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Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Plastics Processing ..................................................................................................... 1


1.0 Introduction
...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Interactivity Basics ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Thermodynamic Principles Governing Injection Molding..................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Filling ...................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 Holding ...................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.3 Cooling ...................................................................................................................................... 6

2 Shrinkage and Warpage ....................................................................................................................... 9


2.1 In-Mold Shrinkage ................................................................................................................................ 9
2.1.1 Determination of Shrinkage ...................................................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Molded-in Stress ........................................................................................................................11
2.2 Warpage
.................................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Common Causes of Nonuniform Shrinkage ............................................................................. 13
2.2.2 Principles of Minimizing Warpage ........................................................................................... 14
2.3 Post-Mold Shrinkage ........................................................................................................................... 16

3 Causes of Molded-Part Variation: Part Design ............................................................................... 17


3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

Wall Thickness .................................................................................................................................... 17


Ribs
.................................................................................................................................... 18
Bosses
.................................................................................................................................... 21
Example of Proper Part Design ........................................................................................................... 21
Other Design Considerations ............................................................................................................... 22

4 Causes of Molded-Part Variation: Material ..................................................................................... 23


4.1 Amorphous and Semicrystalline Resins .............................................................................................. 23
4.1.1 Amorphous Polymers................................................................................................................ 25
4.1.2 Semicrystalline Materials ......................................................................................................... 26
4.2 Effects of Fillers, Reinforcements, Pigments, Time, and Stress.......................................................... 29
4.2.1 Effects of Fillers and Fibers...................................................................................................... 29
4.2.2 Minimizing the Effects of Fiber Reinforcements ...................................................................... 32
4.2.3 Effects of Pigments ................................................................................................................... 34
4.2.4 The Effects of Time and Stress on Dimensional Stability ........................................................ 36
4.3 Shrinkage Predictions: Using Pressure-Volume-Temperature (PVT) Relationships ........................... 37
4.3.1 PVT System Properties ............................................................................................................. 37
4.3.2 Predicting Mold Shrinkage ....................................................................................................... 43
4.3.3 Predicting Mold Warpage ......................................................................................................... 46
4.3.4 Accuracy of Shrinkage Predictions .......................................................................................... 48

5 Causes of Molded-Part Variation: Mold Design .............................................................................. 51


5.1 Cavity Dimensions and Design Factors .............................................................................................. 51

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5.2 Gate Types
.................................................................................................................................... 53
5.2.1 Pin, Pinpoint, Tunnel, and Submarine Gates ............................................................................ 54
5.2.2 Edge and Straight-Edge Gates .................................................................................................. 55
5.2.3 Fan Gates .................................................................................................................................. 55
5.2.4 Film, Diaphragm, and Ring Gates ............................................................................................ 55
5.2.5 Tab Gates .................................................................................................................................. 56
5.2.6 Multiple Gates .......................................................................................................................... 56
5.3 Gate Location .................................................................................................................................... 57
5.3.1 Side, End, and Center Gates ..................................................................................................... 58
5.3.2 Determining Gate Position ........................................................................................................ 60
5.4 Gate Size
.................................................................................................................................... 62
5.5 Gate-Design Systems........................................................................................................................... 62
5.6 Runner Design .................................................................................................................................... 63
5.6.1 Multiple-Cavity Molds ............................................................................................................. 64
5.6.2 Ejection .................................................................................................................................... 70
5.7 Mold-Cooling Design .......................................................................................................................... 70
5.7.1 Cooling Channels ...................................................................................................................... 70
5.7.2 Effects of Corners ..................................................................................................................... 74
5.7.3 Thickness Variations ................................................................................................................. 75
5.7.4 Runnerless Molds ..................................................................................................................... 75
5.7.5 Slides .................................................................................................................................... 75
5.7.6 Venting .................................................................................................................................... 75
5.8 Mold Construction Materials .............................................................................................................. 76
5.9 Prototype Molding with SLA or Similar Type Molds......................................................................... 76
5.10 Pitfalls to Avoid................................................................................................................................. 77

6 Causes of Molded-Part Variation: Processing.................................................................................. 79


6.1 Molding Conditions .............................................................................................................................
6.2 Injection Melt Temperature .................................................................................................................
6.3 Injection Rate and Pressure .................................................................................................................
6.3.1 Injection Speed..........................................................................................................................
6.3.2 Injection Pressure......................................................................................................................
6.4 Holding Pressure and Time .................................................................................................................
6.4.1 Holding Pressure.......................................................................................................................
6.4.2 Holding-Pressure Time .............................................................................................................
6.5 Mold Temperature ...............................................................................................................................
6.5.1 Predicting Mold Temperature Effects .......................................................................................
6.5.2 Relationship Between Mold Temperature and Shrinkage .........................................................
6.5.3 Relationship Between Wall Thickness and Shrinkage ..............................................................
6.6 Demolding Temperature ......................................................................................................................
6.7 Molded-In Stresses ..............................................................................................................................
6.8 Other Molding Processes.....................................................................................................................
6.8.1 Lost Core Process .....................................................................................................................
6.8.2 Gas Assist Processing ...............................................................................................................
6.8.2.1 Foaming ......................................................................................................................
6.8.2.2 Shrinkage of Gas-Assisted Processes .........................................................................

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7 Factors Affecting Post-Mold Shrinkage and Warpage ................................................................... 97
7.1 Effects of Temperature on Dimensions ............................................................................................... 97
7.2 Effects of Moisture on Dimensions ..................................................................................................... 98
7.3 Creep
.................................................................................................................................. 103

8 Controlling Mold and Post-Mold Shrinkage and Warpage .......................................................... 105


8.1 Finding the Cause .............................................................................................................................. 105
8.2 Processing Considerations ................................................................................................................. 106
8.2.1 Melt Temperatures and Uniformity ........................................................................................ 106
8.2.2 Mold Temperatures and Uniformity ....................................................................................... 107
8.2.3 Filling, Packing, and Holding Pressures ................................................................................. 108
8.2.4 Filling, Packing, and Holding Times ...................................................................................... 108
8.2.5 Part Temperature at Ejection .................................................................................................. 109
8.2.6 Clamp Tonnage ....................................................................................................................... 109
8.2.7 Post-Mold Fixturing and Annealing ....................................................................................... 109
8.2.8 Special Problems With Thick Walls and Sink Marks ............................................................. 109
8.2.9 Nozzles ...................................................................................................................................110
8.2.10 Excessive or Insufficient Shrinkage ........................................................................... 111
8.2.11 Secondary Machining ................................................................................................ 111
8.2.12 Quality Control .......................................................................................................... 111
8.3 Material Considerations .....................................................................................................................112
8.3.1 Filler or Reinforcement Content ..............................................................................................114
8.3.2 Degree of Liquid Absorption ...................................................................................................114
8.3.3 Regrind ...................................................................................................................................114
8.4 Tooling Considerations .......................................................................................................................114
8.4.1 Gate Locations .........................................................................................................................114
8.4.2 Types and Sizes of Gates .........................................................................................................115
8.4.3 Runner Systems .......................................................................................................................115
8.4.4 Mold-Cooling Layout ..............................................................................................................116
8.4.5 Tool Tolerances ........................................................................................................................116
8.4.6 Draft Angles ............................................................................................................................117
8.4.7 Ejection-System Design ...........................................................................................................117
8.4.8 Elastic Deformation of a Mold ................................................................................................118
8.4.9 Mold Wear ...............................................................................................................................118
8.4.10 Mold Contamination ...............................................................................................................118
8.4.11 Position Deviations of Movable Mold Components ...............................................................119
8.4.12 Special Issues With Gears ......................................................................................................119
8.5 Part Geometry .................................................................................................................................. 121
8.5.1 Overall Part Dimensions ......................................................................................................... 122
8.5.2 Wall Thickness ........................................................................................................................ 122
8.5.3 Shrinkage-Restricting Features ............................................................................................... 124
8.6 Controlling Warpage ......................................................................................................................... 124

9 Computer-Aided Analysis ................................................................................................................ 127


9.1 Capabilities of CAA .......................................................................................................................... 127
9.2 Limitations of CAA ........................................................................................................................... 128
9.3 Selecting a CAA Program ................................................................................................................. 129

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9.4 Customer Requirements ....................................................................................................................
9.5 Management Tools ............................................................................................................................
9.6 Filling Analysis .................................................................................................................................
9.7 Packing and Holding Simulation .......................................................................................................
9.8 Shrinkage/Warpage Simulation .........................................................................................................
9.9 Cooling Analysis ...............................................................................................................................
9.10 Costs
..............................................................................................................................
9.11 Conclusions
..............................................................................................................................

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10 Case Studies .................................................................................................................................. 139


10.1 Unexpected Housing Shrink............................................................................................................ 139
10.2 Changing Materials Triggers Warpage ........................................................................................... 140
10.3 Creep in a Water Heater Stand ....................................................................................................... 141
10.4 Oversize Part Injection-Molding Alkyd Thermoset ........................................................................ 141
10.5 Inadequate Baby Dish Mold ........................................................................................................... 142
10.6 Gas Entrapment in Baby Dish Mold............................................................................................... 144
10.7 Warpage in a Molded Spool ............................................................................................................ 145
10.8 Daisy-Wheel Breakage ................................................................................................................... 147
10.9 PVC Part-Flashing Problems .......................................................................................................... 147
10.10 Polycarbonate Switch Failure ...................................................................................................... 148
10.11 Square Poker Chip Tray, Inadequate Shot Size ........................................................................... 149
10.12 Problem Ejecting Square Poker Chips ......................................................................................... 149
10.13 Military Cup Material Shrinkage ............................................................................................. 150
10.14 Core-Deflection Problems ............................................................................................................ 151
10.15 Elevator Gib Warpage .................................................................................................................. 152
10.16 Sucker-Rod Guide Brittleness ...................................................................................................... 153
10.17 Bottle-Cap Thread Distortion ....................................................................................................... 153
10.18 Plastic Post Creep ........................................................................................................................ 154
10.19 Excessive Shrinkage of Glass-Filled Nylon ................................................................................. 154
10.20 Preventing Warpage in Thin Molded Lids .................................................................................... 155

11 Data

.................................................................................................................................. 157

11.1 Unfilled Materials ...........................................................................................................................


11.2 Effects of Fillers ..............................................................................................................................
11.3 Shrinkage vs Various Parameters ...................................................................................................
11.3.1 Shrinkage vs Injection Temperature ....................................................................................
11.3.2 Shrinkage vs Melt Temperature ..........................................................................................
11.3.3 Shrinkage vs Mold Temperature .........................................................................................
11.3.4 Shrinkage vs Density (Polyethylene) ...................................................................................
11.3.5 Shrinkage vs Holding Pressure ............................................................................................
11.3.6 Shrinkage vs Thickness .......................................................................................................
11.4 Moisture Absorption Curves...........................................................................................................
11.5 Pressure Volume Temperature (PVT) Curves.................................................................................
11.6 Shrinkage and Warpage of Molded Disks.......................................................................................
11.7 Angular Warpage ............................................................................................................................
11.8 General Shrinkage Characteristics for Various Plastics .................................................................

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11.9 Material-Specific Shrinkage Characteristics .................................................................................. 198
11.9.1 Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) (Crastin) (DuPont) ..................................................... 198
11.9.2 Polyoxymethylene: Acetal (POM) (Delrin ) (DuPont) ...................................................... 200
11.9.3 Polycarbonate (PC) ............................................................................................................. 203
11.9.4 Polyphenylene Sulfide (Fortron) (PPS) ............................................................................. 204
11.9.5 Thermoplastic Elastomer Ether Ester Block Copolymer (TEEE) (Hytrel) (DuPont) ....... 206
11.9.6 Polypropylene (PP) .............................................................................................................. 207
11.9.7 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) (Rynite) (DuPont) ....................................................... 215
11.9.8 Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem) (GE Plastics) ...................................................................... 215
11.9.9 Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP) (Zenite) (DuPont) ............................................................. 216
11.9.10 Polyamide: Nylon (PA) (Zytel ) (DuPont) ....................................................................... 217

Appendix A: Conversion Factors and Equivalents ........................................................................... 221


Appendix B: Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Material Names ....................................................... 223
B.1 Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................................ 223
B.2 Material Names ................................................................................................................................. 228

Glossary

.................................................................................................................................. 233

References and Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 237


References (cited in text) .......................................................................................................................... 237
Bibliography
.................................................................................................................................. 239
General References
.............................................................................................................................. 239

Index

.................................................................................................................................. 241

Plastics Design Library

Table of Contents

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