likely to be the most viable development option. Floating production

systems (FPS) are possible for higher production rates of say 3,200 to 8,000 m3/day (20 to 50 MBOPD). Larger throughputs of 6,400 m3/day (40 MBOPD) and above could be commercial using jacket supported platforms. These rates are indicative, since subsea could be appropriate for much larger throughputs if the infrastructure is adequate. However, subsea developments could be uneconomic if they are too far from a host facility and flowlines are too expensive. High flowline costs could make the FPS option more attractive at lower throughputs. Fig 3 shows a distribution curve for oil discoveries and indicates the most likely form of development for the different field sizes. For the UKCS, larger developments requiring conventional facilities could total ten within the next decade, including West of Shetland. Some discoveries will be aggregated to make them viable. For example, eight fields are proposed for co-development through a central production facility in BPs Eastern Trough Accumulation Projects (ETAPS). With ETAPS, satellite fields will be subsea tiebacks or unmanned wellhead jackets. West of Shetland and in the deeper, colder waters of Northern Norway, fields are large but remote and other technologies such as tension leg platforms and semi-buoyant structures may be required. Thus, whilst the number of large fields may be low, they will be dependent on new technology to enable equipment and deck weights to be minimised. 2.2 Gas Reserves A summary of gas discoveries for all sectors is shown in Fig 4 and for the UK and Norway in Fig 5.

Most fields are in the marginal economics category. The average field size is less than 2 MM m3/day, with few at 10 MM m3/day or above. Half of a total of seventy-eight were less than 2 MM m3/day and minimum facilities wellhead platforms will be the likely means of development. A further thirteen fields listed were thought to be less than 1 MM m3/day output. For viable development they would need to be either part of a group development or tied back to an existing facility through a subsea or minimum wellhead facility. Fig 6 shows a gas find distribution curve and indicates the most likely form of development for the size.

Large standalone discoveries have been made West of Shetland and there may be more in that area. However, they will be difficult to develop due to deeper waters and absence of major export pipeline systems. 2.3 New Equipment and Processes Several areas of process technology for the offshore industry have been improved in the past ten years including separation by cyclonic devices and filtration. In addition, membranes have been developed which allow automation and reduced manning for a range of applications. Many new equipment forms are modular, allowing higher throughputs by adding extra modules. Basic module sizes are adequate for most future developments, that is 1,600 to 3,200 m3/d (10 to 20 MBOPD) but at high throughputs modularization becomes less attractive. However, high volume fields are less likely to require new technology since they are more viable. In the following sections various equipment types are examined. These include:

three-phase separation; heat exchangers; gas treatment; produced water; injection water treatment; gas compression; multiphase pumping; other equipment (including turbo expanders, flare and vent systems, drilling fluids, control and instrumentation).

3. THREE PHASE SEPARATION There is a range of separation requirements ranging from removal of small quantities of liquids from gas to removal of low volumes of gas from liquids. In addition liquids have to be separated, for example oil from water. For reservoir fluids there may be oil, water, gas and solids to be separated, with some fluids requiring a particular form of separator. Early North Sea developments were large with little incentive to reduce equipment size. High throughputs enabled installation of larger equipment than required without affecting profitability. Current developments require designs which are lighter, cheaper and less labour intensive. Many of the separators recently developed are centrifugal or cyclonic since higher gravity forces allow them to be smaller. Typical weight savings are 20% for a single stage gas cyclone design and up to 55% for a multi-cyclone application. 3.1 Hydrocyclones Hydrocyclones were originally developed for de-oiling water and achieved considerable success. Their use has widened to include primary oil, gas and water separation. Volumes of liquid to be handled can be reduced by 50% to 90%, depending on water cut. This is also useful for retrofits where large water cuts have developed. Deoiling of bulk water phase can be completed by a downstream cyclone. A typical hydrocyclone is shown in Fig 7. Hydrocyclones may also be used to dehydrate a continuous oil phase. Significant savings in space, weight and cost are likely using cyclones as pre-separators. 3.2 Compact Separators Compact three phase separators have been tested by several companies including that of the French company Bertin & Cie (Fig 8) which was supported under the ECs THERMIE programme. It was successful in separating three phase mixtures of medium gravity oil with good turndown capability. The operating principle is shown in Fig 9. Gas is separated from the liquid phase in a cylindrical chamber which is contained in a vessel. A liquid film of oil and water develops on the cylinder walls and drains to the bottom of the vessel. The gas leaves the cylinder in the direction of the inlet flow, passing around the exterior of the cylindrical chamber, through demisters and out of the containing vessel on the opposite side to the inlet. Oil and water are separated in the lower part of the vessel by coalescence in a stack of conical plates. The oil/water mixture enters the coalescer stack at the periphery of the plates, the water flows down the plates and the oil rises passing to the central core. The continuous water phase collects at the bottom of the vessel. The weight of this equipment is a third of conventional units. The deck area is 60% smaller, consequently there are additional savings of structural steel. The vessel is smaller, the diameter is reduced and consequently the vessel wall thickness is also reduced. Topsides

savings could be US$50,000 per tonne. Thus, a weight saving of around 50 tonnes could give cost savings of around $25 million. The French company Nouvelles Applications Technologiques (NAT), licensees of the unit, have designed it as the lower half of an integrated separator and glycol dehydrator. This enables gas separation and dehydration in the same vessel giving further weight and space savings. The Gasunie cyclone type gas separator was developed for oil and gas separation and is claimed to have a catch efficiency approaching 100% over a range of throughputs. Conventional vane packs and knitted meshes tend to have a greater carryover of larger particles when operated at high gas throughputs. The Gasunie design is compact requiring 25% less space and is 30% lighter than conventional designs. It is not in wide use offshore but is used onshore for a range of pressures and flow regimes, including slug flow. NAT has modified the Gasunie design to produce an oil based muds (OBM)/gas separator, which has been installed on one North Sea platform, providing a safer, more efficient substitute for "poorboy" degassers. 3.3 Vortex Tubes Vortex/Ranque or Hilsch tubes have been used with cyclonic separators for simultaneous cooling and separation. The original invention, developed 60 years ago, was a novelty in that a gas could be expanded to produce two streams, one fraction colder than that produced by Joule Thomson (JT) cooling and the other warmer. The current Vortex tube is of the Hilsch type and is known as the Vortifilt. Its compact size and lack of moving parts makes it useful for gas condensate recovery, particularly for smaller gas condensate fields or in subsea processing. It was developed in Hungary in the 1970s and used there and in Czechoslovakia to remove water and hydrocarbons from gases. World wide rights were acquired by the German company Filtan GmbH for condensate removal and pressure reduction in natural gas transmission systems. Filtan has developed and optimised it improving performance, mechanical design and reducing cost. A unit is being installed and tested on an onshore gas plant in Germany. The unit can operate at 25% flow rates and use of multiple units would extend the operational range. The unit is relatively small since the original service requirement was for unmanned pressure let down stations. The unit could be effective in small gas condensate fields and for satellite platforms with a rich gas which could partially condense in interfield flowlines. The simplicity of the device might enable installation as a subsea unit with separate flowlines for the phases. 3.4 Electro-coalescence Heavy oil fields are currently under development in the North Sea including Alba, Gryphon and Forth. Heavy oils are viscous and water cuts are consequently high because the latter moves more rapidly through the reservoir. Water cuts can grow to 75% at plateau oil production. The combination of high water cut, emulsion and high viscosity of oil requires large oil separators. The Alba separators only handle around 12,000 m3/day (75 MBOPD) but are amongst the largest in the North Sea. At high water cuts (around 80%) the emulsions are often unstable, resulting in initial separation to water and a secondary emulsion. The stable secondary emulsion contains around 25% water. Conventional separators require hold up times of 20 to 30 minutes for significant dewatering at 20-25% water cut with these oils, as compared to conventional oil times of 2 to 3 minutes. More typical residence times and vessel sizes can be achieved through electro-coalescence prior to, or integral with, the separator.

Improved coalescence devices have been developed and tested. These include NATs development of the EPIC high voltage, high frequency pulsed DC electro-coalescers, which are based on experimental work by Bradford University. Normally, electrostatic demulsifiers use high DC currents and are limited by the water content of the fluid. At high water content the fluid conducts. The new DC system uses insulated electrodes enabling it to operate at high water cuts. EPIC is a non-invasive, non-polluting system and has been successfully tested by BP on the Wytch Farm field. A pulsed high energy field applied across the emulsion breaks stable water in oil emulsions in minutes. Tests have shown separator performance improvements of up to 400%. EPIC enables separators to be smaller, improves the performance of existing vessels and reduces the need for chemical demulsifiers. 3.5 Separation on Floating Facilities One problem of conventional separators is that their performance suffers when used on floating production vessels. Research on the affects of motion on separation included assessment of various types of internal baffles to restrict wave motion and sloshing. Motion affects are now broadly understood and vessels can be designed with lower contingency. Cyclonic and centrifugal devices described in section 3.1 should be unaffected by motion. A more conventional type known as the Endecott separator (Fig 10) was tested by the BHR Group at Cranfield and shown to be effective against wave movements. The separator has a low footprint area and minimises carry over and carry under which result from sloshing. It comprises two horizontal drums, one above the other and inter-connected by several riser tubes. The tubes are of relatively small diameter which reduces wave effects in that area. The oil and water interface occurs in the riser tubes.

4. HEAT EXCHANGE Shell and tube exchangers have changed little over the past forty years. Thermal design is more sophisticated allowing less "safety margin". However, fouling factor data remains limited and is conservative. It leads to larger designs than needed which gives low fluid velocities and contributes to fouling. For offshore applications, space and weight present problems for shell and tube exchangers. Other exchanger types have been considered but there is a reluctance to use unproven types. Compact exchangers have been used for many years onshore for LNG and low temperature chillers but have not been widely used for offshore oil and gas. LNG is a clean fluid, where contaminants that may deposit in the exchanger have been removed. Compacts are now being used for compression cooling. New baffle types allow easier installation and cleaning as well as greater thermal efficiency. They include the Spiral Flow Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger (SFHE) developed by Norsk Hydro, and the VUCHZ (Czechoslovakia) Helixchanger. These combine familiarity with some savings. In other process industries, including LNG and oil refining, there is interest in thermal efficiency typified by Pinch technology and integration of thermal duties. However, there has been little interest offshore because there is usually excess process heat. 4.1 Compact Exchangers Compact exchangers such as platefin, Heatric, spirally wound etc, have high heat exchange area-to-volume ratios, enabling them to be much lighter than conventional exchangers. They

can be used in standard two fluid applications but are more effective in multistream duties, with up to seven streams heat exchanged. Multistream compacts have not been used offshore because two stream exchangers are usually adequate. They could be used for gas compression, low temperature separation (LTS), dephlegmators and refluxing condensers. Platefin exchangers are constructed of aluminium and limited in pressure, temperature and corrosion service. Alfa-Laval/Rolls-Royce and Heatric have developed diffusion bonded exchangers which are similar to platefins. However, they have higher temperature and pressure capabilities with better corrosion performance, which has been achieved by using stainless steel and titanium. Heatric units (Fig 11) have already been used for offshore gas treatment plant. The advantages include high efficiency, close temperature approach and low fluid inventory. They offer cost savings where expensive materials are required. Fouling can be a problem since they have narrow passages and are not easily cleaned. However, fouling can be reduced by maintaining high velocities and tests have shown this to be the case. The manufacturers claim 25 times more heat transfer area than shell and tube heat exchangers of the same size and weight. In addition, there are no heat affected zones which are detrimental to strength and corrosion resistance characteristics. More conventional exchangers including gasketed and welded plate types are used offshore to 20 bars and 60-70 bars respectively. Heatric and Rolls-Royce/Alfa-Laval exchangers use similar configurations but 200 to 300 bar pressures can be withstood by diffusion bonding. Spirally wound exchangers have been in cryogenic use for many years. They are made in many materials including stainless steel, are capable of withstanding very high pressures and are amongst the largest exchangers which have been built. Their main advantage over other compacts is that the tubeside pressures can be as high as those achieved with conventional shell and tube exchangers, eg in excess of 300 bars. Since the tubes can be configured in a variety of materials they can be used in corrosive service. The spiral format allows operation over a wide temperature range since tubeside thermal expansion is accommodated in the structure. They are probably the most flexible exchangers for a wide operating range. 4.2 Modular Exchangers Modular exchangers offer construction advantages, that is standard units can be linked in parallel or series or combinations to suit standardisation requirements. Spares can be reduced by simplifying stock control. TRANSON is a standardised modular construction allowing a choice of materials. The tube bundle is fitted with a spiral baffle which reduces the fouling by decreasing dead spots in the shell. The modular components are such that the units can be assembled to allow efficient use of space. TRANSON claims savings in heat transfer area, unit size, weight and cost, based on a reduction in fouling factor and standardisation. 4.3 Uprating Existing Exchangers Tubular heat exchanger performance is enhanced by inserting a static mixing device inside the tubes which shears and mixes the fluid. In tubular systems, frictional drag at the wall creates a velocity profile with maximum flow at the centre. Heat transfer is controlled by the film coefficient at the tube wall. The device reduces the velocity gradient across the tube giving uniform temperature and velocity over the cross section of the tube.

Cal Gavin Ltd offers a range of inserts known as HiTran. Shorter residence time at the wall reduces fouling for heat sensitive fluids. Tubes remain cleaner and in service longer and heat transfer is improved. Experimental studies on HiTran with a light Arabian crude showed that the level of fouling was less than that of a conventional tube and the heat transfer coefficient was increased by about 40%.

5. GAS TREATMENT Offshore gas treatment includes gas sweetening, dehydrating and hydrocarbon dewpointing. There are established technologies in the industry but newer technologies are available which could result in savings. 5.1 IFPEXOL IFPEXOL (Fig 12), developed by Institut Franais du Ptrole, is used to treat natural gas, providing an integrated unit which performs a number of process operations including gas dehydration, NGL extraction and gas sweetening. The process uses freeze point depression of a methanol solvent, enhancing its affinity for water absorption.

IFPEX-l (for dehydration) and IFPEX-2 (for sweetening and hydrocarbon recovery) may be combined as a unit or used separately. The system is claimed to offer benefits over triethylene glycol (TEG) and enhanced variants, since IFPEXOL is environmentally friendly and the chemicals and plant are low cost. The processes can also be split to allow satellite and main platform operation. Figs 13 and 14 show the basic arrangement of the processes. In comparison with conventional systems, IFPEX-1 offers weight and space savings. It does not require a large stripping column for the recovery of methanol as only a fraction of the feed gas needs to pass through the IFPEX-1 column to achieve methanol recovery. Unlike TEG there is no regeneration skid, saving on space and energy requirements. It is claimed that IFPEXOL can save up to 30% on capital costs, in addition to its savings on weight and space. 5.2 Higee Higee (Fig 15) was originally developed by ICI but is now owned by the Glitsch Corporation. It is a rotating mass transfer device; that is equivalent to a packed tower in which the packing rotates. Fluids to be separated or absorbed are forced radially through a rotating packing. Rotation enhances gravity allowing the apparatus to be more compact. It can be used for dehydration and sweetening. The unit size is approximately a tenth of conventional systems but some savings would be lost since surge capacity is required. For gas treatment systems, gas enters through a nozzle located at the periphery of the casing cylinder and travels through the rotating packing into the centre from which it exits the unit. Scrubbing liquid is introduced through the central axis and is sprayed on to the rotating packing. The centrifugal forces drive the liquid droplets out to the periphery where they drain down at the wall of the unit. The gas and liquids interact as they flow countercurrent through the devices. The capital cost savings over conventional units are small but weight and space savings can be significant for offshore developments. The cost savings assume that each design is manufactured in carbon steel. If more exotic materials or higher operating pressures are required the savings will be higher since smaller diameters and thinner wall thicknesses are achievable with the Higee system.

5.3 Membrane Technology Membranes can be used for various aspects of oil and gas processing such as gas separation, dehydration, oily and injection water treatment. They are extensively used in water treatment (Fig 16). The selectivity of membranes is improving and the range of applications is widening. Membranes are thin barriers which allow preferential passage of particular materials through the structure. Membranes permeate gases at differing rates, for example C02 permeates up to 40 times faster than methane. The most widely used gas membranes partition oxygen and nitrogen, or remove C02, H2S and/or water from hydrocarbons. The latter is the main application of membranes for hydrocarbons processing. They are still in development but have established wide acceptance onshore through attributes which make them ideal for offshore use. However, there are product losses which can be reduced by recycle compression. Some 150 units are installed onshore for water and acid gas removal but few are installed offshore. Membranes have several advantages over other systems including: low capital cost which derives from their basic simplicity; ease of installation - they are modular and skid mounted and there are usually only three connections necessary to connect up a unit; weight and space savings - at low throughputs they are smaller than alternative processes - and can be configured to suit the available space; they have no moving parts (unless a compressor is used to recycle gas to increase product recoveries or improve purities) allowing them to operate as automated units and with limited maintenance crews; they have low environmental impact since no chemicals are circulated; they can work with no power or utilities but it may be beneficial to use gas cooling or heating to precondition a stream as this can increase efficiency and improve membrane life.

Membranes have recently been developed to separate heavy hydrocarbons from lighter fractions. This should enable capital and operational cost savings for hydrocarbon dewpoint and calorific value control plant. 5.4 Enhanced Oil Recovery Membranes have been used onshore for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), for example the reinjection of C02 or N2. When these gases are injected into the reservoir they dissolve into the in situ oil, which becomes less viscous and more mobile. The produced fluids will contain C02 and/or N2. These gases can be separated from hydrocarbons by membrane and recycled for reinjection. To date, no gas injection EOR has been applied offshore in the UKCS and EC, but it is standard onshore practice in the USA. Earlier studies on gas injection EOR schemes for North Sea application failed because conventional plant was large and expensive and additional oil recoveries were uneconomic. In part this was due to high purity specifications for injection gas which increased plant size and complexity. Membrane or membrane in combination with conventional systems could produce more economic plant designs for EOR. One of the principal forms of EOR is the injection of nitrogen, which is usually produced by cryogenic distillation but can also be produced by membranes, if product purities are relaxed.

6. PRODUCED WATER TREATMENT

Water treatment for injected and produced water has previously proved problematic. Traditional units such as flotation cells for produced water and dual media filters for injected water are heavy and bulky. In the case of produced water, several have failed to achieve consistent statutory residual oil levels. Several methods of water treatment have been developed including cyclonic separation, reinjection of produced water, electro coalescers, rotating cyclones and water injection cyclones. There have also been improvements in flotation cell technology though these remain large. The most notable improvement has been cyclonic separation using hydrocyclones. 6.1 Hydrocyclones There are several types of oily water hydrocyclone available including Dynaclean, Vortoil and Oilspin. They are modular and can be manifolded to provide greater capacity. Modularisation enables flexibility to turndown conditions but adds complexity of valving and piping. Oilspin consists of banks of hydrocyclones mounted within a pressure vessel which allows turndown or capacity increase as required. Both Oilspin and Vortoil use similar methods of operation. Produced water is fed into the unit via a tangential inlet, which produces a high fluid spin within the cyclone head. A vortexing core is formed by the spinning action, which allows migration of the oil droplets from the bulk of the liquid to the central core. Geometry and pressure settings of the cyclone tube cause an axial reversal of the central oil core. The lower density of the oil rich phase permits removal of the stream from the rear of the tube, while the bulk of the liquid is pushed forward and out of the tube. As in a conventional unit, the efficiency improves with increasing oil droplet size and increasing differential density between the two liquid phases. Oilspin and Vortoil require use of a downstream degasser vessel to disengage residual gas from the water in a similar manner to standard systems. Dynaclean (Fig 17) is a more recent development of a water deoiling hydrocyclone. Originally developed by Neyrtec, with sponsorship from the European Commission and Total, it has been designed specifically for application offshore. Unlike regular cyclones Dynaclean produces a vortex by rotating the cyclone tube. The system has good de-oiling characteristics without the requirement of high velocity and turbulence. Application of the Vortoil hydrocyclones for deoiling of produced water has been widespread since the mid 1980s. They generally require high feed pressures, which necessitates feed pumps to boost the inlet pressure as field pressures decline. Pumping of the feed stream is undesirable as shearing of the oil and water phases may occur. Peristaltic pumps have been used to overcome fluid shear. The hydrocyclone may be used upstream of production separators for preseparation for fields with increasing water cuts. 6.2 Flotation Cells Conventional induced gas flotation (IGF) units are bulky and heavy. The Serck Baker Induced Gas Flotation unit is relatively smaller but is still a large item. However, it provides more consistent operation. It comprises four active cells in series with combined inlet and outlet compartments. Induced gas removes residual oil from the water. Oily water enters under pressure and passes along the bottom of the vessel; this allows break out of free oil in the inlet compartment and first stage of separation. Underflow of the water avoids disturbance of the natural flow of oil droplets to the surface. The cells are fitted with a system to induce gas from the top of the vessel dispersing it as microbubbles into the water, mechanically mixing the oil and gas. The oil droplets attach to the gas bubbles, enhancing their buoyancy and rise rate. The induced gas flotation unit has several unique features:

it is a non-motorised, self-adjusting, floating oil skimming arrangement; the unit is cylindrical which requires less sealing - it is gas tight and suitable for sour water.

6.3 Electro-coalescers One problem with hydrocyclones is their sensitivity to inlet pressure. Earlier types required drive pressures of around 7 bar g (100 lb/in2g). At lower pressure there was insufficient energy (pressure drop) to allow separation. Water pressure can be increased by pumping. This shears the oil particles reducing their size and making cyclones less efficient in coalescing the oil. Upstream electro coalescers can increase the oil droplet size entering the cyclone, thereby making separation in the hydrocyclone easier and at lower pressures. The operating range of the hydrocyclone is therefore increased. 6.4 Water Treatment Membranes There has been considerable testing of produced water membranes. Tests indicate that they can be used where particle sizes are too small for cyclonic devices. If oil in water discharge levels are further reduced to below the currently required 30ppm, or soluble oil is included, they may become necessary for future platforms. Several crossflow membrane filter systems are available for deoiling. Some have automated backwashing capability, others include chemical cleaning. However, cleaning can be time consuming. While most rely on crossflow operation some require a dynamic layer, that is a precoat of larger particles which improves the efficiency of the filter. Hydrocyclones, traditional filters and flotation cells are only able to remove particulate materials. Membranes are able to remove between 20% and 50% of dissolved oil. However, they are relatively expensive compared to hydrocyclones.

7. INJECTION WATER TREATMENT New processes and equipment have been developed for sea water injection purposes, particularly filters and solid-liquid hydrocyclones for removal of larger particles prior to downstream filtering to reservoir specifications. Injection water requirements have changed recently. Previously operators required treated water to have oxygen contents of less than 5 parts per billion (ppb) and removal of 98% of solid particulate above 2 microns size. Some have retained these specifications but others have allowed them to be relaxed, resulting in a marked effect on the size and operability of units. 7.1 Fibre Filter A filter developed by BP and marketed by Kalsep, incorporates fibres which are compressed for filtration and expanded for back flushing. Compression is achieved by a twisting action which brings fibres closer together. Prior to back flushing, fibres are twisted in the opposite direction becoming separated. Compressed, the fibres trap particles greater than 5 microns; uncompressed, in back wash mode, the filter gap increases to 200 microns allowing the particles to escape. The Fibrotex filter is shown in Fig 18. The filter offers a more efficient method of filtering than that provided by the traditional particulate removal, backwash filters. The unit has the following features: water quality comparable with sand filters, that is 98% removal of all particles over 5 microns; it is fully backwashable but consumes 80-90% less backwash than conventional filters;

the unit is very compact and fully transportable; backwash takes a matter of minutes compared to 40-50 minutes required for multimedia or sand filters; it can be used as a single throughput unit or operated in series or parallel; installation and commissioning times are minimal.

7.2 Filtomat Atkins Fulford has a range of filters, named Filtomat, which are self-cleaning and allow continuous operation: standard Filtomat; Filtomat MCF; and Filtomat Thread. The standard filter comprises three chambers: coarse strainer; fine strainer; rinse.

Water is passed through the filter causing build-up of solids on the fine strainer. This is accompanied by an increase in pressure drop across the screen. At a pre-set pressure drop, the filter commences the cleaning cycle. In the MCF version cleaning is continuous. This overcomes problems of high suspended solid levels and rapid reverse side screen blockage. The cleaning mechanism is similar to the basic unit except that the dirt collector is constantly rotating, allowing high dirt loads at lower pressure drops. The Thread Filter is capable of removing 98% of suspended solids above 2 microns. The filter medium is a textile thread wound parallel onto a rigid plastic surface forming a cassette (Fig 19). A number of cassettes are manifolded in a vessel to provide the liquid flow capacity required. Liquid passes from the outside of the medium to the inside. The dirt is trapped on both the face and inside the medium (Fig 20). The cleaning cycle is performed by high pressure water jets in the direction of the main flow. Design of the jets and the filter medium allow a significant quantity of jetted water to pass through the thread layer, hit the rigid plastic surface and be propelled backwards through the medium to form a local backflush. The process provides a highly efficient method of cleaning the filter (Fig 21). 7.3 Solid/Liquid Hydrocyclones Solid/liquid hydrocyclones, such as those manufactured by Richard Mozley Ltd, can be used to remove solids from injection water and oil from drilling muds and sands. The operation of the solid/liquid hydrocyclone is much the same as its liquid/liquid counterpart. Hydrocyclones are a more compact and efficient solution for solids removal from injection water than the traditional filtration methods (Fig 22). They are typically one tenth of the weight and size of conventional units. Development of the units for offshore operations is continuing, but already the equipment has shown considerable promise as an alternative method to filtering. 8. GAS COMPRESSION There are few major advances in compression technology which would lead to significantly smaller units. Improvements in sealing and bearing arrangements have been made, in particular the use of magnetic bearings. These have limited effects on capital expenditure and

weight and space, but allow reduced maintenance and intervention. Dry seals have reduced space and weight requirements by eliminating associated equipment such as degassing plant. 8.1 Regenerative Circulator Bertin and Cie has developed the Gastight Regenerative Circulator. It is described as being a concept between centrifugal compressors and volumetric compressors which allows high pressure ratios to be developed at low flowrates. The originators identify recirculating regeneration gas for molecular sieves as an application. The compressor is claimed to be cheaper, simpler and more reliable than other options. Casing pressures are higher than for ROOTS type machines, that is up to 110 bar, as opposed to 30 to 40 bar for the latter. The range of applications offshore could be limited. Apart from circulating regeneration gas the concept might be used for low volume interstage compression.

9. MULTIPHASE PUMPING Multiphase pumps have been under development for several years. These include the rotating gear pumps developed by Multiphase Pumping Systems, which have been extensively tested. Bornemann of Germany has also developed similar pumps. Multiphase pumping will be a niche market applied to smaller oil fields, delivering oil and gas to a central facility. The satellite is likely to be less than 8,000 m3/d (50 MBOPD). At larger sizes it would probably be commercially viable to have separation facilities, unless the satellite is very close to the host platform. The closer the host facility and satellite, the less is the necessity to pump multiphase. In general, multiphase pumping will not provide significant savings of topsides weight or cost, compared with separator and conventional pump combinations, when associated gas can be flared. It could give savings if the associated gas has to be separately piped to another facility, which would entail the cost of a compressor and the additional line. However, if the multiphase line has to be in a more expensive material due to acid component levels in the gas phase, there may be no saving. BHR Group has developed a jet booster which allows multiphase pumping and compression in combination with a centrifugal pump. The centrifugal design works by recirculating some of the liquid phase, thereby reducing the fractional gas rate. Additionally, there is the Poseidon pump which is marketed by Sulzer. This is described in more detail in a THERMIE maxibrochure on multiphase technologies.

10. DRILLING FLUIDS Drilling fluids systems are not usually perceived as part of the process package. However, significant developments have been made in powder handling, mud mixing and cement mixing. In the case of powder handling and conveying, powder losses and unit sizes and weights can be reduced by low pressure fluidisation. A few platforms have applied some of the techniques. In the case of mixing, there is potential to reduce mixer size and batch quantities stored, which would have a marked effect on platform operating tonnages. This can be achieved through static in-line mixers (Alval), which can also produce a more consistent product than the usual mix tank method which requires residence time for conditioning. Little use has been made of this technology. Additionally, since residual oil levels allowed in cuttings have been reduced, there have been improved methods for the cleaning of cuttings, including solvent washing and centrifuging. This combination enables residual oil to be reduced to less than 1% by weight.

The drilling fluid handling facilities could be significantly improved by better process engineering.

11. CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION 11.1 Metering Multiphase metering is useful as it reduces the need for test separators and test lines. The Starcut Water Monitor was developed by Texaco and marketed by Jiskoot Autocontrols. It is field proven, using microwaves to provide reliable, accurate measurements of 0-100% watercut in the presence of free-gas. It is capable of unattended and remote operation in hostile environments. It can be used for watercut tests at wellheads, wet-oil transport pipelines and from separators. Other multiphase meter developments include the Fluenta meter and a new meter under test from the BHR Group (see Section 9). 11.2 Automation Process automation can enable a topsides facility to operate either unmanned or with minimum staffing. Remote control of facilities requires minimal operation and maintenance. There is no single factor which allows automation to be achieved. Improvement of reliability, sensing and controlling equipment and improvement in the reliability of rotating machinery are the main factors in meeting the objective. In the case of sensing equipment, 60% of failures are caused by human intervention either through operations or maintenance. A further 30% result from poor packaging. Only 10% are due to random component failure. The following points summarise an approach towards the achievement of unmanned facilities: simplification and minimisation of systems and equipment; minimisation of moving parts; minimisation of dependency on auxiliary systems; optimisation of pressure energy in the well fluids; installation of standbys for equipment subject to failure; over-sizing of equipment to improve reliability; utilisation of minimum or low maintenance equipment.

11.3 The PLATINE project The PLATINE project, supported by the EC THERMIE programme, was initiated in 1986 with the objective of developing an unmanned production platform which was able to operate remotely from a control location onshore (Fig 23). The project aimed to find viable means of improving the profitability of field developments, particularly to reduce operating costs and increase productivity. The project covered a number of areas including the well safety system, gas lift optimisation, and safety and surveillance.

The objective of the well safety system is to replace a conventional pneumatic control panel with a modular electronic control system, remote control of the wellhead and subsurface safety system, resulting in improved reliability. The most difficult aspect of gas lift is well start up, which if not properly controlled, will incur production losses. Automation of this operation enables a safe and controlled start up sequence which gives the forecast production at minimum injected gas flowrate. Two specific items are highlighted in the area of safety; safety sensors and integrated control and safety systems. The project reviewed gas detectors for explosive mixtures, toxic gases and fire detection sensors. New technology has been identified for use on an unmanned installation, which includes detection of explosive mixtures by infrared spectral analysis and flames by infrared emission. An integrated control and safety system study aimed to design a new control system structure by identification and classification of the functions of the process control, allowing for safety and availability criteria. In addition, currently available equipment was identified and its performance assessed. Surveillance is normally a function fulfilled by the platform operating personnel and is categorised into six main areas: intrusion detection; marine pollution detection; shock and explosion detection; liquid leakage detection; flare survey; oceanographical and meteorological information.

An unmanned platform requires specific equipment to monitor variations in these categories and a television link to relay information via a telecommunications system to the onshore control base.

OPET The Organisations for the Promotion of Energy Technologies (OPETs) Within all Member States there are a number of organisations recognised by the European Commission as an Organisation for the Promotion of Energy Technologies (OPET). It is the role of these organisations to help to coordinate specific promotional activities within Member States. These may include staging of promotional events such as conferences, seminars, workshops or exhibitions as well as the production of publications associated with the THERMIE programme. Members of the current OPET Network are: ADEME - Agence de lEnvironnement et la Maltrise de lEnergie 27, rue Louis Vicat, F- 75015 PARIS Tel: 33-1-47.65.20.21/56. Fax: 33-1-46.45.52.36 ASTER - Agenzia perlo Sviluppo Tecnologico dellEmilia Romagna, via San Felice 26, I - 40122 BOLOGNA. Tel: 39-51-23.62.42. Fax: 39-51-22.78.03 BCEOM - Societe Fran~caise dlngenierie, Place des Freres Montgolfier, F - 78286 GUYANCOURT Cedex. Tel: 33-1-30.12.49.90. Fax: 33-1-30.12.10.95 BRECSU - Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, Hertfordshire, UK- WD2 7JR. Tel:44-923-66.47.54/56. Fax: 44-923-66.40.97 CCE - Estrada de Alfragide, Praceta 1 -Alfragide, P - 2700 AMADORA. Tel: 351-1-471.14.54/81.10. Fax: 351 -1-471. 13. 1 6 CEEETA - PARTEX Cps, Cal,cada da Estrela, 82 -1 DT, P- 1200 LISBOA Tel: 351-1-395.56.08. Fax: 351-1-395 24 90 CESEN - Viale Brigata Bisagno, 2, I -16129 GENOVA Tel: 39-10-550.46.70. Fax: 39-10-550.46. 18 CORA c/o SEA - Saarlandische Energie-Agentur, Altenkesselerstrasse 17, D - 66115 SAARBRUCKEN Tel: 49-681-976.21.70. Fax: 49-681-976.21.75 COWlconsult - Engineers and Planners A/S, Parallelvej 15, DK - 2800 LYNGBY Tel: 45-45-97.22.11. Fax: 45-45-97.22.12 CRES - Centres for Renewable Energy Sources, 19 km Athinon - Marathona Avenue, GR 19009 PIKERMI. Tel: 30-1-603.99.00. Fax: 30-1-603.99.04/11

EAB - Energie-Anlagen Berlin GmbH, Flottwellstr. 4-5, D- 10722 BERLIN Tel: 49-30-25.49.6-0. Fax: 49-30-25.49.62.30 ECOTEC - Research and Consulting Ltd, Priestley House, 28-34 Albert Street, UKBIRMINGHAM B47UD. Tel: 44-21-616.10.10. Fax: 44-21-616.10.99 ECD - Energy Centre Denmark, Suhmsgade 3, DK- 1125 K0BENHAVN K Tel: 45-33-11.83.00. Fax: 45-33-11.83.33 ENEA - ERG-PROM CRE-Casaccia, ViaAnguillarese, 301, I - 00060 S. Maria di Galeria ROMA Tel: 39-6-30.48.4118-3686. Fax: 39-6-30.48.6449 ETM Consortium - European Technology Marketing, 51, rue Colonel Picquart, B-1030 BRUXELLES Tel: 32-2-539.00.15. Fax 32-2-534.86.30 ETSU - Harwell, Oxfordshire, UK - OX11 0RA Tel: 44-235-43.33.27. Fax: 44-235-43.20.50 EUROPLAN - CHORUS, 2203 Chemin de Saint Claude, Nova Antipolis, F - 06600 ANTIBES Tel: 33-93.74.31.00. Fax: 33-93.74.31.31 EVE - Ente Vasco de la Energia, Edificio Albia 1, San Vicente 8- Planta 14, E - 48001 BILBAO Tel: 34-4-423.50.50. Fax: 34-4-424.97.33 FAST - Federazione delle Associazioni Scientifiche e Tecniche, Piazzale Rodolfo Morandi 2, 120121 MILANO Tel: 39-2-76.01.56.72. Fax: 39-2-78.24.85 Fiz-Karlsruhe / KFA Julich, c/o Abt. BEO, Postfach 1913, D - 52405 JULICH Tel: 49-2461/61-3729. Fax: 49-2461/61-5837 FORBAIRT - The Irish Science and Technology Agency, Glasnevin, IR - DUBLIN 9 Tel: 353-1-837.01.01. Fax: 353-1-837.28.48 Friedemann und Johnson - Consultants, Pestalozzistr. 88, D-10625 BERLIN Tel: 49-30-312.2684. Fax: 49-30-31 3.2671 GEP - rue Louis Blanc 1, La Defense 1, F - 92038 PARIS LA DEFENSE Tel: 33-1-47.17.67.37. Fax: 33-1-47.17.67.47 GOPA - Consultants, Hindenburgring 18, D - 61348 BAD HOMBURG Tel: 49-6172-930-0. Fax: 49-61 74-3-5046 ICAEN - Institut Catala dEnergia, Avda Diagonal, 453 Bis, Atic, E - 08036 BARCELONA Tel: 34-3-439.28.00. Fax: 34-3-419.72.53 ICEU Leipzig GmbH, Auenstr. 25, D - 04105 LEIPZIG Tel: 49-341-29.46.02/43.50. Fax: 49-341-29.09.04 ICIE - Istituto Cooperativo per llnnovazione, Via Nomentana 133, I - 00161 ROMA Tel: 39-6-884.58.48. Fax: 39-6-855.02.50 IDAE - Instituto para la Diversificacion y Ahorro de la Energ~a, P de la Castellana 95 - P 21E - 28046 MADRID

Tel: 34-1-556.84.15. Fax: 34-1-555.13.89 IMPIVA Instituto de la Mediana y Pequena Industria, Valenciana, Avellanas 14 - 3 F, E - 46003 VALENCIA Tel: 34-6-392.00.05/04/03. Fax: 34-6-391.44.60 INETI/ITE Instituto Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia industrial, Instituto das Tecnologias Energeticas, Asinhapa dos Lameros a Estrada do Pa~co do Lumiar, P- 1699 LISBOA Codex Tel: 351-1-716.52.99. Fax: 351-1-716.46.35 INNOTEC - Systemanalyse GmbH, Kurfurstendamm 199, D- 10719 BERLIN. Tel: 49-30-882.32.51/34.32. Fax: 49-30-885.44.33 INSTITUT WALLON ASBL, 10 Bld. Baron Huart, B - 5000 NAMUR Tel: 32-81-23.04.52. Fax: 32-81-23.07.42 IRO - Branchver.voor Nederlandse Toeleveranciers in Olie en Gasindustrie, Engelandlaan 330, NL - 2701 AG ZOETERMEER Tel: 31-79-41.19.81. Fax: 31-79-41.97.64 KEMA - PO Box 9035( NL-6800 ET), Utrechtseweg 310, NL - 6812 AR ARNHEM Tel: 31-85-56.24.77. Fax: 31-85-51.73.62 LDK - Consultants Engineers & Planners, 7 Sp Triantafyllou Str., GR -113 61 ATHENS. Tel: 30-1-862.96.60. Fax: 30-1-861.76.81 LUXCONTROL - Avenue des Terres Rouges 1, L- 4004 ESCH-SUR-ALZETTE Tel: 352-54.77.111. Fax: 352-54.79.30 MARCH Consulting Group - Telegraphic House, Waterfront 2000, Salford Quays, UK MANCHESTER M5 2XW Tel: 44-61-872.36.76. Fax: 44-61-848.01.81 NIFES - National Industrial Fuel Efficiency Service Ltd, 8, WoodsideTerrace, GLASGOW UKG3 7UY Tel: 44-41-332.24.53. Fax: 44-41-333.04.02 NOVEM - The Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Environment, (PO Box 17) Swentiboldstraat 21, NL - 6130 AA SITTARD Tel: 31-46.59.52.76. Fax: 31-46.52.82.60 OCICARBON - Asociacion Gestora para la Investigacion y Desarrollo Tecnologico del Carbon, C/ Agustin de Foxa 29 4 A, E - 28036 MADRID Tel: 34-1-733.86.62. Fax: 34-1-314.06.46 PSTI - The Petroleum Science and Technology Institute, Offshore Technology Park, Exploration Drive, UK - ABERDEEN AB23 8GX Tel: 44-22-470.66.00. Fax: 44-22-470.66.01 RARE c/o RHONALPENERGIE2 - Rue de la Republique 69, F - 69002 LYON Tel: 33-78.37.29.14. Fax: 33-78.37.64.91 SODEAN - Sociedad para el Desarrollo Energetico de Andalucia s.a., Bolivia 11, E - 41012 SEVILLA Tel: 34-5-462.60.01/11. Fax: 34-5-462.63.01

SOGES Organizzazione e Gestione - Corso Turati 49, I -10128 TORINO Tel: 39 ~ 319.08.33. Fax: 39 ~ 31 9.02.92 SYNERGIA - Apollon Tower, 64, Louise Riencourt Street, GR -1 1 5 23 ATHENS Tel: 30-1-69.20.961. Fax: 30-1 -64.96. 1 86 TUV RHEINLAND - Institutfur Umweltschutz und Energietechnik, (KST 931) Am Grauen Stein, D - 51105 KOLN Tel: 49-221-806.0. Fax: 49-221-806-13.50 UCD - University College Dublin, Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, Richview, Clonskeagh, IR- DUBLIN 14 Tel: 353-1-269.27.50. Fax: 353-1-283.89.08

VLAAMSE THERMIE COORDINATIE - Markiesstraat 1, 8e verdieping, B -1000 BRUSSEL Tel: 32-2-507.43.31. Fax: 32-2-507.44.38 Zr-E - Zweckverband Regionale, Entwicklung und Energie, Wieshuberstrasse 3, D - 93059 REGENSBURG Tel: 49-941-42004. Fax: 49-941-44691

Produced by: The Petroleum Science and Technology Institute Offshore Technology Park Exploration Drive Aberdeen AB23 8GX - UK Tel: +44 224 706600 Fax: +44 224 706601 By Order of: European Commission Directorate-General for Energy DG XVII Strategy - Dissemination - Evaluation (D/1) 200 rue de la Loi, B-1049 Brussels, Belgium