High Hydrostatic Processing Pressure in Cheese

High Hydrostatic Pressure Processing of Cheese
Yamile Mart nez-Rodr guez, Carlos Acosta-Mu niz, Guadalupe I. Olivas, Jos e Guerrero-Beltr an, Dolores Rodrigo-Aliaga, and David R. Sep ulveda Abstract: High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is a cutting-edge processing technology attracting research and industrial interest in the food sector due to its potential to produce microbiologically safe products, modify the functional properties of proteins and polysaccharides, and alter biochemical reactions without signicantly affecting the nutritional and sensory properties of food. Currently, there are only a limited number of pressure-treated cheese products available in the market. Nevertheless, results from numerous research studies on various cheese varieties seem promising, especially since HHP technology is today more cost-effective than in the past. Considering the progress made in the application of HHP on cheese during the past 15 years, this paper reviews the direct application of HHP treatments to cheese and the effects it has on its microbiology and ripening process, as well as on quality parameters such as physicochemical, rheological, and sensory properties. Detailed information of published studies is presented with the aim of providing a clear picture of the use of this technology on cheese processing. Areas of research in need of more attention are also identied.
Introduction
Consumer demand for more natural, preservative-free, tastier, and more wholesome foods has led to the search of improved food processing technologies. Many research studies over the years have shown that high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) technology is capable of producing microbiologically safe products, with additional advantages for consumers and food processors over thermal processing. Unlike thermal pasteurization, HHP can maintain key quality attributes such as food freshness, nutritional value, and sensory properties because it only affects noncovalent bonds, thus amino acids, vitamins, avor molecules, and other low-molecularweight compounds remain unaffected. Furthermore, HHP can lower production costs due to energy savings (Toep and others 2006; Pereira and Vicente 2010), reduced processing times (Serrano and others 2004), and fewer handling steps (Serrano and others 2005), and modify the functional properties of proteins and polysaccharides, which could lead to the development of novel or improved products. The industrial use of HHP in different food sectors around the world has risen from 1 in 1990 to 130 in 2009, making acquisition costs more accessible as demand increases (Purroy 2009). Based on the isostatic principle, pressure applied in HHP treatments is instantaneously and uniformly transmitted throughout the food, regardless of size, shape, and composition. In cheese manMS 20120087 Submitted 1/16/2012, Accepted 3/18/2012. Authors Mart nezRodr guez, Acosta-Mu niz, Olivas, and Sep ulveda are with Centro de Investigaci on en Alimentaci on y Desarrollo A.C., Unidad Cuauht emoc, Av. Rio Conchos S/N, Parque Industrial. C. P. 31570, Apartado Postal 781, Cd. Cuauht emoc, Chihuahua, M exico. Author Guerrero-Beltr an is with Univ. de las Am ericas Puebla, Sta. Catarina M artir, Cholula, Puebla, C.P. 72810, M exico. Author Rodrigo-Aliaga is with Instituto de Agroqu mica y Tecnolog a de Alimentos, CSIC, Apartado Postal 73, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Espa na. Direct inquiries to author Sep ulveda (E-mail: dsepulveda@ciad.mx).
ufacturing, the application of HHP initially focused on pressuretreating milk and making cheese therefrom, resulting in microorganism inactivation, reduced rennet coagulation time, and increased cheese yield, which many research groups have reviewed (Trujillo and others 2000a, 2002; OReilly and others 2001; Huppertz and others 2002; L opez-Fandi no 2006; San Mart nGonz alez and others 2006). However, more recently, researchers have applied HHP directly to the pressed curd and/or ripened cheese, and studies have centered on 2 main areas: cheese preservation and modication of the ripening process. Pressures applied from 200 to 800 MPa have shown the ability to inactivate lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms present in cheese, whereas a combination of low-pressure treatments followed by high pressure treatments has been employed with some degree of success for the inactivation of bacterial spores in cheese. The effect of HHP on the ripening process has produced varied results in different cheese varieties studied and in their physicochemical and sensory characteristics, resulting sometimes in ripening acceleration and with some others in deceleration. This review takes into account all the studies that have been conducted in the past decade dealing with HHP processing of pressed curds and/or cheese, as well as pertinent results and integrates and critically discusses the most relevant aspects regarding this topic.
High Hydrostatic Pressure Inactivation of Microorganisms in Cheese

Food scientists have employed HHP technology in cheese processing to inactivate toxigenic and infectious pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Aeromonas hydrophila, Salmonella enterica, and Yersinia enterocolitica, as well as spoilage microorganisms such as Staphylococcus carnosus, Enterococcus spp., coliforms, yeasts, and molds, and also microbial spores from Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, and Penicillium roqueforti (Table 1). Results have revealed that HHP treatments cause
c 2012 Institute of Food Technologists doi: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2012.00192.x
Vol. 11, 2012 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 399
High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .
400 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 11, 2012
Table 1Effect of HHP treatments on vegetative forms and microbial spores in cheese.
Microorganism Cheese Moment of application Treatment conditions Initial counts Inactivation (log10 cfu/g) (log10 cfu/g) Reference evaluated variety (days of ripening) P (MPa)/ t (min)/T ( C) E. coli CECT 405 Mat o 1 400500/515/2, 10 and 25 8 CIa Capellas and others 1996 E. coli K-12 Cheddar cheese slurry 1 400/20/30 7 CI OReilly and others 2000a E. coli K-12 Cheddar (raw milk cheese) 1 350/5/50 6.5 CI Shao and others 2007 c E. coli O157:H7 Raw milk cheese 2 or 50 500/5/10 5.11 (control d 60) CI (d 60) Rodr guez and others 2005 E. coli O59:H21 and O157:H7 Washed-curd 1 500/10/20 About 7 CI De Lamo-Castellv and others 2006 S. aureus ATCC 6538 Cheddar cheese slurry 1 600/20/20 7 CI OReilly and others 2000a S. aureus CECT 976 Raw milk cheese 50 500/5/10 5.30 (control d 60) CI (d 60) Arqu es and others 2005a S. aureus CECT 4013 and ATCC 13565 Washed-curd 1 500/10/5 7.5 6 and 4.7 (d 30) L opez-Pedemonte and others 2007b S. carnosus CECT 4491 Mat o 1 500/5/50 8 7 Capellas and others 2000 Coagulase-positive staphylococci Swiss cheese slurry 1 345 or 550/10, or 30/25 3.3 CI Ding and others 2001 Coagulase-positive staphylococci La Serena (raw milk cheese) 2 300400/10/10 3.07 (control d 30) CI (d 30) Arqu es and others 2006 L. monocytogenes F13 Sainte-Maure de Touraine 14 500/5/11 About 7 5.6 Gallot-Lavall ee 1998 L. monocytogenes (serotype 1/2a) Gorgonzola cheese rind 1 700/15/30 7 5 Carminiati and others 2004 L. monocytogenes Scott A Raw milk cheese 50 300/10/10 5.66 (control d 60) CI (d 60) Arqu es and others 2005b L. monocytogenes ATCC 19115 and Washed-curd 1 500/10/5, or 20 7.5 about 5 (both strains d 30) L opez-Pedemonte and others 2007a Scott A L. monocytogenes ATCC 19115 Turkish white-brined 1 600/10/25 7.5 4.9 Evrendilek and others 2008 Y. enterocolitica O:1, O:3 and O:8 Washed-curd 1 400500/10/20 4.36, 6.03, and 5.28 CI De Lamo-Castellv and others 2005 S. Enteritidis CECT 4300 and Washed-curd 1 400/10/25 6.45 and 6.03 CI De Lamo-Castellv and others 2007 S. Typhimurium CECT 443 Mesophilic and thermophilic LAB Hisp anico (raw milk cheese) 1 500/10/8 8.38 and 6.45 2.1 and 1.9 Alonso and others 2011 Lactic fermentation streptococci Edam 8 wkb 400/120/25 9.41 5.06 Reps and others 2009 Total aerobic mesophilic bacteria Lactococcus spp. Turkish white-brined 1 1600/10/25 7.9, 8.3, and 7.6 5.2, 5.5, and 4.7 Evrendilek and others 2008 Lactobacillus spp. Lactococcus lactis (227 and 303) Cheddar 1 400/20/25 6.24 and 9.75 2.8 and 3.1 OReilly and others 2002a Starter and nonstarter LAB Swiss cheese slurry 1 500/30/25 7.7 and 4 1.7 and CI Ding and others 2001 P. roqueforti IMI 297987 spores Cheddar cheese slurry 1 500/20/20 6 CI OReilly and others 2000a B. subtilis CECT 4491 spores Mat o 1 60/210/40500/15/40 About 5 (in milk) 4.9 Capellas and others 2000 B. cereus ATCC 9139 spores Washed-curd (raw milk cheese) 1 60/210/30400/15/30 6 2 L opez-Pedemonte and others 2003
2012 Institute of Food Technologists
a CI = complete inactivation; b wk = weeks; c d=day.

structural and functional alterations in vegetative cells and spores leading to cell injury or death. These include cell membrane disruption or increased permeability, ribosomal destruction, collapse of intracellular vacuoles, denaturation of membrane-bound proteins, damage to the proton efux system, inactivation of key enzymes, including those involved in DNA replication and transcription, release of dipicolinic acid and small acid-soluble spore proteins, and hydrolysis of spore core and cortex (Black and others 2011). The factors that inuence microbial inactivation by HHP treatments can be classied into 3 groups: microbial characteristics, process conditions, and product parameters (Ma nas and Pag an 2005). Several authors have used a combination of HHP treatments with other preservation technologies such as antimicrobial agents to enhance the inactivation rate. Previous research had associated this behavior to the synthesis of new proteins when bacteria enter the stationary phase, protecting cells against adverse conditions (Patterson and others 2006).
Effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Vegetative Forms of Microorganisms in Cheese

Microbial characteristics Yeasts and molds are the microorganisms most sensitive to HHP treatments. Yeasts are not commonly associated with food-borne disease but are important in spoilage (Patterson 2005). Daryaei and others (2008) reported that pressure treatments 300 MPa applied for 5 min to fresh lactic curd cheese were capable of effectively controlling the outgrowth of yeasts, therefore, extending product shelf-life from 3 to 68 wk. Generally, Gram-positive bacteria are more pressure-resistant than Gram-negative bacteria. However, there are notable exceptions to the previous statement. For example, Shao and others (2007) inoculated raw milk Cheddar cheese with E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes Scott A and found E. coli to be more baroresistant, with decimal reduction values (D-values) at 300 MPa and 25 C of 14.5 and 3.6 min, respectively. It has been suggested that the lack of teichoic acid in the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria makes them more susceptible to HHP treatments than Gram-positive bacteria (Datta and Deeth 2002). Several research studies have indicated variations in resistance to HHP among bacterial strains. Strains isolated from foods are generally more pressure-resistant than strains from culture collections (Cheftel 1995). De Lamo-Castellv and others (2005) observed that Y. enterocolitica CECT 4055 (setotype O:3) was more barotolerant than 2 other human pathogenic strains (CECT 559 and CECT 4054) of Y. enterocolitica in washed-curd cheese treated at 300 MPa. OReilly and others (2000a) showed that food isolates of S. aureus were more pressure-resistant than S. aureus ATCC 6538, but E. coli K-12 was more pressure-resistant than food isolates, with values varying by approximately 2 log cfu/g for both bacterial species in Cheddar cheese slurry pressure-treated at 400 MPa for 20 min. L opez-Pedemonte and others (2007a) assessed the inactivation of L. monocytogenes NCTC 11994 and Scott A in washed-curd cheese at 400 and 500 MPa for 10 min, and reported strain NCTC 11994 to be more sensitive to HHP. OReilly and others (2002a) added 4 Lactococcus lactis strains (303, 223, 227, AM2) in pasteurized milk to make miniature cheese and found that at 400 MPa for 20 min, L. lactis 227 was the most pressuretolerant with a 2.8 log cycle reduction, while L. lactis AM2 was the most pressure-sensitive with a 5.2 log cycle reduction. Microbial resistance to HHP depends not only on the intrinsic resistance of the microorganisms but also on their physiological state (Ma nas and Pag an 2005). OReilly and others (2000a) observed that cells of S. aureus ATCC 6538 and E. coli K-12 in the exponential phase of growth were more sensitive to HHP treatments in Cheddar cheese slurry than cells in the stationary phase.
c
Process conditions Like any other food preservation technology, in HHP processing, increasing the intensity of treatments or extending their length of exposure will lead to an increased microbial inactivation rate. Nevertheless, there is a minimum critical pressure below which microbial inactivation by pressure will not occur irrespective of process time. Ding and others (2001) observed that higher pressure conditions (345 and 550 MPa) and longer exposure times (10 and 30 min) achieved a greater reduction in numbers of undesirable bacteria in the natural microora of Swiss cheese slurries (coliforms, presumptive coagulase-positive Staphylococcus, yeasts, and molds) and in starter LAB added to milk for acid production and avor development. Fonberg-Broczek and others (2005) found that A. hydrophila strains (Pa nstwowy Instytut Weterynaryjny N.98, Pa nstwowy Inspekcja Sanitarna N. 98, Inspekcja Sanitarna N. 95) in samples of Gouda cheese treated at 100 MPa and 50 C had a D-value of 32.05 min, while at 200 MPa the D-value fell to 12.97 min, and to 2.43 min when subjected to 300 MPa. More recently, in raw milk Cheddar cheese, an increase in pressure intensity from 250 to 350 MPa applied at 25 C resulted in a decrease of D-values from 23.5 to 1.4 min for L. monocytogenes Scott A (Shao and others 2007). L opez-Pedemonte and others (2007b) studied the efcacy of HHP treatments on the inactivation of S. aureus CECT4013 and ATCC13565 in washed-curd cheese and the presence of staphylococcus enterotoxin (SE) A (articially inoculated) only in cheese containing ATCC13565. Inactivation of S. aureus increased as pressure increased from 300 to 500 MPa. However, all cheese samples still contained SE, but it was not clear if it retained its toxic activity or not. No other research group has addressed the impact of HHP on bacterial toxins in cheese. SEs are relatively heat-resistant, with D-values at 121 C for SE A, B, and C ranging from 8.3 to 34 min (Tibana and others 1987). Margosch and others (2005) studied the effect of HHP and heat on several bacterial toxins in buffer and reported that pressurization (0.1 to 800 MPa for 30 to 120 min) of SE A-E at 5 and 20 C caused no observable effect. A combined heat (80 C) and pressure (0.1 to 800 MPa) treatment led to a decrease in the immunoreactivity to 20% of its maximum. The high barotolerance of SEs is clear from the information provided by this study. Temperature including adiabatic heating in HHP processing can have a signicant effect on microbial survival. Adiabatic heating is approximately 3 C for every 100 MPa, depending on the food composition (Farkas and Hoover 2000). A greater antimicrobial impact can be achieved with moderate pressure treatments and shorter pressure holding times when combining high temperatures with HHP treatments. However, the use of high temperatures could lead to undesirable effects in certain cheese quality parameters. Capellas and others (2000) noticed that S. carnosus 4491 CECT counts in Mat o cheese could not be greatly decreased with pressure treatments at 500 MPa for 30 min at 10 or 25 C, whereas treatments at 50 C for 5 min achieved a 7 log cycle reduction. However, treatments at 50 C caused high whey losses and unacceptable textural characteristics. Shao and others (2007) evaluated the effect of HHP treatments at 350 MPa for 5 min at 10 to 50 C on E. coli K-12 inactivation in raw milk Cheddar cheese. They also determined pressure destruction kinetics at 200 to

Carminati and others (2004) determined the inactivation effectiveness of HHP treatments applied for 1 to 15 min at 30 C and 400 to 700 MPa on the inactivation of 7 hemolytic strains (isolated from the surface of Gorgonzola cheese) belonging to serotype 1/2a of L. monocytogenes in Gorgonzola cheese rind. The authors reported a strong resistance of the microorganism to pressures up to 500 MPa, requiring treatments of 700 MPa for 15 min to reduce L. monocytogenes at least 5 log cycles. In contrast, Gallot-Lavall ee (1998) registered 5.6 log cycle reductions of L. monocytogenes F13 in 14-d-old Sainte Maure de Touraine cheese applying HHP treatments of 450 MPa for 10 min or 500 MPa for 5 min at 11 C. Differences in pH, aw , and the strains studied could account for the discrepancies encountered in the sensitivity to HHP treatments of the microorganism in both studies. The lower pH of Sainte Maure de Touraine cheese (4.7), compared to the Gorgonzola cheese rind (7.0), and its higher aw may favor a Product parameters Cheese is a food consisting of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, salts, greater bacterial inactivation rate. and minerals. Research studies have indicated that such components can inuence microbial susceptibility to HHP inactivation, HHP in combination with other preservation technologies acting as protective colloids to bacterial cells by maintaining the Several authors have reported a synergistic effect between presmembrane in a more uid state during pressure treatments, thus sure and antimicrobial compounds like bacteriocins of LAB. enhancing their resistance to pressure (Molina-H oppner and oth- Rodr guez and others (2005) investigated E. coli O157:H7 iners 2004). Carbohydrates are generally more protective than salts activation in raw milk cheese made with bacteriocin-producing (Smelt 1998). Water activity and pH also play important roles. In LAB and HHP-treated on day 2 and 50 at 300 and 500 MPa. low aw environments, enhanced survival of microorganisms oc- The authors observed a synergistic effect after 3 d of ripening that curs due to cell shrinkage, which causes thickening of the cell persisted in 60-d-old cheese. Application of the combined treatmembrane, thus reducing its permeability (Goh and others 2007). ment at day 50 was more effective than when applied on day 2, Nevertheless, microorganisms injured by pressure are generally resulting in complete inactivation of E. coli in 60-d-old pressuremore sensitive to low water activity (Smelt 1998). Bacteria are treated cheese (300 MPa) made with nisin A-producing L. lactis sensitive to low pH and more sensitive to suboptimal pH after subsp. lactis TAB 50, L. lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis TAB pressure treatments, therefore, low pH will not only enhance in- 57 producing noncharacterized bacteriocin TAB 57, enterocin activation during HHP treatments, but also inhibit outgrowth of I-producing E. faecalis TAB 52, and enterocin AS-48-producing E. faecalis INIA 4. The authors attributed the higher inactivation injured cells (Smelt 1998). Morales and others (2006) evaluated the effect of cheese aw rate of HHP treatments applied at 50 d postmanufacture to difand carbohydrate content on the barotolerance of L. monocyto- ferences in the physiological status of cells and to more favorable genes Scott A. As expected, the higher the aw of the cheese, the conditions (substrate availability) for injured cells to recover at the higher the inactivation rate, being 3.8 log cycle reductions at 400 beginning stages of manufacturing rather than at more advanced MPa for 3 min in Hisp anico cheese (aw value of 0.983) and 1 log stages. They hypothesized that synergism occurred due to subcycle reduction in Mah on cheese (aw of 0.922) at 400 MPa for lethal injury of the outer membrane of Gram-negative cells or 18 min. Addition of lactose at a concentration of 5 mg/g to an changes in membrane uidity caused by HHP treatments, facil85:15 mixture of Mah on cheese:distilled water did not inuence itating the access of bacteriocins through the cytoplasmic memes and others (2005a,b) reported similar results when L. monocytogenes barotolerance. On the other hand, galactose at brane. Arqu the same concentration had a protective effect during HHP treat- combining bacteriocin-producing LAB and HHP treatments on ments and glucose favored L. monocytogenes Scott A survival during S. aureus CECT 976 and L. monocytogenes Scott A survival in raw milk cheese. One day after pressure treatments, counts of S. aurefrigerated storage of pressurized samples. De Lamo-Castellv and others (2006) reported that no viable reus in control cheese were 6.46 log cfu/g. Bacteriocin-producing cells of E. coli O59:H21 and O157:H7 were found in pressure- LAB lowered counts in cheese by up to 0.46 log cfu/g, while treated (500 MPa) washed-curd cheese manufactured with and HHP treatments at 300 MPa caused a reduction of 0.45 log cfu/g without starter culture when analyzed immediately after treat- and 2.43 log cfu/g at 500 MPa. Cheese made with bacteriocinments. However, in cheese made with starter (pH 4.78), no cell- producing LAB treated at 300 MPa lowered S. aureus counts on injury recovery was observed after 15 d of storage at 8 C, whereas day 3 by up to 1.02 log cfu/g and by up to 4.00 log cfu/g at in cheese made without starter (pH 6.46) injured cells of both 500 MPa. For L. monocytogenes, control cheese had 7.03 log cfu/g, serotypes recovered reaching counts of up to 6 log cfu/g at the while cheese with bacteriocin-producing LAB had a population of end of the storage period. In a later study, the same research group 6.41 log cfu/g. Treatments at 300 MPa lowered counts to 6.13 log evaluated the effect of similar HHP treatment conditions on other cfu/g and the combined effect of both treatments lowered counts pathogenic bacteria. HHP treatments at 300 and 400 MPa ap- to 3.83 log cfu/g. In summary, HHP can increase the shelf-life and improve the plied to cheese made with starter culture (pH about 4.82) caused complete inactivation of S. Enteritidis CECT 4300 and S. Ty- safety of many cheese varieties. Recently, there have been many phimurium CECT 443 with no recovery following 15 d of storage at disease outbreaks associated with raw or pasteurized cheese con12 C (De Lamo-Castellv and others 2007). In cheese made with- sumption all around the world (Table 2), which could be prevented out starter culture (pH about 6.53) injured cells of both serotypes with the use of HHP alone or in combination with other preserrecovered reaching counts over 3 log cfu/g after 15 d of storage. vation technologies. The barotolerance of spoilage and pathogenic
c
300 MPa at 25 C. The authors reported that inactivation of E. coli became more signicant as the temperature applied in HHP treatments increased above 40 C. The D-value at 300 MPa was of 4.4 min. OReilly and others (2000a) also observed that reduction in total viable numbers of E. coli K-12 in Cheddar cheese slurry increased in parallel with the increase of temperature in pressure treatments above 300 MPa. However, the D-value at 300 MPa evaluated at 20 C widely differed from that indicated by Shao and others, being 22 min. Differences between studies could be related to the temperatures used in the experiments, which were 5 C higher in Cheddar cheese than in slurry. Another plausible explanation may lie in the cheese matrix, with E. coli more sensitive to pressure in cheese than in slurry as a result of acid injury to the bacteria during fermentation (OReilly and others 2000a).

Table 2Recent outbreaks associated with cheese contaminated with pathogenic bacteria. Year 1995 1997 2001 2001 2002 2006 2007 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010 2011 2011 2011 2012 Country France, Germany, and Italy USA Italy, Germany, Austria, and France France Canada France USA USA USA USA USA Canada USA USA USA Australia Cheese variety Soft and semi soft cheese Raw milk cheese Soft and hard cheese Cantal cheese Unpasteurized Gouda cheese Raw milk cheese Raw milk fresh cheese Cold pack cheese food Queso fresco, panela, reques on Gorgonzola cheese Gouda and other cheese Grated cheese Queso fresco Blue cheese Cheddar cheese spread Country cheese Pathogen L. monocytogenes S. Typhimurium DT104 L. monocytogenes S. enterica E. coli O157:H7 S. enterica S. Typhimurium L. monocytogenes L. monocytogenes E. coli O157:H7 E. coli O157:H7 L. monocytogenes L. monocytogenes S. aureus L. monocytogenes Salmonella spp. E. coli O157:H7 L. monocytogenes Reference Loncarevic and others 1995 Villar and others 1999 Rudolf and Scherer 2001 Haeghebaert and others 2003 AICF 2003 Dom nguez and others 2009 CDC 2007 FDA 2010 FDA 2010 FDA 2010 CDC 2010 CFIA 2011 FDA 2011 FSN 2011 Marler 2011 Food Standards 2012
bacteria in cheese follow the order: S. aureus > L. monocytogenes > E. coli > A. hydrophila > Y. enterocolitica > S. enterica > yeasts, and molds. HHP treatments can achieve complete inactivation of microorganisms in some cases. However, upon prolonged storage injured cells may recover. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct shelf-life studies over a period of time to ensure microbial safety. Generally speaking, HHP treatments will cause a higher microbial inactivation rate in cheese with higher aw and lower pH value. Additionally, the effectiveness of pressure treatments is greater when applied at more advanced stages of ripening, which also guarantees safety in cheese contaminated postpasteurization. In certain cheese varieties, for example, fresh cheese, the use of high temperatures (above 40 C) in HHP treatments could result in high whey losses and unacceptable textural characteristics. The combined effect between HHP treatments and bacteriocin-producing LAB is synergistic, enhancing the rate of microbial inactivation as compared to HHP treatments alone. An area of research that needs more attention is the effect of HHP on the inactivation of bacterial toxins. The pH of the system affects the susceptibility of enterotoxins to thermal inactivation (Erikson 2003). Hence, strategies such as low pH values combined with HHP treatments should be investigated.
Effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Microbial Spores in Cheese

HHP treatment at 400 MPa applied to cheese at room temperature can easily inactivate yeast and mold spores. In Cheddar cheese slurry, OReilly and others (2000a) reported 6 log cycle reductions of P. roqueforti spores at 400 MPa for 20 min at 20 C, which did not recover following 72 h of incubation at 8 C. On the other hand, bacterial spores can survive temperatures over 100 C and pressures exceeding 1000 MPa (Smelt and others 2002). Factors such as the low spore core water content, a thick peptidoglycan layer, low permeability of the inner spore membrane to hydrophilic molecules, and high levels of minerals and dipicolinic acid account for their high resistance (Knorr and others 2011). The mechanism of bacterial spore inactivation by HHP involves spore sensitization, at 1st by low-pressure treatments resulting in the activation of nutrient germinant receptors, followed by high pressure treatments to inactivate the resultant germinated spores (Black and others 2007). During inactivation, events such as the release of dipicolinic acid and small acid-soluble spore proteins, the hydrolysis of core and cortex, and the decrease of intracellular pH occur (Rendueles and others 2011).
c
Germination treatments of 60 MPa at 25 C for 210 min, followed by inactivation treatments of 500 MPa at 25 C for 15 min, caused a lethality of 2.7 log cycles of B. subtilis 4491 CECT spores in Mat o cheese that started with an initial concentration of around 5 log cfu/mL in pasteurized milk prior to cheese making (Capellas and others 2000). The same combination of treatments applied at 40 C caused a 4.9 log cycle reduction. Under similar conditions (60 MPa during 210 min at 30 C, followed by 500 MPa for 5 min at 30 C), L opez and others (2003) reported a 2 log cycle reduction of B. cereus ATCC 9139 spores (initial count of 6 log cfu/g) after 15 d of HHP treatments in washed-curd cheese. Additionally, the same research group assessed the effect of pressure combined with the addition of nisin or lysozyme to cheese (L opez-Pedemonte and others 2003). The highest inactivation rate achieved was 2.4 log cycle reductions at a germination cycle of 60 MPa at 30 C for 210 min, followed by a destruction cycle of 400 MPa at 30 C for 15 min with the presence of nisin (1.56 mg/L of milk). It is clear from the few studies presented in this section that this area of research needs attention in order to gain a better understanding of what factors could help enhance the inactivation of microbial spores in cheese. Black and others (2011) stated that the problems with the use of cycle treatments are super-dormancy and inability to achieve 100% germination, which leads to low inactivation rates. The use of high temperatures (above 40 C) in HHP treatments leads to higher spore inactivation rates as demonstrated by Capellas and others (2000). However, as previously mentioned, it may cause negative impacts on other cheese quality attributes. To avoid the use of high temperatures, the combination of 1 or more hurdles with HHP such as bacteriocin-producing LAB or low pH values should be assessed.
Effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Cheese Ripening and Related Agents

Cheese ripening is a slow and expensive process due to high storage costs. Therefore, an efcient way to reduce aging time without signicantly affecting other quality attributes would provide signicant savings to cheese manufacturers (El Soda and Awad 2011). Proteolysis, lipolysis, and glycolysis along with secondary reactions of the products formed are the biochemical events involved in ripening, catalyzed by enzymes derived from milk, coagulant, starter LAB, nonstarter LAB, adjunct secondary cultures, and secondary ora. Numerous research groups have assessed the application of HHP treatments to accelerate the ripening of cheese. The conditions evaluated can be grouped into: high pressure held
Table 3Effect of HHP treatments on the ripening process of different cheese varieties. Treatment conditions P (MPa)/t (min, hd )/T ( C) Effects Yokoyama and others 1992 OReilly and others 2000b OReilly and others 2003 Reference 50/72 h/25 50/72 h/25 70400/3.581.5 h/25
Cheese variety Proteolysis Cheddar
Moment of application
After salting
Cheddar
2, 7, 14, or 21 da
Cheddar
1d
Cheddar 0.1500/4 h/5 50/8 h/20 400600/10/20 50 or 500/20100/14 200 or 400/30/25 50 or 100/0.5 h/18 400/520/212 5 400/5/14 followed by 50/72 h/14 200500/10/12 400/5/10 300 or 400/10/10
1 or 4 mob 200800/5/25
Wick and others 2004 Kolakowski and others 1998 Messens and others 2000, 2001 Voigt and others 2010
Camembert P` ere Joseph and Paillardin
5 or 10 d 2d
Blue-veined
42 d
Gouda
After brining, 5 or 10 d
Edam
After salting, 4, 6, and 8 wkc
Similar taste and FAAe content of a 6 mo-old commercial cheese obtained in 3 d (Cheddar: 26.5 mg/g, Parmensan: 76.7 mg/g). Faster s1 -casein hydrolysis and accumulation of s1 -I-casein. Increased pH 4.6 SNf /TNg and FAA levels. Maximum accumulation of s1 -I-casein at 100 MPa and greatest increase in levels of pH 4.6 SN/TN below150 MPa. Total FAA decreased as pressure increased. Ripening deceleration at pressure treatments 400 MPa. Most intense proteolysis at 50 MPa on d 10. Accelerated proteolysis due to increased enzyme activity and weakening of hydrophobic interactions. Accelerated breakdown of - and s2 -casein and increased levels of PTAh SN/TN. No changes in pH 4.6 SN, PTA SN/TN, FAA content and SDS-PAGE proles. No changes in different fractions of nitrogen compounds. No effect on the extent of casein degradation, pH 4.6 SN/TN and total levels of FAA.
Kolakowski and others 1998; Messens and others 1999 Iwa nczak and Wi sniewska 2005;
Wachowska 2010 Johnston and Darcy 2000; OReilly and others 2002b; Sheehan and others 2005 Saldo and others 2000 Juan and others 2007a; Juan and others 2008 vila and others 2006 A Garde and others 2007 Ripening period reduced from 28 to 14 d. Increased peptidolytic activity and highest amount of FAA at 300 MPa applied on d 1. Treatments of 500 MPa decelerated primary proteolysis. Accelerated casein hydrolysis and increased total FAA content. Levels of proteolysis were higher when HHP treatments were applied at 400 MPa on d 2 compared to other treatments. 400/5/14 200500/10/12 Saldo and others 2003 Juan and others 2007b 400/5/10 400/10/25 400600/10/20 400/10/25 vila and others 2007 A Rynne and others 2008 Voigt and others 2010 Concentration of total lactate in HHP-treated cheese was signicantly lower compared to the control after 180 d of ripening. Rynne and others 2008 Decelerated lipolysis due to lactic acid bacteria or lipolytic enzymes inactivation. Lowest concentration of total FFAi at pressure treatments of 400 to 500 MPa applied on d 15 after 60 d of ripening compared to other treatments. Highest levels of FFAs were obtained at 300 MPa applied on day 1 compared to other treatments. Esterase activity was not modied. Negligible differences in individual FFA levels compared to control. Lipolysis was not signicantly different from control over 180 d Reduced lipolytic activity of P. roqueforti.
Extracts of frozen Edam Reduced-fat, low-moisture, and immature mozzarella Garrotxa Ewes milk cheese
1d 1, 5, 15, 20, and 25 d
1d 1 or 15 d
Hisp anico
15 d
La Serena
2 or 50 d
Lipolysis Garrotxa
1d
Ewes milk cheese
1 or 15 d
Hisp anico
15 d
Full-fat Cheddar
1d
Blue-veined Glycolysis Full-fat Cheddar
42 d
1d
a d = day; b mo = month; c wk = weeks; d h = time in hours when specied; e FAA = free amino acids; f SN = soluble nitrogen; g TN = total nitrogen; h PTA = phosphotungstic acid; i FFA = free fatty acids.

for short times (300 to 600 MPa for 5 to 20 min), low to moderate pressure retained for long periods of time (50 to 200 MPa for up to 82 h), and combination of shock high pressure treatments followed by low to moderate pressure treatments (Table 3). Results have revealed that HHP treatments are able to accelerate cheese ripening by causing alterations in enzyme structure, conformational changes in the casein matrix making it more susceptible to the action of proteases, and/or bacterial lysis enhancing the release of microbial enzymes that promote biochemical reactions (Messens and others 1998; OReilly and others 2000b, 2003; Saldo and others 2000, 2002a; Garde and others 2007; Voigt and others 2010). In addition, HHP treatments increase pH (0.1 to 0.7 units) and modify water distribution of certain cheese varieties, leading to enhanced conditions for enzymatic activity (Saldo and others 2002b). tidase activity in cheese (Malone and others 2002; Juan and others 2007a). Juan and others (2008) reported autolysis of starter bacteria (L. lactis ssp. lactis and L. lactis ssp. cremoris) to be higher in ewes milk cheese when pressure treated at 300 MPa for 10 min at 12 C on day 1 of ripening than on day 15, compared to controls as determined by lactate dehydrogenase activity, yielding values of 0.39, 0.30, and 0.27 U/g, respectively. These results are consistent with those of Malone and others (2002), who observed that L. lactis ssp. cremoris MG1363 cell suspensions lysed more rapidly when treated at 300 MPa than those treated between 100 to 200 and 600 to 800 MPa for 5 min. In contrast, cell lysis of L. lactis strains 303, 223, 227, and AM2 did not occur in Cheddar cheese when subjected to HHP in the range of 100 to 400 MPa at 25 C for 20 min (OReilly and others 2002a). Also, lactate dehydrogenase activity in brined sheep cheese pressure-treated on day 15 of ripening at 200 or 500 MPa for 15 min at 20 C was not statistically different from the control cheese throughout 90 d of ripening (Moschopoulou and others 2010). Aminopeptidase activity increased in ewes milk cheese when HHP treated from 200 to 500 MPa and held for 10 min at 12 C, as cheese aged, and was higher in cheese pressure-treated on day 1 of ripening than that treated on day 15 (Juan and others 2007a). After 60 d of ripening, cheese pressure-treated at 300 MPa on day 1 had the highest activity (8.03 nmol of Leu-p-NA/g per h) and cheese treated at 500 MPa on day 15, the lowest (2.19 nmol of Leu-p-NA/g per h). On the other hand, in 15-d-old brined sheep cheese, aminopeptidase activity was not signicantly affected by HHP treatments of 200 or 500 MPa for 15 min at 20 C (Moschopoulou and others 2010).
Inuence of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Proteolytic Enzymes in Cheese

Primary proteolysis results mainly from the action of plasmin, chymosin, and to a lesser extent by pepsin, which are responsible for the initial hydrolysis of caseins in milk. Plasmin is the main indigenous proteinase in milk responsible for hydrolyzing s2 - and -caseins at the same rate and s1 -casein at a slower rate (Nielsen 2002). It is stable to pressures of up to 800 MPa in cheese, depending on the temperature employed. For example, the application of 800 MPa for 60 min at 8 C did not inactivate plasmin in 14-d-old Cheddar cheese, while at 20 C its activity was reduced by 15% compared to controls, and at 30 C up to 50% (Huppertz and others 2004). On the other hand, chymosin is the major proteinase in traditional animal rennet whose role in cheese making is to hydrolyze the Phe105 -Met106 bond of -casein during the coagulation of milk (McSweeney and Sousa 2000). Chymosin is much less barotolerant in cheese than plasmin, being stable to HHP treatments from 50 to 400 MPa when held between 10 and 100 min at temperatures from 2 to 30 C (Messens and others 1999; Trujillo and others 2000b; OReilly and others 2002a; Huppertz and others 2004; Rynne and others 2008), although Saldo and others (2002a) reported that residual coagulant activity was reduced to about half the value of control cheese after HHP treatments of 400 MPa for 5 min at 14 C applied to Garrotxa cheese on the 1st day of ripening. Juan and others (2007a) observed a similar result in treatments of 400 MPa applied for 10 min at 12 C postmanufacture on semi-hard ewes milk cheese. Chymosin activity reduced by 62% compared to control cheese at day 15 of ripening. Other proteinases such as cell envelope proteinase from starter LAB participate in primary proteolysis by hydrolyzing the intermediate-sized and short peptides produced from the caseins by the action of chymosin or plasmin (Upadhyay and others 2004). However, information on the effect of HHP treatments when applied directly to cheese on these enzymes is scarce. Furthermore, there are no published studies on the effect of pressure on the activity of proteolytic enzymes of adjunct secondary cultures (for example, Penicillium roqueforti and Penicillium camemberti), which have an important role in smear and mold-ripened cheese. Secondary proteolysis results mainly from the action of starter peptidases, which degrade peptides and produce free amino acids (FAA). Most of these enzymes require autolysis of starter bacteria to be released into the cheese matrix, since they are intracellular enzymes. Results from different studies have shown that pressureinduced lysis is strain dependent and that HHP treatments can increase the autolysis of starter culture cells and affect aminopepc
Inuence of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Cheese Proteolysis

Pioneering research in cheese ripening acceleration by HHP treatments began with work performed by Yokoyama and others (1993) who signicantly reduced ripening times of Japanese Cheddar and Parmesan-type cheese without affecting sensory attributes. In the case of Cheddar cheese, a 3-d-old cheese made with 10 times more starter culture than usual had similar FAA levels compared to a 6-mo-old commercial Cheddar cheese after undergoing HHP treatments from 5 to 200 MPa for 72 h at 25 C. FAA levels were 16.2, 20.3, 26.5, and 25.3 mg/g after HHP treatments at 5, 15, 50, and 200 MPa, respectively, while in control cheese the FAA level was 21.3 mg/g. Taste was considerably superior for the Cheddar cheese HHP-treated at 50 MPa and commercial control cheese. For the Parmesan-type cheese, the authors treated cheese curd with added italase and lipase at 50 MPa for 72 h at 25 C and claimed that the resultant cheese also had considerably superior taste just like the controls. FAA levels were 76.7 mg/g for treated cheese and 88.7 mg/g for commercial control cheese. Since the ndings of Yokoyama and others many other research groups have attempted to reproduce their results on Cheddar and other cheese varieties. OReilly and others (2000b) investigated HHP treatments applied at 50 MPa for 72 h at 25 C on day 2, 7, 14, 21, and 28 of age on commercial Irish Cheddar cheese ripening. Results showed a signicant decrease in the levels of s1 -casein and accumulation of s1 -I-casein in cheese during HHP treatments. Pressures applied on day 2, 7, and 14 increased pH 4.6 SN/TN by as much as 2-fold compared to controls, while those applied at more advanced stages of ripening caused no signicant differences. The authors found increased levels of FAA by 1.4-(Met) to 3.9-fold (Gly, Leu, and Phe) when applying HHP treatments on day 2 of

ripening. A few years later, the same research group studied the acceleration of Cheddar cheese ripening at more intense pressure conditions (70 to 400 MPa for 3.5 to 81.5 h at 25 C) (OReilly and others 2003). HHP treatments of 100 MPa held for 70 h resulted in increased degradation of s1 -casein and maximum accumulation of s1 -I-casein, while treatments performed between 350 and 400 MPa resulted in reduced accumulation. Treatments below 150 MPa caused the greatest increases in levels of pH 4.6 SN/TN in cheese. Production of total FAA decreased as pressure increased from 100 to 400 MPa. Conversely, increasing processing time up to 60 h, raised total FAA levels. Overall, data from these research studies on Cheddar cheese ripening clearly demonstrate that HHP treatments enhanced proteolysis. However, results were not as signicant as those obtained by Yokoyama and others (1993). OReilly and co-workers attributed differences to the type (more proteolytic) and quantity of starter culture used in the manufacturing process of Japanese Cheddar cheese. Other relevant ndings from these studies were that while HHP enhanced proteolysis, it did not lead to altered pathways of proteolysis, thus avor and texture development is very similar in HHP-treated Cheddar cheese and in traditional commercial Cheddar cheese. On the other hand, Wick and others (2004) subjected 1- and 4-mo-old commercial cheese to pressures ranging from 200 to 800 MPa for 5 min at 25 C and reported that HHP treatments 400 MPa could be useful in arresting ripening. FAA levels in 1-mo-old cheese treated at pressures of 400, 500, and 800 MPa were approximately 0.09, 0.06, and 0.04 mmol/g after 160 days after the pressure treatments, respectively, while those treated at lower pressures (200 and 300 MPa) had the same FAA content as the controls (0.16 mmol/g). Pressure treatments (500 to 800 MPa) applied to 4-mo-old cheese resulted in signicantly lower FAA content than control cheese beyond 56 d of storage. Similarly, Rynne and others (2008) suggested that HHP conditions of 400 MPa for 10 min at room temperature applied to 1-d-old full-fat Cheddar cheese may be useful to arrest or slow down ripening. These studies along with those performed by OReilly and others indicate that low to moderate HHP treatment conditions (50 to 150 MPa) applied to young Cheddar cheese are effective at accelerating proteolysis, whereas higher HHP treatment conditions (400 MPa) may help cheese manufacturers arrest the ripening process at a desired stage, thus maintaining optimum commercial attributes for a longer period of time. Accelerated proteolysis due to HHP treatment has also been achieved in other cheese varieties such as smear and mold-ripened cheese, Garrotxa, and ewes milk cheese, but not in Gouda, Edam, or mozzarella cheese. The application of 50 MPa for 8 h at 20 C to P` ere Joseph and Paillardin cheese accelerated proteolysis near the rind (Messens and others 2000, 2001). The authors noted increased pH in HHPtreated cheese, which probably resulted in a higher amount and/or activity of proteolytic enzymes of Brevibacterium linens and Penicillium camemberti, and in higher activity of peptidases of starter culture. They also observed higher levels of 12% TCA-SN/TN and FAAs near the center of HHP-treated cheese, probably as a result of diffusion toward the center of small peptides and amino acids formed at the rind. In addition to the pH effect, Messens and others attributed the enhancement of proteolysis to a weakening of hydrophobic interactions, which might have led to an increased exposure of susceptible bonds that are cleavable by proteolytic enzymes. Similarly, in Camembert cheese exposed to HHP treatments from 0.1 to 500 MPa for 4 h at 5 C after 5 or 10 d of ripening Kolakowski and others (1998) observed the most intense proteolysis at pressures of 50 MPa for 10-d-old cheese. In 42-d-old Irish blue-veined cheese, HHP treatments at 400 and 600 MPa for 20 min at 20 C accelerated primary and secondary proteolysis as a result of enzyme activation or changes in protein conformation (Voigt and others 2010). Two-dimensional SDSPAGE gel electrophoresis indicated accelerated breakdown of and s2 -casein at 400 and 600 MPa. Levels of phosphotungstic acid (PTA) SN/TN after 14 and 28 d of pressure treatments were 8.65% and 10.79%, respectively, while those of control cheese were 4.56% and 9.04%. Contradictory results were found by Messens and others (1999) and Kolakowski and others (1998) who did not observe any signicant differences in proteolysis rates between pressure-treated Gouda cheese and control cheese after applying HHP treatments between 50 and 500 MPa held for 20 to 100 min at 14 C as determined by pH 4.6 soluble nitrogen (SN), PTA SN, FAA content, and SDS-PAGE proles, despite nding higher pH values in pressure-treated cheese. Moreover, Messens and others (1999) also tested the same HHP treatment conditions employed by Yokoyama and others (1993) to accelerate Cheddar cheese ripening and reported no acceleration of Gouda cheese ripening. Differences encountered in these studies could be related to the proteolytic activity of peptidases from secondary cultures and to the levels and activity of residual rennet in each cheese variety. Proteolysis is more pronounced in mold- and smear-ripened cheese than in bacterially ripened cheese since not only proteinases and peptidases from starter bacteria, plasmin, and rennet participate, but also exo- and endopeptidases from secondary cultures (Voigt and others 2010). Unfortunately, as previously stated, the effect of HHP treatments applied directly to cheese on the activity of proteolytic enzymes of adjunct secondary cultures is not well known. Concerning residual rennet activity, levels range from 15% in Gouda cheese to about 50% in Camembert cheese, typically being higher in Camembert, followed by Cheddar and lower in Gouda cheese (Bansal and others 2007, 2009). Hence, lowintensity HHP treatments may enhance chymosin activity to a greater extent in certain cheese varieties in comparison with others depending on natural residual activity level. More recently, Wachowska (2010) applied HHP treatments at 50 and 100 MPa for 0.5 h at 18 C to extracts of frozen Edam cheese after 1, 4, 6, and 8 wk of ripening in order to, 1st, induce lysis of starter culture cells and, second, enhance enzyme activity. Results showed no signicant differences in the proteolytic activity of enzymes from controls and frozen pressurized cheese. These results were similar to those reported by Iwa nczak and Wi sniewska (2005) in which Edam cheese subjected to pressurization at 200 and 400 MPa for 30 min at room temperature directly after salting, and after 4, 6, and 8 wk of ripening, did not differ in proteolysis indexes from controls as measured by levels of nonprotein nitrogen, amino acid nitrogen, and pH 4.6 SN. In Garrotxa cheese pressurized at 50 MPa for 72 h at 14 C 1 d after salting, levels of proteolysis were only slightly different from those in control cheese, with differences being less apparent after 28 d of ripening (Saldo and others 2002a). However, treatments at 400 MPa for 5 min enhanced the production of FAAs, reaching twice the value found in control cheese after 28 d. An increase in peptidase activity (produced by cell lysis) favored by high moisture content and pH (33.6%, 5.0 in controls and 39.7%, 5.4 in pressure-treated cheese) caused the acceleration of secondary proteolysis. The combination of these last 2 conditions (shock high pressure treatment at 400 MPa for 5 min at 14 C, followed by a low-pressure treatment of 50 MPa for 72 h), reduced the ripening period of Garrotxa from 28 to 14 d as determined by noncasein nitrogen, nonprotein
c

nitrogen, and FAA levels (Saldo and others 2000). According to the authors, the treatment at 400 MPa caused a release of microbial enzymes into the cheese matrix, and the 50 MPa treatment enhanced enzyme activity. To a certain extent, the use of different starter cultures in Edam cheese and Garrotxa cheese could have led to the different outcomes observed during secondary proteolysis in these cheese varieties after pressure treatments. Starter bacteria in Garrotxa cheese are lysed after an HHP treatment of 400 MPa, causing a release of peptidases that accelerate secondary proteolysis, whereas in Edam cheese, this effect does not occur. With regard to primary proteolysis, Saldo and others (2000) noticed an increase in the proteolytic activity of rennet during HHP treatments, whereas Iwa nczak and Wi sniewska (2005) reported no signicant differences in the proteolytic activity of enzymes in pressurized cheese and control, based on analysis of the content of 12% trichloroacetic acid (TCA)-soluble nonprotein nitrogen compounds and 2% TCA-soluble compounds. In mozzarella cheese, HHP treatments have not resulted in accelerated proteolysis under the conditions tested. Sheehan and others (2005) applied 400 MPa for 5 min at 21 C to 1-d-old reduced-fat mozzarella cheese (10.7% fat) and reported no significant effect of HHP treatments on mean levels of pH 4.6 SN or PTA SN over 35 d of ripening. In a similar manner, OReilly and others (2002b) reported no signicant differences in proteolysis indexes in pressure-treated (400 MPa for 20 min at 25 C) low-moisture mozzarella cheese compared to controls at different stages of ripening (every 5 d starting from day 1 up to day 25). There was no effect on the extent of casein degradation, pH 4.6 SN/TN, and total levels of FAA. These results coincide with those of Johnston and Darcy (2000) on immature mozzarella cheese, in which proteolysis as indicated by water soluble nitrogen, was unaffected by HHP treatments. Chymosin inactivation in mozzarella cheese, due to the utilization of high cooking temperatures during manufacture, could, to a certain extent, explain the results from the previously described studies. Past research has demonstrated that among different cheese varieties, evaluated for the extent of residual coagulant activity, low-moisture part-skim mozzarella and mozzarella di bufala Campana have the lowest values (Bansal and others 2009). Juan and others (2007a) evaluated changes in proteolysis of ewes milk cheese after HHP treatments from 200 to 500 MPa for 10 min at 12 C applied on the 1st and 15th d of ripening. At 60 d of ripening, pressures of 300 and 400 MPa applied on day 1 and pressures of 200 to 500 MPa applied on day 15 enhanced primary proteolysis, as determined by casein degradation, as a consequence of the barostability of plasmin combined with conformational changes in the casein structure. HHP treatments of 500 MPa on day 1 produced the highest level of intact s1 -casein and para- -casein as a result of chymosin inactivation. The authors observed increased peptidolytic activity and the highest amount of FAA in cheese after treatment of 300 MPa applied on day 1, which favored the lysis of starter bacteria, enhancing the release of intracellular aminopeptidases into the cheese matrix. Avila and others (2006) reported similar results in Hisp anico cheese manufactured with a mixture of cows and ewes milk. HHP treatments at 400 MPa for 5 min at 10 C applied after 15 days of ripening accelerated the hydrolysis of casein and increased total FAA content. Also, Garde and others (2007) assessed the effect of HHP treatments at 300 or 400 MPa for 10 min at 10 C applied on days 2 or 50 of ripening on the proteolysis of La Serena cheese made from raw sheep milk. Proteolysis, as determined by the ophthaldialdehyde test, was highest in cheese treated at 400 MPa on day 2 after 60 days of ripening. Levels of Ile, Ser, Pro, Met, and Thr more than doubled compared with control cheese. In this study, higher aminopeptidase activity on Lys-p-NA favored by higher pH values and conformational changes in peptide structures were in part responsible for enhanced proteolysis. In contrast, the results reported by Juan and others (2007a) show that cheese treated at 300 or 400 MPa on day 2 exhibited lower casein degradation than controls after 60 d of ripening. Possible differences in the outcomes between studies could be related to the use of rennets from different origin. Juan and others (2007a) used calf rennet, which contains chymosin and to a lesser extent pepsin, whereas Garde and others (2007) used Cynara cardunculus aqueous extracts that contain cardosin A and B, which could be affected more than chymosin and pepsin by HHP treatments. The effect of pressure on proteinases from this type of rennet has not been studied. To summarize, the application of HHP treatments accelerates or arrests proteolysis in cheese depending on cheese variety and on the intensity of treatments. Up to now, the most effective combination of treatments employed to accelerate (Cheddar) cheese proteolysis without negatively affecting its sensory properties has been to add an abnormally large quantity of starter culture (up to 10 times) followed by low-pressure treatment (Yokoyama and others 1993). Research focused on evaluating the direct application of HHP treatments to cheese and the effects it causes on enzymes from starter and secondary adjunct cultures are not available and could help optimize treatment conditions to accelerate or decelerate cheese ripening. For commercial purposes, it would be interesting to compare the results in proteolysis acceleration employing current methods individually (elevated ripening temperatures, modied starters, and so on) and those obtained by HHP (OReilly and others 2001).
Inuence of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Cheese Lipolysis and Glycolysis

Limited information is available on the impact of HHP treatments on cheese lipolysis and glycolysis (Table 3). Lipolysis is the major biochemical event in blue and Italian cheese varieties, carried out by esterases and lipases that catalyze the hydrolysis of the ester bond in milk triglycerides, yielding free fatty acids and glyc erol and mono- and diglycerides (Avila and others 2007). Pressure treatments 400 MPa applied to Garrotxa, blue-veined, ewes milk, and Hisp anico cheeses have resulted in decelerated lipolysis, with a reduction of LAB counts or inactivation of enzymes as the main factors causing this effect. HHP treatments applied to Garrotxa cheese at 400 MPa for 5 min at 14 C postmanufacture decelerated lipolysis, resulting in cheese with lower amounts of free fatty acid (FFA) (C4:0 , C6:0, and C8:0 ) compared to controls (Saldo and others 2003). Factors considered having inuenced results were reduction of lactococci counts (3 log units) or inactivation of lipolytic enzymes from secondary microbiota in cheese caused by HHP treatments. Voigt and others (2010) reported similar observations at more intense HHP treatment conditions in a 42-d-old blue-veined cheese. Levels of FFAs decreased to a greater extent in HHP-treated cheese than in control cheese over 28 d of storage. According to the authors, this observation could reect reduced lipolytic activity of P. roqueforti, consistent with the 3.42 log cycle reduction caused by treatment of 600 MPa for 10 min at 20 C compared to control cheese which experienced a 2.68 log cycle reduction during the same time period. In ewes milk cheese pressure-treated at 400 to

500 MPa on day 15 of ripening for 10 min at 12 C, Juan and others (2007b) reported the lowest concentration of total FFAs compared to controls at 60 d of evaluation. They attributed this result to reduced water availability for the enzyme at this stage of ripening or to lipid-protein interactions, which could have protected lipid hydrolysis by enzyme action. On the other hand, cheese pressure-treated on day 1 of ripening at 300 MPa exhibited the highest levels of C8:0 , C10:0 , C14:0 , and C18:1 FFAs after 60 d of ripening presumably as a result of faster release of intracellular enzymes into the cheese induced by pressure treatments. Avila and others (2007) investigated the effect of HHP treatments applied after 15 d of ripening at 400 MPa for 5 min at 10 C, separately or combined with addition of bacteriocin-producing LAB, on the release of intracellular esterases and cheese lipolysis in Hisp anico cheese. On day 15, the esterase activity value found in pressure-treated cheese was similar to that of controls (0.49 and 0.52 pmol of -naphthol released/min/g of cheese, respectively), with no signicant differences after 50 d of ripening (0.99 and 1.08 pmol of -naphthol released/min/g of cheese, respectively), indicating a notable barotolerance of the enzyme. However, total FFAs (C4:0 -C18:2 ) were lower in treated cheese (579.90 mg/kg of cheese) than in control cheese (612.47 mg/kg of cheese) after 50 d as a result of LAB inactivation. Combined treatments, including addition of bacteriocin-producing LAB and cheese pressurization, produced the highest value of esterase activity after 50 d of ripening in comparison to other treatments, with 1.38 pmol of -naphthol released/min/g of cheese due to lysis of LAB cells, followed by the release of esterases into the cheese matrix. In general, HHP-treated cheese with bacteriocin-producing LAB showed the same pattern of lipolysis (release of FFAs) than controls. In full-fat Cheddar cheese, treated postmanufacture at 400 MPa for 10 min at room temperature, lipolysis was not signicantly different from controls over 180 d of ripening (Rynne and others 2008). Total FFA levels in the treated cheese were numerically higher than those in the control cheese up to 42 d, but were lower thereafter, with approximately 1100 mg/kg of cheese in treated cheese at 180 d of ripening and 1200 mg/kg of cheese in control cheese. The metabolism of residual lactose, lactate, and citrate (glycolysis) is essential in the early stage of ripening in all cheese varieties (McSweeney 2004), but is the least studied in regard to HHP treatments. Only 1 research group has evaluated changes in glycolysis in cheese after HHP treatments. Employing the same conditions previously described in the study of lipolysis, Rynne and others (2008) observed the mean concentration of total lactate in HHPtreated cheese to be signicantly lower compared to controls after 180 d of ripening, with 1.1 g/100 g of cheese in treated cheese and 1.4 g/100 g in control cheese. The authors attributed the result to the inactivation of starter bacteria as a consequence of HHP treatments. The mean concentration of D (-)- and L (+)-lactate also decreased signicantly with the pressure treatment.
Inuence on Physicochemical Properties

HHP treatments do not change total solid, ash, fat, protein, moisture, and nutrient contents in cheese (Capellas and others 2001; Sandra and others 2004; Serrano and others 2004; Sheehan and others 2005; Rynne and others 2008; Moschopoulou and others 2010; Koca and others 2011). On the other hand, pressure treatments modify the pH to an extent that depends on treatment conditions and cheese age. Research studies have shown a higher pH value of pressure-treated cheese compared to controls in varieties such as Camembert (Kolakowski and others 1998), Cheddar (Rynne and others 2008), ewes milk cheese (Juan and others 2007a, 2008), fresh cheese (Sandra and others 2004; Okpala and others 2010), Edam (Iwa nczak and Wi sniewska 2005), Garrotxa (Saldo and others 2000, 2002a), Gouda (Kolakowski and others 1998; Messens and others 1998, 1999), Manchego (Pavia and others 2000), mozzarella (Johnston and Darcy 2000), La Serena (Arqu es and others 2006, Garde and others 2007), P ere Joseph (Messens and others 2000), and Paillardin (Messens and others 2001). This result is more pronounced at higher pressure levels, longer exposure times, and when applying treatments at an early stage of ripening, due to the release of colloidal calcium phosphate into the aqueous phase of cheese, LAB inactivation, or reduced ability of LAB to produce acid even when there is no apparent loss of cell viability as a result of damage to the glycolytic enzymes. However, pH differences between treated and nontreated samples become less signicant during the ripening process. HHP treatments also alter water and salt distribution in the cheese matrix. Messens and others (1999) observed a reduction in water loss during brining of Gouda cheese at pressures from 300 to 500 MPa. Explanations offered for this phenomenon were the conversion of free water into protein-bound water and a reduced compliance of the cheese matrix during pressure brining. Saldo and others (2001) made similar observations on Garrotxa cheese treated at 50 MPa for 72 h at 25 C. Results showed that treated samples and controls had the same moisture contents, but water retention was different. HHP-treated cheese had 12.7% free water and 27.6% bound water, whereas control cheese had 18.9% free water and 21.4% bound water. They also observed that solute diffusion improved by pressure treatments as enhanced salt distribution occurred in treated cheese. Likewise, Juan and others (2008) observed better salt diffusion in ewes milk cheese pressuretreated at 300 MPa for 10 min at 12 C on day 1 or 15 of ripening. HHP-treated cheese showed higher levels of salt-in-moisture content in the medium and interior sectors than control cheese at 15 and 60 d of ripening, respectively. In contrast, HHP treatments from 50 to 500 MPa applied to Gouda cheese and Manchego cheese during brining did not signicantly affect salt uptake or salt diffusion (Messens and others 1999; Pavia and others 2000). Saldo and others (2001) stated that the preliminary step of salt intake by capillarity seems necessary to allow the increase in solute mobility observed in cheese samples subjected to HHP. Color is another parameter signicantly affected when applying HHP to cheese, and the factors that inuence this attribute the most are treatment temperature, pressure intensity, and holding time. Total color difference values of 1-d-old Mat o cheese treated at 500 MPa for 5, 15, and 30 min at 10 C were higher than those of cheese treated at 25 C and in 5 min cycles, mainly due to L value changes which were lower compared to controls (Capellas and others 2001). The b value was the index that changed the most in all treatments, increasing as pressure holding time increased. The authors related increase in lightness and yellowness of the cheese surface to microstructural changes. Control
c
Effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Physicochemical, Rheological, and Sensory Properties of Cheese
The physicochemical and sensory properties of cheese are the most valued. Almost all varieties have special characteristics that make them different in commercial terms. Therefore, ensuring that the processing technologies applied to them do not affect these identity attributes in a negative fashion is of utmost importance. Table 4 summarizes the results from studies conducted on cheese in regard to the impact HHP treatments have on physicochemical, rheological, and sensory properties.
Table 4 Effect of HHP treatments on cheese quality parameters.
2012 Institute of Food Technologists Moment of application 1 da 1d 1d 1d 50400/5, 10, or 15/2225 400/20/20 400/5/14 Treatment conditions P (MPa)/t (min)/T ( C) 500/5, 10, or 15/10 Reference Capellas and others 2001 Saldo and others 2002c Sandra and others 2004 Impact L and a decreased, whereas b increased compared to control cheese. Lower lightness and higher chroma values than control cheese. More yellowish after 1 d posttreatment than control cheese, but not after 8 d. Increasing pressure intensity and holding time did not affect L , but a decreased and b increased compared to control cheese. 1d 1 and 4 mob 200800/5/25 345 or 483/3 or 7/N.S.c Serrano and others 2004; Serrano and others 2005 Wick and others 2004 1d 1 and 5 d 400/20/25 400/10/25 Rynne and others 2008 OReilly and others 2002b 1d 3d 1 or 15 d 200500/10/12 400/5/21 50, 225, or 400/1 h / 14 Sheehan and others 2005 Messens and others 2000 Juan and others 2007c 2 or 50 d 15 d 1 or 15 d 2 or 50 d 1, 3, or 50 d 50/72 h/25 300 or 400/10/10 400/5/10 200 or 500/10/12 300 or 400/10/14 400 or 600/7/10 Accelerated shredability (microstructure and sensory properties of 27-d-old commercial cheese obtained in 1 d). Pressures up to 300 MPa applied to 1-mo-old cheese had no signicant effect. At 800 MPa, cheese had similar fracture stress and Youngs modulus as control cheese. Pressure applied to 4-mo-old cheese increased fracture work. Increased fracture strain and fracture stress values, lower uidity, owability, and stretchability increased up to 21 d, but to a lesser extent than in control cheese. Reduced time required to attain satisfactory cooking performance (by 15 d). Increased uidity, owability, stretchability, and reduced melting time on heating at 280 C. No signicant effect on rheological properties. Less rigid and solid-like, more viscoelastic, and had less resistance to ow at longer times. Moderate pressures applied on day 1 enhanced rmness and cheese treated at higher pressures showed highest deformability, lowest fracturability, and rigidity. More uid and less elastic than controls. Highest fracturability, hardness, and elasticity in cheese treated on day 2. Saldo and others 2001 Garde and others 2007 vila and others 2006 A Juan and others 2007d Treatments applied to immature cheese limit the formation of volatile compounds. However, differences become less signicant during ripening. Treatments applied at more advanced stages do not cause signicant differences compared to control cheese. Arqu es and others 2007 Delgado and others 2011
Parameter evaluated Color
Cheese variety
Mat o
Garrotxa
Queso fresco
Cheddar, Turkish white-brined
Koca and others 2011; Rynne and others 2008
Rheological properties
Stirred and milled-curd Cheddar
Cheddar
Cheddar
Low-moisture mozzarella
Reduced-fat mozzarella Gouda
Ewes milk cheese
Garrotxa La Serena
Sensory properties
Hisp anico Ewes milk cheese
La Serena Raw goat milk cheese
a d = day; b mo = month; c N.S. = not specied.

cheese displayed longitudinal concavities on the surface, whereas pressure-treated cheese had a more uniform and smoother surface. Trained panelists also perceived HHP-treated queso fresco cheese (400 MPa for 20 min at 20 C) to be more yellow than controls when evaluated 1 d after pressurization (Sandra and others 2004). However, cheese evaluated 8 d after pressure treatments displayed no signicant differences in comparison with controls. Saldo and others (2002c) evaluated color changes in HHPtreated Garrotxa cheese at 400 MPa for 5 min at 14 C 3 d postpressurization, during ripening, and 60 d after pressure treatment. L -values were signicantly lower in pressure-treated cheese from day 3 to 30, after which they became similar to the values observed in control cheese, whereas a- and b-parameters were higher throughout the evaluation period with treated cheese having a more yellow-orange color. Saldo and others did not assess changes in the microstructure of cheese at the treatment conditions employed, but stated that changes in cheese color after HHP treatments could be related to differences in microstructure between treated and untreated cheese. More recently, Koca and others (2011) pressure-treated Turkish brined white cheese in the range of 50 to 400 MPa held for 5 and 15 min at 22 C and did not observe any effect on the L value. However, higher pressure levels and longer pressure-holding times resulted in signicantly lower a values and higher b values, making treated cheese more greenish and yellowish. Cheese treated at 50 and 100 MPa had a sponge-like structure with fat globules of different sizes and also large mechanical holes in the protein matrix, similar to unpressurized cheese, while those treated at 200 and 400 MPa had denser and more continuous casein structures. Rynne and others (2008) made similar observations on 1-d-old full-fat Cheddar cheese treated at 400 MPa for 10 min at room temperature. Color analysis of HHP-treated cheese indicated that L -values remained constant, a-values decreased, and b-values increased in comparison with controls, resulting in cheese being more green and yellow throughout the evaluation period of 6 mo. cooking performance (OReilly and others 2002b). HHP-treated cheese showed an increase in uidity, owability, stretchability, and reduced melting time on heating at 280 C due to an enhanced development of age-related swelling of the paracasein matrix and increased protein hydration. In contrast, Sheehan and others (2005) reported no signicant effect on rheological properties of reduced-fat mozzarella cheese after an HHP treatment of 400 MPa for 5 min. They attributed the differences between their study and that of OReilly and others to the higher protein and lower fat levels in their cheese, moment of application, and pressure holding times. Rynne and others (2008) evaluated similar conditions to those tested in low-moisture mozzarella cheese on Cheddar cheese. They reported that HHP treatments at 400 MPa applied for 10 min at room temperature 1-d postmanufacture did not signicantly affect the mean values for rmness, but increased fracture strain and fracture stress values throughout 180 d of ripening. Pressure negatively affected viscoelastic and cooking properties. Treated cheese had lower uidity and owability than control cheese. Although stretchability increased up to 21 d, it did so to a lesser extent than control cheese (24.5 cm at day 1 to 30 cm at day 21 compared to 13.7 cm at day 1 to 66.3 cm at day 21). According to the authors, differences in both studies could be related to insufcient hydration of the paracasein matrix in the HHP-treated Cheddar cheese at the conditions evaluated. Juan and others (2007c) studied the effect of pressure treaments from 200 to 500 MPa for 10 min at 12 C, applied on day 1 or 15 after manufacture, on ewes milk cheese rheological and textural characteristics. Cheese treated on day 15 was similar to control cheese. Moderate pressures (200 to 300 MPa) enhanced rmness and cheese treated at higher pressures (500 MPa) showed the highest deformability and the lowest fracturability and rigidity. Juan and others related their results to higher water retention capacity, higher pH value, and a more homogeneous microstructure in HHP-treated cheese, which contributed to higher disposition to deformation and to a reduction of possible areas of fracture. Trained panelists evaluated textural properties of cheese at 30 and 60 d of ripening and found cheese treated at 500 MPa to be less crumbly and to be the most elastic cheese among all the cheeses subjected to different HHP conditions. Other research studies have reported similar observations in other cheese varieties at highpressure conditions. Low-pressure treatments (50 MPa for 72 h at 25 C) applied to Garrotxa cheese made it more uid and less elastic than controls (Saldo and others 2001). Hardness and shortness remained higher in control cheese, indicating a softening of cheese due to a weakening of the casein matrix. Higher pressure treatments (400 MPa for 5 min at 14 C) resulted in cheese being less crumbly and more elastic than controls (Saldo and others 2000). In queso fresco cheese, controls and HHP-treated cheese (400 MPa for 20 min at 20 C) were not signicantly different in most textural attributes evaluated (Sandra and others 2004). The most notable difference found in this study was that pressure-treated cheese was less crumbly than controls. Texture prole analysis indicated that rmness, gumminess, and chewiness were higher in treated cheese than in control cheese 1 d after pressure treatments, but signicantly lower after 8 d. Messens and others (2000) determined the rheological properties of HHP-treated Gouda cheese (50, 225, and 400 MPa for 1 h at 14 C applied 3 d after brining) immediately after pressure release (day 0), and after 21 and 42 d of ripening. At day 0, the viscoelastic properties of cheese treated at 225 and 400 MPa differed signicantly from those of untreated cheese. HHP-treated cheese was less rigid and solid-like, more viscous, and had less resistance
c
Inuence on Rheological Properties

The rheological properties of cheese are important to manufacturers since they inuence texture, eating quality, and physical behavior, which depend on composition, microstructure, macrostructure, and physicochemical state of components (Guinee 2011). Serrano and co-workers have described one of the most signicant ndings of the impact of HHP on cheese rheology. Moderate pressure treatments (345 and 483 MPa) applied to unripened milled or stirred-curd Cheddar cheese for up to 7 min modied its microstructure and textural properties, which resulted in accelerated shredability (Serrano and others 2004, 2005). Results showed similar visual and tactile sensory properties for 27-d-old shredded control cheese and 1-d-old pressure-treated shredded cheese. Furthermore, HHP treatments reduced the amount of crumbles, increased mean shred particle length, improved length uniformity, and enhanced surface smoothness in shreds produced from unripened cheese. The authors stated that their results could reduce manufacturing costs to cheese processors that shred Cheddar cheese as a means of adding value to their product, by at least US $30/1000 kg, when shredding immediately after block-cooling, and suggested that their results could be applicable to other cheese varieties. In a study conducted on a low-moisture mozzarella cheese, HHP treatments (400 MPa for 20 min) also accelerated age-related changes in microstructure, protein hydration, and cooking characteristics, which reduced the time required to attain a satisfactory

to ow. According to the authors, these rheological changes were due to the weakening of hydrophobic interactions and not to changes in the pH, water content, or proteolysis level. At day 42, there were no signicant differences in the rheological properties between treated and untreated cheese. Wick and others (2004) assessed the effects of HHP treatments ranging from 200 to 800 MPa for 5 min at 25 C on the rheological properties of 1- and 4-mo-old Cheddar cheese. Pressures up to 300 MPa applied to 1mo-old cheese had no signicant effect on fracture stress, fracture strain, fracture work, and Youngs modulus. In a similar manner, extremely high pressure (800 MPa) resulted in cheese with similar fracture stress and Youngs modulus across 160 d of storage than controls. HHP treatments applied to 4-mo-old cheese had no signicant effect on rheological properties, except for fracture work, which increased in HHP-treated cheese. Garde and others (2007) reported that fracturability, hardness, and elasticity were higher throughout ripening in La Serena cheese, pressure-treated at 300 or 400 MPa for 10 min at 10 C on day 2 of ripening, than in control cheese and in cheese pressure-treated on day 50. Results showed a strong correlation between residual s1 - and -caseins and cheese hardness. HHP treatments on day 2 had a negative effect on texture preference when evaluated by trained panelists. mal) were not signicantly affected by any of the HHP treatments applied on day 2 or 50. Juan and others (2007d) investigated the effect of pressure conditions between 200 and 500 MPa applied on day 1 or 15 of ripening for 10 min at 12 C on the volatile prole of cheese made from ewes milk. Cheese pressurized after 15 d of ripening and that treated on day 1 at 200 MPa were similar to controls. Higher pressure treatments applied on day 1 altered microbial populations and enzyme activities, enhancing or limiting the formation of volatile compounds. Cheese pressure-treated at 300 MPa showed higher levels of FFAs, ethanol, ethyl esters, and branched-chain aldehydes, whereas cheese treated at 500 MPa showed the highest amounts of 2,3-butanedione, pyruvaldehyde, and methyl ketones and the lowest amount of alcohols. Avila and others (2006) investigated the effect on volatile compounds, odor, and aroma of 15-d-old Hisp anico cheese HHPtreated at 400 MPa for 5 min at 10 C made with and without bacteriocin-producing LAB culture. Treated cheese showed higher levels of hexanal, 3-hydroxy-2-pentanone, 2-hydroxy-3pentanone, and hexane and lower levels of ethanal, ethanol, 1-propanol, ethyl acetate, ethyl butanoate, ethyl hexanoate, 2pentanone, and butanoic acid in comparison with untreated cheese. HHP-treated cheese received higher milky odor descriptor scores and lower scores for odor quality and intensity, as well as, for buttery, yogurt-like, and caramel odor descriptors. Addition of the bacteriocin-producing LAB culture, enhanced the formation of 3 aldehydes, 3 alcohols, 3 ethyl esters, and 3 ketones, but decreased levels of 7 ketones and butanoic acid. Cheese made with bacteriocin-producing LAB received higher scores for aroma intensity and for yogurt-like and cheesy aroma descriptors. Alonso and others (2011) pressure-treated curds made from sheep milk immediately after manufacture at 400 and 500 MPa for 10 min at 8 C and froze them for 4 mo. After thawing, the authors mixed treated curds (20%) with fresh cow milk curd (80%) for the manufacture of Hisp anico cheese. Cheese obtained with curds treated at 400 MPa showed the highest concentrations of short-chain and long-chain FFAs, 2-propanol, 2-butanol, 2pentanol, and ethyl hexanoate after 30 and 60 d of manufacture, while those treated at 500 MPa had the lowest concentrations of all compounds identied, except for 2,3-butanedione on day 60. All treatments (including controls) caused similar counts of total viable bacteria, mesophilic LAB, and thermophilic LAB, but cheese treated at 400 MPa had higher enzyme activity compared to controls as a result of cell lysis. The authors also stated that wild strains of LAB surviving HHP could be responsible for differences in the prole of cheese volatiles. The changes induced by HHP treatments described in the literature in regard with the physicochemical, rheological, and sensory properties of cheese are not necessarily negative and in some cases are even benecial, economically speaking. Even though changes in these attributes can be observed when HHP treatments are applied in the early stages of ripening, they are minimized or even disappear during ripening. However, novel or distinctive cheese textures, aromas, tastes, and appearances can be obtained depending on treatment conditions which could be appealing to consumers.
Inuence on Sensory Properties
One of the most frequently cited benets of employing HHP in food processing over traditional methods, such as heating, is ensuring microbiological safety while still retaining the sensory quality characteristics of fresh food products. In cheese, this is true if treatment conditions are not too intense and not applied in the early stages of ripening. This behavior is mainly due to the higher inactivation rates observed in HHP treatments applied on immature cheese, which hinders the formation of certain volatile compounds and lowers enzymatic activity. Ding and others (2001) found more intense pressure treatments (550 MPa compared to 345 MPa) held for longer periods of time (30 min compared to 10 min) to cause a greater reduction in microorganism counts with less outgrowth during ripening, which resulted in Swiss cheese slurries with less aroma development. Delgado and others (2011) observed that lower pressure treatments (400 MPa compared to 600 MPa) applied at more advanced stages of ripening (50 d compared to 30 or 1 d) produced less intense changes in the volatile prole of treated raw milk goat cheese compared to controls. HHP treatments applied on day 1 decreased the amount of most volatile compounds due to LAB inactivation, but enhanced the formation of ketones, hydrocarbons, and -decalactone. Arqu es and others (2007) evaluated volatile compounds, odor, and aroma of La Serena cheese HHP-treated at 300 or 400 MPa for 10 min at 10 C on day 2 or 50 after manufacture. HHP treatments applied on day 50 did not inuence either the volatile compound prole or the sensory characteristics of 60-d-old cheese. On the other hand, pressure treatments on day 2 enhanced the formation of branched-chain aldehydes and 2-alcohols except 2butanol, but retarded the formation of n-aldehydes, 2-methyl ketones, dihydroxy-ketones, n-alcohols, unsaturated alcohols, ethyl esters, propyl esters, and branched-chain esters. Differences in the levels of some volatile compounds between treated and untreated cheeses disappeared during ripening. The odor quality and intensity of 60-d-old cheese were not signicantly affected by HHP treatments on day 2, but aroma quality and intensity of cheese Commercial Applications and Opportunities for HHP treated at 400 MPa resulted in signicantly lower sensory scores Processing of Cheese than obtained for the control cheese. Scores for families of odor The decision to implement HHP processing as a commerand aroma descriptors (lactic, vegetable, oral, toasted, and ani- cial preservation or ripening acceleration method requires careful
c
Treatment conditions
Pressure / Time / Temperature
Microorganisms
S. aureus > L. monocytogenes > E. coli > A. hydrophila > Y. enterocolitica > S. enterica > yeasts and molds
Enzymes
Plasmin > Pepsin > Chymosin
Impact in cheese
Figure 1Schematic representation of the effect of HHP on microorganisms and enzymes in cheese.
planning based on technical and business plans (Farkas 2011). At the present moment, there are some cheeses and cheese-related products processed with HHP technology available in the European market. These include sandwich llings (based on cheese mixed with other ingredients), cream cheese, Cheddar cheese snacks, and cheese jerky which are pathogen-free, have increased shelf-life, and are being marketed as clean label products (Hiperbaric 2011). An advantage of HHP processing is the possibility of reducing or eliminating additives and preservatives from food products. Rodilla is a company located in Spain that reduced production costs and increased refrigerated shelf-life of their sandwich llings from 46 to 21 d by pressurizing at 500 MPa for several minutes without changing texture and avor characteristics (Tonello 2011). According to Purroy (2009), the costs of HHP processing are related to equipment capacity, pressure intensity, pressure holding time, and to the costs of labor, power, and maintenance. The initial investment on HHP equipment can range from US $650,000 up to US $2,600,000 depending upon equipment capacity (55 to 425 L). Small and medium sized companies that cannot afford HHP equipments or do not have sufcient oor space can outsource contract service providers like HHP Food Services in California, APC in Wisconsin, Deli 24 in Buckinghamshire, GL Foods in Texas, Millard in Nebraska, Safe Pac in Pennsylvania, and Universal Cold Storage in Nebraska. The HHP treatment cost per kilogram of food will depend on the operating pressure intensity and pressure holding time. Present HHP processing costs at xed processing times are approximately US $0.096/kg when treated at 300 MPa, US $0.112/kg at 400 MPa, US $0.129/kg at 500 MPa, and US $0.145/kg at 600 MPa. The cost of wear parts are US $0.015/kg, US $0.026/kg, US $0.034/kg, and US $0.05/kg for the stated pressure conditions, respectively. With regard to processing times, 5 min holding time
at a constant pressure would imply costs of US $0.159/kg, while 10 min would cost US $0.21/kg, 15 min US $0.263/kg, and 20 min US $0.316/kg. Several research studies have shown that pressure treatments at 500 to 600 MPa applied to cheese for 5 to 20 min are sufcient to achieve over 5 log cycle reductions of S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, and E. coli when applied soon after manufacture or at more advanced stages of ripening. Less severe pressure conditions (345 MPa for 3 min) are needed to accelerate Cheddar cheese shreddability. Typical operating conditions for seafood, juice, and ready to eat products are 300, 450, and 590 MPa applied for 1, 1, and 3 min, respectively (Purroy 2009). Overall, depending on operating parameters and on the scale of operation, the cost of HHP processing is around US $0.05 to 0.5/kg of food (Rastogi and others 2007). Undoubtedly, the costs of implementing HHP could seem very high compared to traditional processing technologies. However, product recalls can cost company large amounts of money and permanently damage their brand. The human cost associated can be even more severe. In addition, reducing processing times through cheese ripening acceleration can have signicant impacts on production costs. Most types of soft cheese, including unpasteurized soft cheeses which have recently been implicated in disease outbreaks such as panela, requeson (ricotta), and fresco are good candidates for HHP processing due to their high water activity. Cheese varieties with low pH values (pH about 4.75) could also benet from HHP pasteurization as conrmed by De Lamo-Castellv and others (2006, 2007).
Final Remarks
The application of any new food processing technology presents signicant challenges to food technologists and scientists. HHP processing of cheese can ensure microbial safety and extend

Arqu es JL, Rodr guez E, Gaya P, Medina M, Nu nez M. 2005b. Effect of combinations of high pressure treatments and bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria on the survival of Listeria monocytogenes on raw milk cheese. Intl Dairy J 15:893900. Avila M, Calzada J, Garde S, Nu nez, M. 2007. Effect of a bacteriocin-producing Lactococcus lactis strain and high-pressure treatment on the esterase activity and free fatty acids in Hisp anico cheese. Int Dairy J 17:141523. Avila M, Garde S, Gaya P, Medina M, Nu nez M. 2006. Effect of high-pressure treatment and a bacteriocin-producing lactic culture on the proteolysis, texture, and taste of Hisp anico cheese. J Dairy Sci 89: 288293. Bansal N, Fox PF, McSweeney PHL. 2007. Factors affecting the retention of rennet in cheese curd. J Agric Food Chem 55:921925. Bansal N, Fox PF, McSweeney PHL. 2009. Comparison of the level of residual coagulant activity in different cheese varieties. J Dairy Res 76:29093. Black EP, Setlow P, Hocking AD, Stewart CM, Kelly AL, Hoover DG. 2007. Response of spores to high-pressure processing. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Safety 6:10319. Black EP, Stewart CM, Hoover, DG. 2011. Nonthermal processing technologies for food. In: Zhang HQ, Barbosa-C anovas GV, Balasubramanian VM, Dunne CP, Farkas DF, Yuan JTC, editors. Nonthermal processing technologies for food. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p 5171. Capellas M, Mor-Mur M, Gervilla R, Yuste J, Guamis B. 2000. Effect of high pressure combined with mild heat or nisin on inoculated bacteria and mesophiles of goats milk fresh cheese. Food Microbiol 17:63341. Capellas M, Mor-Mur M, Sendra E, Guamis B. 2001. Effect of high-pressure processing on physico-chemical characteristics of fresh goats milk cheese Nomenclature (Mat o). Intl Dairy J 11:16573. HHP = high hydrostatic pressure Capellas M, Mor-Mur M, Sendra E, Pla R, Guamis B. 1996. Populations of aerobic mesophiles and inoculated Escherichia coli during storage of fresh LAB = lactic acid bacteria goats milk cheese treated with high pressure. J Food Prot 59:58287. D-value = decimal reduction value Carminati D, Gatti M, Bonvini B, Neviani E, Muchetti G. 2004. Leu- -NA = leucine-p-nitroanilide High-pressure processing of Gorgonzola cheese: inuence on Listeria FAA = free amino acid monocytogenes inactivation and on sensory characteristics. J Food Prot FFA = free fatty acid 67:167175. TCA = trichloroacetic acid CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2007. Salmonella Typhimurium infection associated with raw milk and cheese consumption, PTA = phosphotungstic acid Pennsylvania, 2007 [Internet]. Atlanta, GA. Available from: SN = soluble nitrogen http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5644a3.htm. TN = total nitrogen Accessed Feb, 2012. SDS-PAGE = sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel elec- CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2010. Investigation update: multistate outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 infections associated with trophoresis cheese [Internet]. Atlanta, GA. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/ ecoli/2010/cheese0157/. Accessed Feb, 2012. Acknowledgments CFIA (Canadian Food Inspection Agency). 2011. Certain grated cheese Author Y. Mart nez-Rodr guez acknowledges support from product with Parmesan may contain Listeria monocytogenes [Internet]. CONACYT (M exico) via a Ph.D. fellowship (ref. 179692). The Available from: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/corpaffr/recarapp/ 2011/20110301e.shtml. Accessed Feb, 2012. authors thank Marvin Mart nez for his valuable comments on the Cheftel JC. 1995. Review: high pressure, microbial inactivation and food manuscript. preservation. Food Sci Technol Intl 1:7590. Datta N, Deeth HC. 2002. High-pressure processing. In: Roginsky H, Fuquay JW, Fox PF, editors. Encyclopedia of dairy sciences. Oxford: Elsevier Science. p 132733. References AICF. 2003. Outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 gastroenteritis associated with Daryaei H, Coventry MJ, Versteeg C, Sherkat F. 2008. Effect of high unpasteurized Gouda cheese: Edmonton, Alberta [Internet]. Alberta, CA. pressure treatment on starter bacteria and spoilage yeasts in fresh lactic curd Available from: http://www.aic.ca/conferences/pdf/Lance_Honish.pdf. cheese of bovine milk. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 9:2015. Accessed Feb, 2012. De Lamo-Castellv S, Capellas M, L opez-Pedemonte T, Hern andez-Herrero Alonso R, Picon A, Rodr guez B, Gaya P, Fern andez-Garc a E, N un ez M. MM, Guamis B, Roig-Sagu es AX. 2005. Behavior of Yersinia enterocolitica 2011. Microbiological, chemical, and sensory characteristics of Hisp anico strains inoculated in model cheese treated with high hydrostatic pressure. J cheese manufactured using frozen high pressure treated curds made from raw Food Prot 68:52833. ovine milk. Intl Dairy J 21:48492. De Lamo-Castellv S, Capellas M, Roig-Sagu es AX, L opez-Pedemonte T, Arqu es JL, Garde S, Fern andez-Garc a E, Gaya P, Nu nez M. 2007. Volatile Hern andez-Herrero MM, Guamis B. 2006. Fate of Escherichia coli strains compounds, odor, and aroma of La Serena cheese high-pressure treated at inoculated in model cheese elaborated with or without starter and treated by two different stages of ripening. J Dairy Sci 90:362739. high hydrostatic pressure. J Food Prot 69: 285664. Arqu es JL, Garde S, Gaya P, Medina M, Nu nez M. 2006. Short De Lamo-Castellv S, Roig-Sagu es AX, L opez-Pedemonte T, communication: inactivation of microbial contaminants in raw milk La Hern andez-Herrero MM, Guamis B, Capellas M. 2007. Response of two Serena cheese by high-pressure treatments. J Dairy Sci 89:88891. Salmonella enterica strains inoculated in model cheese treated with high hydrostatic pressure. J Dairy Sci 90:99109. Arqu es JL, Rodr guez E, Gaya P, Medina M, Guamis B, Nu nez M. 2005a. Inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus in raw milk cheese by combinations of Delgado FJ, Gonz alez-Crespo J, Cava R, Ram rez R. 2011. Changes in the high pressure treatments and bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria. J volatile prole of a raw goat milk cheese treated by hydrostatic high pressure Appl Microbiol 98:25460. at different stages of maturation. Intl Dairy J 21:13541. Vol. 11, 2012 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 413
product shelf-life. However, depending on the intensity of treatment conditions and moment of application, physicochemical, rheological, and sensory properties may be altered. Therefore, a good balance must be attained between ensuring microbial safety and maintaining traditional cheese quality attributes. Although immature cheese is more sensitive to changes induced by pressure treatments, most of the observed changes are reversible and HHPinduced differences become less signicant compared to nonpressurized cheese during ripening. With regard to cheese ripening, application of HHP has mainly focused on ripening acceleration to reduce production costs. Noteworthy accomplishments have been the reduction in ripening time from 6 mo to 3 d of Cheddar cheese without negatively affecting sensory attributes (which to our knowledge has not been further investigated and evaluated on a commercial scale), the acceleration of Cheddar cheese shredability, which could reduce manufacturing costs by at least US $30/1000 kg, and the reduction in time required to attain satisfactory cooking properties of mozzarella cheese. Current trends are to apply HHP treatments at a desired stage in order to decelerate the ripening process and, therefore, extend optimal commercial quality by controlling enzyme and bacterial participation. General conclusions from this review can be schematically seen in Figure 1.

Ding YT, Sang WG, Jin Z, Harper JW. 2001. High pressure treatment of Swiss cheese slurries inactivation of selected microorganisms after treatment and during accelerated ripening. J Zhejiang Univ 2:2048. Dominguez M, Jourdan-Da Silva N, Vaillant V, Pihier N, Kermin C, Weill FX, Delmas G, Kerouanton A, Brisabois A, de Valk H. 2009. Outbreak of Salmonella enterica serotype Montevideo infections in France linked to consumption of cheese made from raw milk. Foodborne Pathog Dis 6:1218. El Soda M, Awad S. 2011. Accelerated cheese ripening. In: Fuquay JW, Fox PF, McSweeney PHL, editors. Encyclopedia of dairy sciences.Vol. 1. Oxford: Elsevier Science. p 79598. Erikson MC. 2003. Recognition and prevention of staphylococcal enterotoxins as intentional contaminants of foods [Internet]. CFS White Paper. Available from: http://www.ugacfs.org/faculty/Erickson/ WhitePapers.html. Accessed May, 2011. Evrendilek GA, Koca N, Harper JW, Balasubramanian VM. 2008. High-pressure pocessing of Turkish white cheese for microbial inactivation. J Food Prot 71:1028. Farkas DF. 2011. High pressure processing pathways to commercialization. In: Zhang HQ, Barbosa-C anovas GV, Balasubramanian VM, Dunne CP, Farkas DF, Yuan JTC, editors. Nonthermal processing technologies for food. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p 2835. Farkas DF, Hoover DG. 2000. High-pressure processing. J Food Sci (Suppl):4764. FDA (Food and Drug Administration). 2010. Heluva good recalls cold pack cheese products because of possible health risk [Internet]. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/Safety/Recalls/ucm197441.htm. Accessed Feb, 2012. FDA (Food and Drug Administration). 2010. Queser a Bendita recalls queso fresco, Panela, and Reques on because of possible health risk [Internet]. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/Safety/Recalls/ucm201350.htm. Accessed Feb, 2012. FDA (Food and Drug Administration). 2010. Lot of Mauri Gorgonzola cheese positive for E. coli O157:H7 [Internet]. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ ucm233539.htm. Accessed Feb, 2012. FDA (Food and Drug Administration). 2011. Staphylococcus aureus in queso fresco cheese [Internet]. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/ Safety/Recalls/ucm259411.htm. Accessed Feb, 2012. Food Standards. 2012. Almarae dairy products (microbial contamination) [Internet]. Available from: http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/ consumerinformation/foodrecalls/currentconsumerlevelrecalls/ almaraedairyproducts5458.cfm. Accessed Feb, 2012. Fonberg-Broczek M, Windyga B, Szczawi nski J, Szczawi nska M, Pietrzak D, Prestamo G. 2005. High pressure processing for food safety. Acta Biochim Pol 52:72124. FSN (Food Safety News). 2011. Indiana dairy recalls blue cheese due to Listeria risk [Internet]. Available from: http://www.foodsafetynews.com/ 2011/10/indiana-dairy-recalls-blue-cheese-due-to-listeria-risk. Accessed Feb, 2012. Gallot-Lavall ee T. 1998. Efcacit e du traitement par les hautes pressions sur la destruction de Listeria monocytogenes dans des fromages de ch` evre au lait cru. Sci Aliment 18:64755. Garde S, Arqu es JL, Gaya P, Medina M, Nu nez M. 2007. Effect of high-pressure treatments on proteolysis and texture of ewes raw milk La Serena cheese. Intl Dairy J 17: 142433. Goh ELC, Hocking AD, Stewart CM, Buckle KA, Fleet GH. 2007. Baroprotective effect of increased solute concentrations on yeast and moulds during high pressure processing. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 8: 53542. Guinee TP. 2011. Cheese rheology. In: Fuquay JW, Fox PF, McSweeney PHL, editors. Encyclopedia of dairy sciences. Vol. 1. Oxford: Elsevier Science. p 68597. Haeghebaert S, Sulem P, Deroudille L, Vanneroy-Adenot E, Bagnis O, Bouvet P, Grimont F, Brisabois A, Querrec FLe, Hervy C, Espie E, de Valk H, Vaillant V. 2003. Two outbreaks of Salmonella Enteritidis phage type 8 linked to the consumption of Cantal cheese made with raw milk, France, 2001. Euro Surveill 8:1516. Hiperbaric. 2011. High pressure processing: dairy products [Internet]. Available from: http://www.hiperbaric.com/DINAMICAS/AP/desc/ dairy-high-pressure-pasteurization.pdf. Accessed Feb, 2012. Huppertz T, Fox PF, Kelly, AL. 2004. Susceptibility of plasmin and chymosin in Cheddar cheese to inactivation by high pressure. J Dairy Res 71: 49699. Huppertz T, Kelly AL, Fox PF. 2002. Effects of high pressure on constituents and properties of milk. Intl Dairy J 12:56172. Iwa nczak M, Wi sniewska K. 2005. Effect of high pressures on the process of Edam cheese proteolysis. High Pressure Res 25:4350. Juan B, Barron LJR, Ferragut V, Trujillo AJ. 2007a. Effects of high pressure treatment on volatile prole during ripening of ewe. J Dairy Sci 90:12435. Juan B, Ferragut V, Buffa M, Guamis B, Trujillo A J. 2007b. Effects of high pressure on proteolytic enzymes in cheese: relationship with the proteolysis of ewe milk cheeses. J Dairy Sci 90:211325. Juan B, Ferragut V, Buffa M, Guamis B, Trujillo A J. 2007c. Effects of high-pressure treatment on free fatty acids release during ripening of ewes milk cheese. J Dairy Res 74: 43845. Juan B, Ferragut V, Guamis B, Trujillo AJ. 2008. The effect of high-pressure treatment at 300 MPa on ripening of ewes milk cheese. Intl Dairy J 18:12938. Juan B, Trujillo AJ, Guamis B, Buffa M, Ferragut V. 2007d. Rheological, textural and sensory characteristics of high-pressure-treated semi-hard ewes milk cheese. Intl Dairy J 17:24854. Johnston DE, Darcy PC. 2000. The effects of high pressure on immature mozzarella cheese. Milchwissenschaft 55:61720. Koca N, Balasubramanian VM, Harper JW. 2011. High-pressure effects on the microstructure, texture, and color of white-brined cheese. J Food Sci 76:399404. Kolakowski P, Reps A, Babuchowski, A. 1998. Characteristics of pressure-ripened cheeses. Pol J Food Nutr Sci 7:47383. Knorr D, Reineke K, Mathys A, Heinz V, Buckow R. 2011. High-pressure-induced effects on bacterial spores, vegetative microorganisms, and enzymes. In: Aguilera JC, Barbosa-C anovas GV, Simpson R, Welti-Chanes J, Berm udez-Aguirre D, editors. Food engineering interfaces. New York: Springer Science. p 32540. Loncarevic S, Danielsson-Tham ML, Tham W. 1995. Occurrence of Listeria monocytogenes in soft and semi-soft cheeses in retail outlets in Sweden. Intl J Food Microbiol 26:24550. L opez TJ, Roig AX, Capellas M, Trujillo AJ, Hern andez M, Guamis B. 2003. Evaluation of the importance of germinative cycles for destruction of Bacillus cereus spores in miniature cheeses. High Pressure Res 23:815. L opez-Fandi no R. 2006. High-pressure-induced changes in milk proteins and possible applications in dairy technology. Intl Dairy J 16:111931. L opez-Pedemonte T, Roig-Sagu es A, De Lamo S, Hern andez-Herrero M, Guamis B. 2007a. Reduction of counts of Listeria monocytogenes in cheese by means of high hydrostatic pressure. Food Microbiol 24:5966. L opez-Pedemonte T, Roig-Sagu es AX, De Lamo S, Gervilla R, Guamis B. 2007b. High hydrostatic pressure treatment applied to model cheeses made from cows milk inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus. Food Control 18:44147. L opez-Pedemonte TJ, Roig-Sagu es AX, Trujillo AJ, Capellas M, Guamis B. 2003. Inactivation of spores of Bacillus cereus in cheese by high hydrostatic pressure with the addition of nisin or lysozyme. J Dairy Sci 86:307581. Malone AS, Shellhammer TH, Courtney PD. 2002. Effects of high pressure on the viability, morphology, lysis and cell wall activity of Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:435763. Ma nas P, Pag an R. 2005. A review: microbial inactivation by new technologies of food preservation. J Appl Microbiol 98:138799. Margosch D, Maximilian M, G anzle MG, M artlbauer E, Vogel RF, Ehrmann MA. 2005. Effect of high pressure and heat on bacterial toxins. Food Technol Biotech 43:21117. Marler O. 2011. Salmonella concern prompts cheese spread recall [Internet]. Food Safety News. Available from: http://www.foodsafetynews.com/ 2011/08/salmonella-concerns-prompts-cheese-spread-recall/. Accessed Aug, 2011 McSweeney PHL, Sousa MJ. 2000. Biochemical pathways for the production of avor compounds in cheeses during ripening: a review. Lait 80:293324. McSweeney PHL. 2004. Biochemistry of cheese ripening. Intl J Dairy Technol 57:12744. Messens W, Dewettinck K, Van Camp J, Huyghebaert A. 1998. High pressure brining of Gouda cheese and its effect on the cheese serum. Food Sci Technol 31:55258. Messens W, Estepar-Garcia J, Dewettinck K, Huyghebaert A. 1999. Proteolysis of high-pressure-treated Gouda cheese. Intl Dairy J 9:77582. Messens W, Foubert K, Dewettinck K, Huyghebaert A. 2000. Proteolysis of a high-pressure-treated smear-ripned cheese. Milchwissenschaft 55:32832.

Messens W, Foubert I, Dewettinck K, Huyghebaert A. 2001. Proteolysis of high-pressure-treated mould-ripened cheese. Milchwissenschaft 56: 2014. Molina-H oppner A, Doster W, Vogel RF, G anzle G. 2004. Protective effect of sucrose and sodium chloride for Lactococcus lactis during sublethal and lethal high-pressure treatments. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:201320. Morales P, Calzada J, Rodr guez B, de Paz M, Gaya P, Nu nez M. 2006. Effect of cheese water activity and carbohydrate content on the barotolerance of Listeria monocytogenes scott A. J Food Prot 69: 132833. Moschopoulou E, Anisa T, Katsaros G, Taoukis P, Moatsou G. 2010. Application of high-pressure treatment on ovine brined cheese: effect on composition and microora throughout ripening. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 11:54350. Nielsen SS. 2002. Plasmin system and microbial proteases in milk: characteristics, roles, and relationship. J Agric Food Chem 50: 662834. Okpala COR, Piggott JR, Schaschke CJ. 2010. Inuence of high pressure processing (HPP) on the physico-chemical properties of fresh cheese. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 11:617. OReilly CE, Kelly AL, Murphy PM, Beresford TP. 2001. High pressure treatment: applications in cheese manufacture and ripening. Trends Food Sci Tech 12:519. OReilly CE, Kelly AL, Oliviera JC, Murphy PM, Auty MAE, Beresford TP. 2003. Effect of varying high-pressure treatment conditions on acceleration of ripening of Cheddar cheese. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 4: 27784. OReilly CE, Murphy PM, Kelly AL, Guinee TP, Auty MAE, Beresford TP. 2002b. The effect of high pressure treatment on the functional and rheological properties of mozzarella cheese. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 3:39. OReilly CE, OConnor PM, Kelly AL, Beresford TP, Murphy PM. 2000a. Use of hydrostatic pressure for inactivation of microbial contaminants in cheese. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:489096. OReilly CE, OConnor PM, Murphy PM, Kelly AL, Beresford TP. 2000b. The effect of exposure to pressure of 50 MPa on Cheddar cheese ripening. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 1:10917. OReilly CE, OConnor PM, Murphy PM, Kelly AL, Beresford TP. 2002a. Effects of high-pressure treatment on viability and autolysis of starter bacteria and proteolysis in Cheddar cheese. Intl Dairy J 12: 91522. Patterson MF. 2005. A review: microbiology of pressure-treated foods. J Appl Microbiol 98:14009. Patterson MF, Ledward DA, Rogers N. 2006. High pressure processing. In: Brennan JG, editor. Food processing handbook. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. p 173200. Pavia M, Trujillo AJ, Guamis B, Ferragut V. 2000. Effectiveness of high-pressure brining of Manchego-type Cheese. Food Sci Technol-LWT 33:4013. Pereira RN, Vicente AA. 2010. Environmental impact of novel thermal and non-thermal technologies in food processing. Food Res Intl 43: 193643. Purroy F. 2009. Industrial applications & economics of pressurized foods [Internet]. Burgos, SP: NC Hiperbaric. Available from: http://www. conndustria.ud.it/InfoCMS/RepositPubbl/table17/120/Allegati/ Industrial%20applications.pdf. Accessed Aug, 2011. Rastogi NK, Raghavarao KSMS, Balasubramaniam VM, Niranjan K, Knorr D. 2007. Opportunities and challenges in high pressure processing of foods. Crit Rev Food Sci 47:69112. Rendueles E, Omer MK, Alvseike O, Alonso-Calleja C, Capita R, Prieto M. 2011. Microbiological food safety assessment of high hydrostatic pressure processing: a review. Food Sci Technol-LEB 44:125160. Reps A, Ku zmicka M, Wi sniewska K, Jankowska A. 2009. The effect of high pressure on Lactococcus bacteria count in Edam rennin cheese. High Pressure Res 29:2832. Rodr guez E, Arqu es JL, Nu nez M, Gaya P, Medina M. 2005. Combined effect of high pressure treatments and bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria on the inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in raw milk cheese. Appl Environ Microb 71:3399404. Rudolf M, Scherer S. 2001. High incidence of Listeria monocytogenes in European red smear cheese. Intl J Food Microbiol 63:918. Rynne NM, Beresford TP, Guinee TP, Sheehan E, Delahunty CM, Kelly AL. 2008. Effect of high-pressure treatment of 1 day-old full-fat Cheedar cheese on subsequent quality and ripening. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 9:42940. Saldo J, Fern andez A, Sendra E, Butz P, Tauscher B, Guamis B. 2003. High pressure treatment decelerates the lipolysis in a caprine cheese. Food Res Intl 36:106168 Saldo J, McSweeney PHL, Sendra E, Kelly AL, Guamis B. 2002a. Proteolysis in caprine milk cheese treated by high pressure to accelerate cheese ripening. Intl Dairy J 12:3544. Saldo J, Sendra E, Guamis B. 2000. High hydrostatic pressure for accelerating ripening of goats milk cheese: proteolysis and texture. J Food Sci 65:63640. Saldo J, Sendra E, Guamis B. 2001. Hard cheese structure after a high hydrostatic pressure treatment at 50 MPa for 72 h applied to cheese after brining. Lait 81:62535. Saldo J, Sendra E, Guamis B. 2002b. Changes in water binding in high-pressure-treated cheese, measured by TGA (thermogravimetrical analysis). Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 3:2037. Saldo J, Sendra E, Guamis B. 2002c. Colour changes during ripening high-pressure-treated hard caprine cheese. High Pressure Res 22:65963. Sandra S, Standford MA, Meunier Goddik L. 2004. The use of high-pressure processing in the production of queso fresco cheese. J Food Sci 69:15358. San Mart n-Gonz alez MF, Welty-Chanes J, Barbosa-C anovas GV. 2006. Cheese manufacture assisted by high pressure. Food Rev Intl 22: 27589. Serrano J, Velazquez G, Lopetcharat K, Ram rez JA, Torres JA. 2004. Effect of moderate pressure treatments on microstructure, texture, and sensory properties of stirred-curd Cheddar shreds. J Dairy Sci 87:317282. Serrano J, Velazquez G, Lopetcharat K, Ram rez JA, Torres JA. 2005. Moderately high hydrostatic pressure processing to reduce production costs of shredded cheese: microstructure, texture and sensory properties of shredded milled curd Cheddar. J Food Sci 70:28693. Shao Y, Ramaswamy HS, Zhu S. 2007. High-pressure destruction kinetics of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria in raw milk cheese. J Food Process Eng 30:35774. Sheehan JJ, Huppertz T, Hayes MG, Kelly AL, Beresford TP, Guinee TP. 2005. High pressure treatment of reduced-fat mozzarella cheese: effects on functional and rheological properties. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 6:7381. Smelt JPPM. 1998. Recent advances in the microbiology of high pressure processing. Trends Food Sci Technol 9:1528. Smelt JPPM, Hellemons JC, Wouters PC, van Gerwen SJC. 2002. Physiological and mathematical aspects in setting criteria for decontamination of foods by physical means. Intl J Food Microbiol 78:5777. Tibana A, Rayman K, Akhtar M, Szabo R. 1987. Thermal stability of staphylococcal enterotoxins A, B and C in a buffered system. J Food Protect 50:23942. Toep S, Mathys A, Heinz V, Knorr D. 2006. Review: potential of high hydrostatic pressure and pulsed electric elds for energy efcient and environmentally friendly food processing. Food Rev Intl 22: 40523. Tonello C. 2011. Case studies on high pressure processing of foods. In: Zhang HQ, Barbosa-C anovas GV, Balasubramanian VM, Dunne CP, Farkas DF, Yuan JTC, editors. Nonthermal processing technologies for food. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p 3650. Trujillo AJ, Capellas M, Buffa M, Royo C, Gervilla R, Felipe X, Sendra E, Saldo J, Ferragut V, Guamis, B. 2000a. Application of high pressure treatment for cheese production. Food Res Intl 33:31116. Trujillo AJ, Guamis B, Carretero C. 2000b. A procedure for the manufacture of goat milk cheese with controlled-microora by means of high hydrostatic pressure. Food Chem 69:739. Trujillo AJ, Capellas M, Saldo J, Gervilla R, Guamis B. 2002. Applications of high-hydrostatic pressure on milk and dairy products: a review. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 3:295307. Upadhyay VK, McSweeney PHL, Magboul AA, Fox PF. 2004. Proteolysis in cheese during ripening. In: Fox PF, McSweeney PHL, Cogan TM, Guinee TR, editors. Cheese: chemistry, physics & microbiology. 3rd ed. Oxford: Elsevier Science. p 391434. Villar RG, Macek MD, Simons S, Hayes PS, Goldoft MJ, Lewis JH, Rowan LL, Hursh D, Patnode M, Mead PS. 1999. Investigation of multidrug-resistant Salmonella serotype Typhimurium DT104 infections linked to raw-milk cheese in Washington State. J Am Med Assoc 281:18116.

Voigt DD, Chevalier F, Qian MC, Kelly AL. 2010. Effect of high-pressure treatment on microbiology, proteolysis, lipolysis and levels of avour compounds in mature blue-veined cheese. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 11:6877. Wachowska M. 2010. The effect of freezing and pressure of 50 MPa and 100 MPa on the proteolytic activity of enzymes in Edam cheese. Pol J Nat Sci 25:42737. Wick C, Nienaber U, Anggraeni O, Shellhammer TH, Courtney PD. 2004. Texture, proteolysis and viable lactic acid bacteria in commercial Cheddar cheeses treated with high pressure. J Dairy Res 71:10715. Yokoyama H, Sawamura N, Motobayashi N, inventors; Fuji Oil Company, assignee. 1993 Jan 1. Method for accelerating cheese ripening. U.S. patent 5,180, 596.

High Hydrostatic Processing Pressure in Cheese

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

High Hydrostatic Processing Pressure in Cheese

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

High Hydrostatic Pressure Processing of Cheese

High Hydrostatic Pressure Inactivation of Microorganisms in Cheese

c 2012 Institute of Food Technologists doi: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2012.00192.x

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

a CI = complete inactivation; b wk = weeks; c d=day.

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

Effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Vegetative Forms of Microorganisms in Cheese

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

Effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Microbial Spores in Cheese

Effect of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Cheese Ripening and Related Agents

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

Cheese variety Proteolysis Cheddar

Camembert P` ere Joseph and Paillardin

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

After salting, 4, 6, and 8 wkc

1d 1, 5, 15, 20, and 25 d

Ewes milk cheese

Blue-veined Glycolysis Full-fat Cheddar

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

Inuence of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Proteolytic Enzymes in Cheese

Inuence of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Cheese Proteolysis

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

Inuence of High Hydrostatic Pressure on Cheese Lipolysis and Glycolysis

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

Inuence on Physicochemical Properties

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

Table 4 Effect of HHP treatments on cheese quality parameters.

Parameter evaluated Color

Cheddar, Turkish white-brined

Koca and others 2011; Rynne and others 2008

Stirred and milled-curd Cheddar

Reduced-fat mozzarella Gouda

Ewes milk cheese

Hisp anico Ewes milk cheese

La Serena Raw goat milk cheese

a d = day; b mo = month; c N.S. = not specied.

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

Inuence on Rheological Properties

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

Inuence on Sensory Properties

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

High hydrostatic pressure processing of cheese . . .

2012 Institute of Food Technologists

Вам также может понравиться