An Aesthetics of Self: Moral Remaking and Cypriot Education

Society for Comparative Studies in Society and History
An Aesthetics of Self: Moral Remaking and Cypriot Education Author(s): Rebecca Bryant Source: Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Jul., 2001), pp. 583-614 Published by: Cambridge University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2696682 . Accessed: 15/06/2013 04:25
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AnAesthetics ofSelf:Moral Education Remaking andCypriot

REBECCA BRYANT
BogaziCiUniversity butrarely in Thisessaybeginsfrom a question that is often askedin practice thegoodcitizen andthegoodmanor Whatis therelationship between theory: ofthe concern ofancient theorists powoman? Thisproblem was a particular whom itmadelittle sensetoconsider thegoodsoftheperson from apart lis,for I consider thequestion herein thecontext ofnathegoodsofthecommunity. beendescribed form ofreligion, of which hasvariously as a modern tionalism, thenaandsocialtie.Under all suchdescriptions, community, ofbelief system breadth andscope-demandsoursacrifices tion-in all ofitsimagined through in thenameof an ultimate theinstitutions that it.We sacrifice good, represent It is possible, that the then, of whichwe believeourown goodsto be a part. animated of thepolis mayalso helpus to undersamequestion that thinkers I argue herethat thetriumph ofthenation-state. itis ourfailure stand Indeed, theethical dimensions of nationalism that has masked to theorize adequately ofnationalism's successes.1 from us theinstitutional sources whichis ubiquitously concerned witheducation, This essayis particularly of nationalism and thesourceofpatriotic allegiance. citedas themainmotor a concern in education is twofold, bothfrom witheducaarising My interest
CouncilInbytheSocial ScienceResearch andwriting supported Thispaperis basedon research FelRandolph Institute ofPeace Jennings Fellowship; theUnited States Predissertation ternational for IntheInstitute Dissertation Fellowship; ofEducation Fulbright-Hays lowship; theDepartment of Fellowship; theUniversity Fulbright StatesInformation Agency Exchange/United ternational Travel Cooperation Summer ChicagoCouncilforAdvancedStudiesin Peace and International Seminar onReligion, Writing Grant; theSawyer the Institute ofTurkish Studies Dissertation Grant; andTheJohn bythe MellonFoundation; ofIdentities Fellowship, funded Law,andthe Construction ReCooperation on Peace andInternational T. MacArthur Program Foundation D. andCatherine I wishtothank institutions for their generous all ofthese for Individuals. Grant search andWriting of at theSpencerFoundation/University of thispaperwerepresented versions support. Earlier andElsewhere" inMay inAfrica inthe ofEducation, "Directions Anthropology workshop, Chicago inApril1999; andin Studiesat BrownUniversity Institute forInternational 1998; at theWatson inApril2000. I received secondannualmeeting many helpAssociation theCyprus Sociological is from colleagues. Specialgratitude Cypriot especially fulcomments during those presentations, Yiannis Papadakis, versions ofthepaper; on earlier whoreadandcommented dueJohn Comaroff, andHaldunGiilalp, whoprovided readings critical someimportant points; wholed me to clarify I amparticularly tothe grateful metorefine theargument. helped oflater ofthepaper that versions comments stimme torevise theessayandwhoseextensive twoCSSH reviewers whochallenged oftheargument. a significant andrestructuring ulated rethinking
Studyof Societyand History $9.50 C) 2001 SocietyforComparative 0010-4175/01/583-614
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conflict that has beenthemainfocusofmyresearch, tion'sroleintheCypriot treatment at thehandsof a nagging dissatisfaction with education's andfrom as a form ofelitist proprimarily it those who-overtlyorcovertly-describe Anderintheneatly constructed story toldmost famously by paganda. Indeed, promoted (1983; 1987),"highculture"-particularly son (1993) and Gellner a to themassesandgivesthem through universal education-is disseminated In this education easilyelideswith ofthemselves differently. story, waytothink in withsensation. It appears, with patriotism, symbol experience, propaganda and this common knowledge despite that education's taskis transparent, fact, willing mardoes notmakethem that children a pledgeofallegiance teaching tyrs. I wantto arguehere, andis so is culturally situated Thisvision, is one that evenin our assumptions that with ourmostintimate andunspoken entangled we have difficulty outside its frame. It also embodies theorizing scholarship theGellner's acknowledge as such.Forexample, contradictions that we rarely of industrial societies certain outnecessary sis that theemergence produces industrial societies are sustained by comesrests modern, upontheclaimthat apofeducation. Thisis a very interchangeable systems mass,homogeneous, that thesis that is nevertheless contradicted byourknowledge practices pealing and atleast. ofeducation differ within thenation-state byclass,region, gender, thenation-state builds individual, that upontheanonymous So, theassumption theenormous thenational is directly contradicted by,for example, Everyman, discussesgender and thenation (e.g.,Anthias and Yuvalbodyof workthat Davis 1992;Chatterjee 1986;Kandiyoti 1991).Thisis not 1993;Jayawardena difference of the ideal and the or of and theory practice-itreprereal, onlya ofourtheories ofeducation to takeintoaccount thehisents a distinct failure eduand stillto explain erarchies anddifferences encompassed bythenation, I wantto argue rolefor nationalism. Thisfailure results, cation's foundational that viewseducation functionally, as from a form ofpractical rationality here, source of a motor ofprogress and gain. of education's workthat attempts herea counter-description Hence,I offer of education and the both thehierarchical nature totakeintoaccount egalitariI attempt into account ofnational totakethese anaspirations bydecitizenship. in form of an alternative, practical rationality which quasi-Aristotelian scribing statuses. creates who and education culturally specific occupy embody persons that link I to draw out the continuities In making also thisargument, attempt I use of where to its nationalist forms. the case Cyprus, education prenationalist indisseminatrolethroughout thetwentieth education a central century played theethnic nationalisms that havedivided the ing(somewouldsayin creating) ofGreeceand nationalisms island. Dominated andinfluenced bytheirredentist intercommunal conflict and of thiscentury has experienced Turkey, Cyprus in 1974in a Greek mila Turkish that resulted coupd'etat, ultimately mistrust of theislandintotwoethnically homogeand thedivision itary intervention,
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colonialrulein theisland(1878Duringtheperiodof British neousparts.2 of was an affair nationalism that remarked often administrators 1959),colonial Neverthepeasantry. amongst little interest elitesandgenerated theeducated for blamedtheschoolsand schoolmasters rulers consistently British theless, and ultiin theyoung, ideology nationalist and cultivating up trouble stirring many Today, menand womento takeup arms. young formobilizing mately when, andlongforan idealizedtime thischaracterization agreewith Cypriots ofnationalism. bytheaffairs touched villagelifewas hardly believe, they nationrolein creating education playeda crucial that But whileit is true of the themiddle in Cyprus until education in theisland, alismsand conflict elites.In thevillages, ofeducated be seenas theproduct couldhardly century Moreover, permitted. in whentimeandwork engaged itwas an ad hoc affair, schoolshadbeen that parents ofunlettered cases attheinitiative itwas inmost a word-for thevillagechildren. wouldbe too strong founded-organized hire a teacher tobuildorlease a room, themoney together Theywouldscrabble theclasses children to attend andperiodically sparetheir ata competitive rate, villagescould raise Usuallyonlythelargest and writing. and learnreading boards, chairs, ortoprovide desks, schoolrooms, funds tobuildseparate enough teachupwards of masters might twooreventhree andbooks.In suchvillages, in thesameroom often villages, surrounding ages from 150 pupilsofvarying handled all the one master villages, In thesmaller cacophony. amidst a terrific could be old building in his house or in whatever classes,usuallyteaching andevenon their inthedirt, their lessonsonboards, Children scribbled spared. no windows. with inunlit rooms sometimes working persons, colonialadministraBritish confounds neattheories. history Such a messy and saw schoolsas "propaganda" whatwenton in Cypriot tors characterized Interestwhostirred up discontent. as political agents schoolmasters primarily characterito scholarly resemblances bearsmany crude formulation ingly, this also has that andidentity between ideology relationship ofthecontested zations relationship ofeducation's forstudies andcentrally problematic, beencentral, conon nationalism, especially, muchoftheliterature tonationalism. Indeed, can be appliedanyofnaontowhich as a template tinues todiscusseducation or "discipline," historiography," basics-"ideology,""nationalist tionalism's work ofeducation's emphasizes Thismechanistic depiction toname justa few. works(e.g., historical evenwhileother and pedagogy,3 theroleof curricula ofnational citizenship that thecreation Sahlins 1976)demonstrate 1989;Weber theconwithin must be situated that education andmediais a process thr6ugh historical change. text oflong-term workin the of education's explanation herean alternative Hence,I outline visionofedan ethical also attempts to resuscitate that ofnationalism service in Cyprus has nationalist education I wishto arguethat In particular, ucation. of self," whatI call herean "aesthetics becauseit embodied beensuccessful of how heldunderstandings of goodsto commonly linked a hierarchy which
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Foucault in his later writings thosegoodswereto be realizedby individuals. ofexistence" made he calledan "aesthetics was drawn toa similar idea,which thecareoftheselfthat vision, possible bythe"careoftheself."In Foucault's striving byfree mento ancient lifewas a conscious he believescharacterized virtues in an ethosthat andto embody their fulfill their ethical responsibilities gait,in thecalmwith fora free man"was evident in hisclothing, appearance, and so on" (Foucault1997:286).In his whichhe responded to everyevent, Greeksto amongancient Foucaultemphasized theconsciousstriving work, thebeautiful, and fashion andmoldtheir livesintosomething that represented hencethegood. of selfhood that have I want concept in analyzing theforms touse a similar increating those Greek Cypriots, andtheroleofeducation divided andTurkish of emphasizes thecareoftheselfas a practice differences. ButwhileFoucault I wishto employ hereis of self"that deliberation andchoice,the"aesthetics ofjudgement that links"beinggood" with"being intended to convey a form or virtue of excellence in theAristotelian model,forms good at."4Certainly oneis a good wereinextricably linked toone's telos, orend.Hence,tosaythat and possessedof the farmer is to say that one is knowledgeable, successful, Or when,forexample, Michael farming. qualitiesnecessary forproductive despisesomeone in whichCretanshepherds Herzfeld discussesthemanner tobe "goodatbeingmen"(Herzfeld 1984),his whois "justa man"andstrive toPenelope andhisclever to callstomind return challenge Odysseus' analysis to be a man;ithas to be donewith finesse, hiswife'ssuitors. It is notenough in thepublicgaze for the with one's selfhas tobe fashioned style.5 Moreover, creatures ofthe that humans terms, poare,inAristotelian very simple reason of a community within theframework lis whosetelosis alwaysonlyrelevant torealize the inthis sensebecomes the means that canjudge.Virtue excellences, which arethemselves goodandbeautiful. I also emphasize herethehierarchy of goods emIn contrast to Foucault, notes levels.Charles Taylor and thecommunal ployedat boththeindividual thepursuit with existence that theancients werenotconcerned per se butwith werenotconcerned with what In other of"higher" activities. Taywords, they ethics life."Whilein thetraditional lorcalls "ordinary life"butwitha better hadmere"this which theancients," [ordinary life] cametous from saysTaylor, inAristotle's term duo ofends: (itwas thefirst ly infra-structural significance lifeis overshadowed ordinary 'lifeandthegoodlife'. . . In traditional ethics, forsome,thecitias higher activities-contemplation, bywhatareidentified topractice modfor zenlife, others" 1985:155).Whileitwas necessary (Taylor hadtobe related to virtue inone'seating, anddailyactivities, eration drinking, theidea ofa telos. in thefulexcellence andvirtuous to pursue Hence,whileitwas necessary torealizeone's manhood ofone's owntelos-even ifthat onlymeant fillment in relain style-thetelithemselves organized maybe seenas hierarchically
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in Cyprus persons educated goods.So, I wishto argue, to communal tionship wereseen butbecausethey advantage notbecauseofsimple werealso leaders Thiswas thecase valuedbythecommunity. ofgoodsalready as embodiments had alwayshad thesocial implicaand education literacy becausein Cyprus, ofCyprus andMuslimcommunities BoththeOrthodox tionsof a "tradition." (Goody byGoodyandothers inthesensedefined communities were"literate" Musliterate 1963;Ong 1967).To becomea fully 1977; 1987;GoodyandWatt butalso ArabicandPernotonlyTurkish one learned meant that limOttoman literate Andtobecomea fully oftheKoranandofpoetry. sian-the languages oftheBible, ofSocrates, onelearned thelanguages Orthodox meant that Greek defstatus, received literates andother Thus,schoolmasters andofByzantium. had becausethey literacy-not notbecauseof simple and admiration erence, hadbeeninducted powerofwords butbecausethey somemagical mastered was proud. eachcommunity ofwhich histories intothelongintellectual ofpriest ormosqueandschool,andthepersons Theritual spacesofchurch in fact, andwereoften, equal veneration received or imam and schoolmaster, village so a dank, cramped chapelwas sacred, as a dilapidated thesame.Just education maintained Similarly, siteoflearning.6 schoolhouse was a venerable Untiltheend of the secularized. evenas it becameincreasingly its sacrality, a partofbecoming was a necessary education century, elementary nineteenth initsrites whocouldengage someone member community, full ofthereligious in ofeducation secularization theincreasing andrecite itstexts. Paradoxically, as a sacredpartof to represent education attempts factled to morevehement thearchbishofthiscentury, Evenbythebeginning reproduction. community goal of meddling withtheproclaimed from British education op protected of Greekcitizens (Maraspace forthetraining it as thenational maintaining 1978). 1946;Persianis theftis 1992;Myrianthopoulos valitsownsakewas highly education for that deny Hence,whileonecannot of"culamounts obtained significant persons orthat educated uedbyCypriots, ofeducation was herethat experience I want theethnic to argue tural capital," education one becamemorefully morethanthat:thatthrough considerably Greekor a "true" Ottoman a "true" terms. Becoming whatone was,in ethnic education. As we will achieved a "true" was something through Turk) (andlater those were identities inCyprus, ofethnic descriptions see,eveninprimordialist in education. Indeed, andtherefore cultivation, of"high" civilization, identities in aneducation onereceived itis common tosaythat inboth languages Cyprus insanolna ghineianthropos; Turkish, order to "becomea person"(Greek, that werenotonlyendowedwithsomething then, mak).Educatedpersons, better represenin experiential fact, were, they intostatus; couldbe converted their uneducated peers. than andbetter persons oftheir community tatives ofeducation was inextrithefundamental goodness terms, In prenationalist played:in theGreek persons withtherolesthateducated cablyintertwined Turkish andin theOttoman andprofessionals, as priests community primarily
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class.In naoftheruling as imams, judges,andmembers primarily community ethone might saythat Succinctly, was diffused. goodness terms, that tionalist thoseidealsofcivilizaandcivility; nic idealswerealso idealsofcivilization Greek or which wouldmakeone a better education, required tionandcivility representative to becomea better ponens, bymodus a better Turk. Therefore, person. was tobecomea better education group through ofone's ethnic two this essaydraws success, ofeducation's vision In outlining analternative uncolonialandCypriot British is between The first contrast setsofcontrasts. of a understanding in whichtheBritish ofthetaskof education, derstandings Then, colonialadmintoday. toourunderstanding years ago is closest hundred that and warned of propaganda as a form saw education in Cyprus istrators ontheothCypriots, updiscontent. whowouldstir were troublemakers teachers believedwouldshapeand mold that they foran education er hand,struggled I then is between that draw ofpersons. The secondcontrast them as better sorts ofeducation in Cyprus andTurkish-forms Christian andMuslim-or Greek ofeducation for andmoraliofthoseforms personhood andtheconsequences been education has,indeed, I attempt to showthat tyin thetwocommunities. of sources in order thetrue tounderstand intheisland, butthat a divisive force as to see education thetendency we must getbeyond divisiveness, education's inthe ofBritish colonialadministrators a tendency so reminiscent propaganda, island. raofthepractical that theemployment Alongtheway,I wishalso to argue ednowfor us torecapture makesitdifficult modernity ofa capitalist tionality may Empire of theOttoman Hence,an historian betterment. ucation's ethical of and see in itonlya form bureaucracy oftheOttoman look at theeducation towaybecauseeducation ahead.He or shemaysee itin that gain,or getting orgain.Betterment form ofadvance sense-as a pragmatic inthat dayis useful orknowing useful knowledge, meansa cumulative process-acquiring today of the linksbetterment that an ethics This is, to be sure,a farcryfrom more. I also argue, And it is this, selfwithethical goodsvaluedby thecommunity. howonecanbe both goodand for us tounderstanding that makes itso difficult goodat theroleofcitizen.
CULTURE AND CANT
a commemorative capital, of themainsquareofNicosia,Cyprus' In a corner coftaxidrivers around which sipping lounge bust onanIonicpedestal, perches thewhite glareon themarfeeandtwirling beads.In themidday light, prayer andvoforehead thestrong ble obscures thefeatures, butone can stilldiscern was Nikolaos Katalanos, thebust's model, that luminous mustaches. Few know The in modern history. andpuzzling Cypriot one ofthemost figures powerful orator, penedoesjusticeto a manwhowas a captivating busthardly lifesize and charismatic, bothcultured royalist and tireless nationalist, trating writer, was he evermarried, that indicates yethis manhood andpopulist. No history
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tothecauseof devotion hiscomplete whoaccepted byfollowers unquestioned in Cyprus as a He had arrived enosis,or unionof theislandwithGreece.7 insubordination.8 for andhadbeendismissed teacher ofthe Nicosiagymnasium and agitator, andpolitician, years as a journalist, thirty for almost He remained hedistributed callreturned toAthens, andhefinally when hisvisawasrevoked Exile Political Professor-Journalist-First "N. Katalanos: ingcardsreading, (11 April1921)."9 from Cyprus in Katalanoswas one of a smallgroupof Greekmenwho beganarriving a Greek aimofcultivating the explicit century with inthe latenineteenth Cyprus Idea (i Cypriots. The aim was to realizetheGreat in Greek-speaking identity intotheGreekstateall GreekMeghaliIdhea)-the dreamof incorporating lands.10 Greek wereseenas historically inwhat Christians Orthodox speaking in the1930swiththeaim of wouldbeginarriving Turkish nationalists Later, in what MuslimCypriots ofAtatiirk11 andofinstructing thereforms teaching becausetheschools to be a Turk.12Thiswas madeeasierin Cyprus itmeant andMuslimor GreekandTurkish-havealcalledChristian there-whether in theperiin theOttoman period, Theywereseparated waysbeenseparated. remain andofcourse so now. ofindependence, intheperiod rule, od ofBritish likehimwereaccorded byBritish andteachers great significance Katalanos called"nationalfor what they whofeared theuse ofeducation administrators, as an initis all tooeasytosee Katalanos Indeed, intheisland. istpropaganda" blamed for ofthat intellectual class so often representative fluential ideologue Katalanoswas certainly highculture. nationalist a homogenized, diffusing buthe almost and probably a bitof a thug,14 of a rabble-rouser13 something boysyoung volunteers-mostly raisedclose to a thousand single-handedly he hisimmigrant status anddespite in 1897tothewarinCrete,I5 tobe sent off council. to thelegislative times andby handy margins was electednumerous he spokeandwrote resonated thewords indicates that In fact, hispopularity oftheir in his articulation oftheperiod, whorecognized with GreekCypriots cona greater present lived.Thiscouldnot being was already a truth that culture and"trouofthe"propagandizing" toBritish administrators' assessments trast conwereparticularly Administrators blemaking" roleofmenlikeKatalanos. of education and the Britishdirector cernedabout Hellenic propaganda, as early as 1881that suggested asinany schools as masters toprevent the must betaken care employment exceeding hearts ittheir tostir who think upinthe duty ofpolitical might agents sisted Govt. bythe have and which longings those aspirations contented and loyal villagers, ofthe otherwise noother andwhich canproduce andhopeless, tobeunreasonable so often shown been andunhappiness.16 than discontent result British admin"discontent" or "agitation," with whenever confronted Indeed, ofnationalist agitators, blamedan elitegroup in theislandprimarily istrators to rousethe"patriotic" whoseattempts in theGreekcommunity, particularly results. oftheir sentiments occasionally produced compatriots
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and ofrhetoric andpropaganda, ofpopularity reports contradictory Similarly a former as well.Forexample, Cypriots, amongst canbe found rabble-rousing, that was part of suchagitation one story recalled whomI interviewed teacher inthe hischildhood during He saidthat ofhisvillage. memory ofthehistorical in hisvillagegotalongtogether andChristians 1910sand 1920stheMuslims ofconsideration forms quotidian various andherecalled anyproblems, without behadoccurred that he described oneincident Nevertheless, andcooperation. in whichsome of thehousesof Muslimsin thevillagewere forehis birth he says,was an burned, and someMuslimsmayhave been killed.But this, whocameto thevilorator" famous causedbya "very incident extraordinary Greece!'1'7 Despitewhathe saw Greece!Mother about'Mother lage "crying in thelate whenhe beganteaching of that incident, nature as theexceptional asked thevillagers that he reported his home, 1920sin a villagenotfarfrom Greece." aboutancient to thechildren himin a kindway "to please mention and verythrilled werevery, "and they he recalled, "And I used to do that," proud." ineducation both be clearthat "propaganda," itshould Fromsuchexamples eduIn Cyprus, buta problem. is notan explanation persons, andbyeducated precisely andleaders spokesmen tobe nationalist wereexpected catedpersons pretobe nationalist wasexpected education while educated, were becausethey be cannot that Thesearecircularities affair. ciselybecauseitwas a community theframethat sees it onlywithin of education by an understanding resolved goes backat leastto Durkheim's Thistendency ofpower. work ofhierarchies as theriteducation formal hadheralded which works on thenation-state, later in whathe called"moral of theyouth forthesocialization ual par excellence tothe culture" (esp. 1956; 1973).Andinthe1970sand 1980s,newapproaches in whichthey modethemanner or Gramscian in a Marxist described subject haveseen Suchstudies orhegemony. ideology toreproduce education believed ofpoweranditsmechanisms, oftheimposition as theresult modern education areproduced structures whichstate within oftheideology either as a product (Thompmodeofclass consciousness (Foucault1979) or as thereproductive son 1963). used"culofthenowwidely inthedirection step Willis(1981) madethefirst thewaysin whichworkingwhenhe demonstrated theory tural production" consciousness. of working-class in thereproduction class "lads" participated thecorrespondences to demonstrate (esp. 1967) has attempted AndBourdieu socialpatand other styles") of thought ("cognitive learned between patterns viBourdieu's neither "symbolic however, totry toshowhere, terns. As I want tounderrecent attempts andPasseron 1990) normore olence"(esp.Bourdieu as "cultural (Apple 1982; Foley 1990; Levinson education production" stand theprocessesat workin the and Holland 1996; Willis 1981) fullycapture and that is explicitly reproductive, we havean education case. Forhere Cypriot ofan andreproduction tothemaintenance were"committed inwhich Cypriots
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ofselfinCyprus was a form (Foucault 1986:89).Education ontological order" in thiswaymeansto see itas a andto see education conscious self-remaking, one'sown.Hence,itis moreusewhosegoals arealready form ofcultivation certain signs, ofcontestation, butthereasons why fultoconsider nottheforms livedlifearenevwith reconciled that maybe poorly symbols, andjudgements 18 ertheless notcontested. of work intheservice ofeducation's andBritish perceptions Indeed, Cypriot to thenature ofeducation. approach in their fundamental nationalism differed care "exceeding could arguethat director of education So, whiletheBritish agents" ofany"political as masters" theemployment must be taken toprevent from within theGreek stir those andspeaking writing whomight updiscontent, in Helas an instruction propaganda" community saw that "political Cypriot in an exasfrom thesameyearasserted One newspaper report lenicculture. perated tonethat:
is no such in long-winded articles that there We have written andproven times many reliin Cyprus. The Cypriots, Greeks in origin, language, as Greekpropaganda thing whenbecomeenthusiastic valuesandtradition haveno needofteachers, as they gion, land (tis Mitr6s-Patrfdhos everit concerns themagnificence of their Mother-native
ton).19
as dangerous Greek administrators propaganda What was portrayed byBritish Greek the was described Cypribyliterate that coulddisturb peaceoftheisland didnotneedtobe taught. inheritance that as a cultural ot spokesmen is us here. Thefirst ofthis problem that willconcern There aretwoelements in studies ofnationalism andwas indeed asis widely assumed something that forms namely, that certain administrators atthetime: colonial sumed byBritish ofnationalist indoctrination ofinstruction in language andhistory werea form tothis becauseI believethat later, that couldlead todiscontent. We willreturn coloitwas notthecase in thesensethat this was notthecase, or at leastthat difonecouldfind little ittobe. Foronthesurface, nialadministrators believed nationaltomefrom theTurkish between thisandwhat was described ference of Turkish schoolchildren toone former Cypriot teacher, istperiod. According theHittite thePersian the1940sweretaught about"the Turks, Assyrian Turks, were and evenworldhistory Turks." Manyof thegloriesof MiddleEastern thisforme laughingly, But he could describe claimedforTurkish ancestors. matter. Thisis animsuchhistorieswereno laughing whilefor Greek Cypriots ofthecultural breach that I believetakes difference that us totheheart portant I want to describe. ultimately and theone thatI wantto addressnow,is thatthis The secondproblem, in terms ofefwas usually expressed overso-called propaganda disagreement was notonlydangerous, itwas pedfective Nationalist propaganda pedagogy. exthebest-intentioned colonialadministrators useless.Certainly, agogically did notwantto see bright Cypriot that they arguing pressed it in theseterms, In this theprobsense, ontheparochial nonsense ofnationalism. minds wasted
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to thelarger in theschoolscouldbe assimilated propaganda lemofnationalist we problem, this fully tounderstand in Cyprus. In order ofpedagogy problem areunofeffective pedagogy notions embedded within that must keepinmind tomake ofwhowe areandofwhowe want ofpersonhood-both derstandings of was onlyonepart propaganda ofnationalist Hence,theproblem orbecome. in Cypriot ofpersons whowerebeingcreated ofthetypes problem thelarger schools. coloI refer throughout theBritish The problem to which is thefollowing: was education thatCypriot remarked repeatedly nial period,administrators ofschools inspector useless.In 1884,thefirst academic andpractically overly anchildren inthevillageschoolswerelearning that for instance, complained, they actually that nothing ofthelanguage whilelearning cient Greek grammar inArabicandPersian butdidnot Muslim texts pupilsrecited spoke.Similarly, school-and onlya fraction their native until secondary tongue, Turkish, study district remarked far. Andthecommissioner oftheLarnaka ofthem madeitthat he hadfound "ina largehillvillagea inthesameperiod that a fewdaysearlier pattering or rural economy, ofhygiene of theelements ignorant class,wholly their streets were from thehistory ofHyksosandof Sicyon.Naturally, details filled Villagecoffeehouses pre-historic."20 modes ofcultivation filthy, andtheir daysreading who passedtheir graduates withunemployed secondary-school calledfor politics.21 Indeed, by 1934onenewspaper anddebating newspapers whichit of educationalism and urbanism," the abolition of the "gangrene So oftheisland.22 improving theeconomy rather than was destroying claimed Butthere totheidea of"nationalist propaganda." this be assimilated might far, here. education that arerelevant Whentwo wereother observations regarding "educational experts"-J.W. Talbotand C. F. Cape-arrived in theislandin in theMuslimschools, for instance, that observed, 1912,they that the chilinthe better tosuggest as the cando,even schools, itis as much inspectors sense andlessonmere more their owncommon torely dren should be trained upon of toread with some be taught books understanding that should they byrote, learning inspeaking fair both their ownthoughts with readiness, andtoexpress their contents, andCape1913:30). andinwriting (Talbot simintheOrthodox atreform schools, very oftheattempts praising Although as well: ilarcomments wereappliedtothem, todefrom the earliest the children stress seems tobe laidontraining stage Toolittle the Proownwords. Onthe other intheir own ideasandexperience hand, scribe their valuand mechanical totranscription other exercises, undue prominence gramme gives arewhere the as they sooften arenot intheir employed, ableenough provided they way
convenient meansofkeeping as themost classestomanage, teacher has several merely outofmischief thechildren (ibid.,32).
thinkeducation intoa system which produced The transformation ofCypriot colonialadwas onewhich individuals preoccupied reasoning, expressing ing, period. ministrators theBritish throughout
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ofpractice uniformity then a strange "experts" observed these Furthermore, who children, tothe youngest attention that gavelittle between thecommunities that found In fact, they inthelowest for several years. grades often languished students percent of Christian andforty-three ofMuslimstudents fifty percent theprobfor solving recommendation class(ibid.,13).Their wereinthelowest were students, sincewomen theyoungest for lemwas tohireschoolmistresses a their report Butthroughout tocarefor smallchildren. nature" fitted "bytheir namely, that bothcommunities emerged: consistently problem rather different ofelementary schooling andplaced thefinished with product wereconcerned education" (ibid.,31). little valueon "a soundgeneral had sugforinstance, that leadersof theMuslimcommunity Theynoted, classes to theelementary (select,distinguished) gestedaddingmoremumtaz ofage.Theywanted these children andfifteen years between twelve schools for ofteaching Turkish they grow as a means boyswhen additional classes"chiefly ortoperform thevarinthefarm orinbusiness, ownaccounts up tokeeptheir Talbotand Cape For this, devolving upontheMukhtars." duties ious clerical inTurkish andarithmetic. needed was a grounding what the boysreally thought, was "an ambitious in themuimtaz classes,however, taught Whatwas actually Greek, French, English, andembracing mainly linguistic ofstudies, programme viewoftheGreek positive hada more (ibid.).Whilethey Arabic, andPersian" it notedthat they nevertheless Programme," schools'"Analytical elementary zeal outrunning "there is a danger ofeducational ambitious andthat was highly inevery branch is required atonce,all that toachieve andattempting discretion, thefoundations arewelllaid in a soundeleofeducation before securing that (ibid.). schoolsystem" mentary oftheisland. a marker in theeducational history Thisbrief report provides beenreplaced bya secThe purely Koranicschoolshadbythistime religious from thevillagemosque. in classrooms detached often taught ularcurriculum, of theGreekschools, self-teaching-method And theallilodhidha'ktika-or con(1979),hadpreviously byFoucault system analyzed basedon theBritish Proandhistory. Thenew"Analytical arithmetic, writing, onreading, centrated of subjects, a seriesoflessonsin a variety this, prescribing replaced gramme" than their anddrawing. Moreimportantly history, natural geography, including intheisland. wereadopted these systems was thewaythat influences, however, theyoungest whoofboth educational pupils, Forinstance, neglected systems on focused class.Instead, inthelowest they for twoorthree years tenremained to exto British resistance attempts olderpupilsin a frustratingly intransigent one couldbuild. ofeducation uponwhich the"fundaments" plainto them a child'smind of developing insistence This British uponthecorrectness andpost-Enlightenment from a longlineofEnlightenment ofcourse, emerged, human reaa tabularasa,attempted toperfect from starting that, epistemology andtheproblem Theproblem ofnature sonbyperfecting human development. reason most andfor that wereseenas inextricable, philosoofknowledge very
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a in their with careers at somepoint themselves concerned phers oftheperiod "Man can onlybecomemanbyeducation," on education. treatise prescriptive makesof him"(1960:6). And one "He is merely whateducation Kantnoted. revoluRousseau'sEmile and theFrench linkbetween finds a philosophical which wereseen childdevelopment, andearly uponnursing tionary emphasis by (Schama 1990). Indeed, of goodcitizens as fundamental to theproduction and"learning howtothink" "disciplining themind" century, the latenineteenth saw that no longer ideology educational weretheaccepted goalsofa European not byGod.Thesewereemphatically ofthesoulgiven as a movement thought to the thelack of attention and to interpret in Cyprus, thegoals of education project is tomisoftheeducational education as a failure ofprimary rudiments project. understand theaimsofthat of complaints thatone of thegreatest it is worth noting In thiscontext, withthe overdisappointment repeated Talbotand Cape's report was their communities ofCyprus. ofeducation inthe purely agricultural scholarly nature exofCypriot education their observations aboutthe"uselessness" Moreover, even oriented curriculum oftheclassically tended beyond the"impracticality" intheisland. Forinstance, that then existed tothesorts of"practical" education eleto educate future Gymnasium ofthePancyprian theattempts they praised bythedecweresurprised butthey in woodworking, schoolteachers mentary ofthefinished products: orative nature rather than practical prospecially inwoodwork, ina room engaged Wesawoneofthe two training classes the Some ofthe wasedwork from main building. vided for the andseparated purpose for elemenandunsuitable ornamental incharacter, but much ofitwasmerely ucative offancy tothe making tobedevoted energy appear Toomuch time and tary schoolboys. hot iron andCape onwood with the fret sawortotracing (Talbot articles with patterns 1913:30). attention waspaid intheMuslim found that girls'schoolsmuch Similarly, they to lacemaking andembroidery: onthe ofelabproduction much time and labour teachers expend girls and their Both the oneclassthis tokeep anditis usual for purpose beautiful embroidery, orate andoften supports onlowwooden resting other the square frames than room free ofallfurniture much less beneficial tothe and Itwould bemuch more girls, onwhich the isdone. work andmake garments ifthey tocut out upsimple were taught for their parents, expensive the tocalculate taken their tomeasurements bythemselves, for ownwear according anddarning andtodotheir own (ibid.). material mending and cost ofthe used, quantity andneedlework theaspects ofcarpentry In other theschools only taught words, inthose ofan apprenticeship stages that wouldbe taught atthemostadvanced anddecowhatwas beautiful and (evenmoreimportantly) taught they crafts, rative sturdy andfunctional. rather than devaluedinstrucThe "experts" also observed that techniques pedagogical books thatthereading observation. They suggested tionthrough quotidian with thechildrens' a boymight more lives,andthat be concerned directly might
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orolives carobs, ofthecorn, onthe"prices bypracticing better arithmetic learn theareaofhisfaorfinding andsellstothemerchants" grows which hisfather "inplace ofthe that observed they study, (ibid.,33). Or,in nature ther's fields which plants,' and 'phanerogamous animals' lessonsabout'crustacean formal amongother he might be taught, bytheProgramme, prescribed areat present crops, birds, oftheplants, stagesin thegrowth thevarious things, to observe day"(ibid.). he sees every andinsects which andthe theornate, on the"frivolous," thisemphasis that Andlestonethink it history, contemporary periodof Cyprus' to an early classicalwas relegated Boys' oftheTurkish headmaster as lateas 1931theScottish that maybe noted graduprovided constituted thecurriculum as then that Lyceewouldcomplain its andthat theschoolwoulddo wellto alter ateswith no hopeofemployment curriculum to one
is thebasisofthe ofbooklearning which instead ofmind training basedontheprinciple oflearninstead for themselves be taught tothink andreason Boysshould Lyceesystem. forget.23 they readily andwhich do notunderstand they often ingpagesofbookswhich
headmaster, ofthat theresignation later andafter atleastsixyears Andstill, thesame,andthe should remain thecurriculum was that consensus thegeneral toa gathfound itnecessary toexplain foundations religious ofMuslim director becausethegovcouldnotbe enlarged, that atthetime lyceeadmissions ering of persons theeducation to support usingitsfunds ernment couldnotjustify itin Cyprus.24 for beingunableto find work, whowouldgo abroad as a classicaleducation leaders defined Orthodox Church In similar fashion, ofschools tiedboth tothecurriculum theonly sort, sinceitwas closely patriotic had formerly of whichthechurch education in Greeceand to thetraditional indusgrowing Cyprus' World WarII, anddespite Even after beenthebearer. was strongly education andcommercial technical tries ofthepost-war period, ofthePanIn 1952,for theheadmaster example, bytheethnarchy. discouraged to thearchbishop complaining wrote in Larnaka Commercial Lyceum cyprian to his school.The headhad been granted that by thechurch of thepittance comments, master
for as well,theonly ourschool, completely deemitabsolutely necessary Do youperhaps it is well to a classicalschool?However, Commercial School,to convert recognized ComofthePancyprian hasbeenno graduate toYourGracethat up tonowthere known in thenational ideals.25 from thepathofbelief whohas diverged mercial Lyceum
ofeducational in thematter ofprejudice He goes on to accusethearchbishop moralonreligion, the pupils that hisschoolhasalsonourished arguing content, over"classical"versus Such disputes freedom. and theideals of human ity, indeed "booklearning" versus training" education andover"mind "technical" intheisland. theBritish period throughout persisted and emphasized of their education thebanalization resisted then, Cypriots, believed idealsthat pupils they andclassicalinthenameofcultural theornate
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A pedagogy strove to embody. rote memorization was a probthat emphasized lem,it seems,onlyforcolonialadministrators, whilemembers of bothcomchildren to munities in Cyprus appear tohavebelieved that their werelearning becomeeffective, educated representatives oftheir community. There aretwoconclusions that I wouldliketodraw from this. Thefirst is that content butalso inpedagogy Cypriots resisted changes notonlyineducational In themodern becausethey saw education as an aesthetic enterprise. era,this idea ofeducation as an aesthetic was givenitsclearest formulation intheGermanconcept ofBildung, orself-formation andcultivation, which aimedatmakinglifeitself intoa workof art.26 But thisidea of self-fashioning is actually basedontheancient Greek understanding ofpaideia,theword usedinthepast todenote education andculture andusedtoday todenote education orlearning. In his well-known study of Hellenistic education, Henri-Irenee Marroudescribed "the theaesthetic aimsofpaideia: "ForHellenistic man," saysMarrou, sole aimofhuman ofthefullest existence was theachievement andmost perfect ofthepersonality" rhetoric was development (1956:98).In Marrou's view, considered of Hellenistic education for thecrowning achievement precisely that aesthetic he admits "likeanyculture whoseultimate aim reasons, though itcanbe charged is purely as beingessentially aesthetic, vain,hollowandfrivolous"(ibid., that there was something more 205). Marrou argued, nevertheless, than ofeducation: frivolous aboutthis aesthetics To make toproduce the oneself; from the original childish material, andfrom imperonemay the formed creature soeasily man who isfully a man, whose idefectly remain, al proportions is every the onecanjustperceive: such man's onetask lifework, worthy ofa lifetime's devotion (ibid., 98). Itwasprecisely inthis notion ofself-fashioning that appealed tothose German tellectuals to articulate thenotion whosought ofBildung. ofBildung that The articulators werestruggling strain ofEnlightenagainst ment that tellsus that education is about howtothink. But philosophy learning of there is one verysignificant difference between theancient understanding modern a part ofwhat Charles was still paideia andthemore Bildung: Bildung didnot turn" inmodern Thisturn Taylor (1989) callsthe"expressivist thought. ofculture discard thecultural, butitrelegates thesignificance to ourowninteofthe which riority. ThisI wouldcontrast with a Cypriot understanding process, I believeharks ofpaideia. This should back to a mucholderunderstanding be surprising that linethrough hardly given Greek Cypriots saw a direct Byzanown tiumconnecting Hellenistic education of thepre-Christian era to their while theOttomans andappropriators ofByzantine wereconquerors schooling, andheirs imperial culture totheHellenistic-inflected education ofArabIslam. Thisunderstanding was not,in other one ofhumans as self-reliant, inwords, itwas an understanding ofhumans dividually self-realizing creatures; instead, as social,political andself-fashioning as andoftheir self-realization creatures, a communal one.
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had as its Greekeducation in fact,that just as ancient I would suggest, forms ofeducaother so might ofrhetoric, themastery crowning achievement of and embodiment aimstherealization aesthetic ultimate tionhave as their Greek goal ofancient Rhetoric was theultimate whatwe wouldcall ideology. of valueon thearts placeda high in a culture that paideia becauseitflourished an played publicspeech andonciviclifeinwhich language, memory, beautiful selfrole (Clarke 1957; Marrou 1956; Yates 1966). Similarly, important in which the in a culture becauseitexisted was theaimofBildung expression exof his race was thesole sourceof authentic individual as representative of ethnic and embodiment thatthe realization I wantto suggest pression. aesthetic callideology-mayhavebeenthegoalofthat ideals-what we might in Cyprus.
TELOS AND LOGOS
an ethnic telosmayhave I wouldliketo drawis that that A further conclusion a comnotonly wasclearly becauseeducation aesthetic become thegoalofthat Hence ofthecommunity. continuity the"true" affair; itrepresented munity butbecame notonlyacquired status earlier-educated persons as I observed that wereinextriconduct idealsofmoral bestcapableoffulfilling thepersons inboth comForinstance, orethnic self-definitions. tocommunal cablylinked weredisparaged traditions munities-as well as in GreeceandTurkey-folk research scholarly and revised through couldbe rewritten where they except of thepast.In Greece,laoparts "higher" them to other, that wouldconnect current pracaimedtofind links between explicitly orfolklore studies, grafta, Turkey, 1982;for ancestors (see esp.Herzfeld ofancient Greek ticesandthose by ofscholarship hadmadeitswaytoCyprus see Oztuirkmen 1998).Thisform there and is bestrepresented by a massivecomthelate nineteenth century observations and linguistic (Sakellarios1890),as of poetry, stories, pendium on theCypriot treatise moreconcisephilological well as by a considerably to linkitto Homeric Greek. that attempted dialect Greek (Loukas 1874/1974) theclassical in thesestudies was the"true" tradition, Whatwas emphasized ofeachcommunity. thefundamental which hadprovided continuity past, he roused hisaudiences, likeNikolaosKatalanos a famous orator So, when butin the notin dialect, andcertainly form, spoken didso notinthestandard Greek. Thesewere orevenin ancient katharevousa, archaized high language, of "nathelanguages or at leastof theliterate, of thelearned thelanguages to whomspeeches and politicalspeeches.The villagers tional"celebrations to understand werenotexpected them, fully suchas Katalanos'weredirected Thatthey didhave sucha response ofpride. response onlyto havea visceral even butalso bythefactthat record,27 notonlyby thehistorical is indicated their from instances often recallwithadmiration olderGreekCypriots today lanin whichthey had heardan orator speakwell in theancient childhoods guage.
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inseparawas ontically that thecontent of suchspeeches It appears, in fact, dreams couldonly Byzantium ble from thearchaized language; ofrecapturing andconinthelanguage that was also thehistorically continuous be expressed withunderstood Hellenism cannot be fully sistent spirit oftherace."Christian "The new one newspaper article. language," explained outitsoriginal kingly itis notpossible tounthat connected with theancient, Hellenism is so closely thefirst, thebelief ofwhich is still howthesecondcan existwithout derstand Greeklanguage was theultiThe all-conquering symbolized bylanguage."28 but buthistorical, unchanging was timeless mateproof that theGreekspirit in thelaninstruction continuous butmalleable. Forthesereasons, adaptable, themetraining: One didnotneedtounderstand guagewas much likemilitary that thegoal was tobecomea disciplined chanics ofthetraining tounderstand maniin all itshistorical oftheGreek language soldier. Eulogiesto thebeauty implied by a Romantic festations left little doubt that the"racial"continuities inheritance. ofthelinguistic didnotrequire a fullunderstanding nationalism contheendeavor to maintain the"true" againthat ButI should emphasize was also an ethical endeavor, in traditions ofthecommunity tinuity and"true" inhiscontroversial regardthesenseoutlined argument byAlasdair Maclntyre in communal he also attempts to takeaclife.There, ingtheroleofthevirtues makesense.Virtues ariseinparticuwithin which virtues count ofthecontext is larcontexts, individuals fulfill thosevirtues andthedemand that he argues, ofculof achieving thegood lifebutalso themaintenance notonlya manner tural notes: Maclntyre continuity. insustaining Thevirtues find their not those relationships neconly point andpurpose insusare and not ifthe ofgoods internal topractices tobeachieved only essary variety
lifein which that theform of an individual individual mayseekouthis or her taining which butalso in sustaining thosetraditions good as thegood ofhis orherwholelife, (Mactheir necessary historical contexts andindividual liveswith provide both practices Intyre 1984:223).
I believe, cultural conIn thisway, one mayalso makesenseofthesignificant ofnationalist forms. tinuities that theseeming political novelty underpin I previously drew between a British thecontrast that emphasis Furthermore, infulfillment of for excellence onlearning howtothink anda Cypriot struggle contrast: that bethecontext ofa larger makessenseonlywithin a telosinfact in things, in which there is a presupposed tween an order logos,or meaning, In theorder that itself takesprecedence. thesenseof order and one in which whowould exists tothose a logosinthings, theorder prior beings presupposes we seekto undera modern in which fulfill it.Thiscontrasts with perspective, than what as something that reflects what to understand stand nature is,rather "At thesametime," is through notes a presupposed of nature. understanding inthelocusofthought ... [T]hemodCharles "there is a radical change Taylor, as whathappens understands ernview,rejecting thought meaningful order, is alwaysin a mind" within (1985:257). Thought subjects.
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thethat givesto educational I want to argue, It is this latter presupposition, order has Indeed, theidea ofan underlying individualism. oriesan intractable it is, I wouldassert, impossible now unfamiliar to us that becomeso entirely ofthe us toreconstruct orreimagine anunderstanding ofthought as a breath for withofthesoul.Rather, thelimited goalsofa telosfixed Spirit, ora movement inmodernity bya modelwhosegoal havebeenreplaced in a meaningful order Historically, excellence gavewayto andperfectibility. is open-ended progress is no longer linked to the virtue to perfectibility. Hence,the"better" progress, is notacbearer of tradition thesimple beautiful butto thenovel.Becoming theshackles of to innovate, to break learn to think in order ceptable; one must from writings on education superstitions. Andin theoretical traditions, mores, lingers, while ofmodernity thismonadic individualism Durkheim to Foucault is actandthecurriculum clearthat thework ofpedagogy itseemsmanifestly mind is affected byit.Eded outontheindividual whoseown,individual pupil, itis accepted is supposedly imparted equallyto all; at thesametime, ucation byeachindividually. I havetried hereis that education actsnotuponthe to argue However, what ofour ofa socialrole.Thisis as true as bearer individual butupontheperson In contemporary that role society, as itis ofothers. society own,contemporary in other education actsupontheperson words, is theroleof "theindividual"; ofthestatus androleof"theindividual" that oras embodiment qua individual, 1989:129).Hence,thepercepsociety (see Maclntyre pervades contemporary andresults uponourtheories works recursively tionofpersons as individuals individualistic. Even anthropologists that is intractably in an epistemology intheir cultural thedefenders ofthenon-Western-begin theself-proclaimed humanity to which oriesfrom a tabularasa, from an assumption of common or "enculturation." culture is appliedthrough a processof "socialization" is something education appliedto theory, Hence,eveninmostanthropological individuals (qua individuals). theassumption that education actsuponpersons If,however, we beginfrom Ifwe see ofsocialtraditions, theresults areconsiderably different. qua bearers inparticular socialorthesubjects ofeducation as "individuals qua participants we undersembodying ofrationality" (ibid.,121),then conceptions particular If in education. and aspirations embodied derstand theadvantages differently thesuccessof then we evaluate actsupontheperson education qua individual, with a capitalist interms rationalities associated ofthepractical that education then we must oftradition, Butifwe look at theperson qua bearer n-fodernity. and "their actions andprojects see that byothers accordingly maybe evaluated ofintersection onlyin so faras thoselivesalso areatthepoint bythemselves, ofhighly ofsocialrelationships types" (ibid.,128). specific intowhich"theindiThisis notto reproduce someform of communalism itis todescribe thewaysinwhich is subsumed. vidual" may personhood Rather, ina self-conscious, andself-consciously be realized reproductive, communally
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"in thecontext ofpremodern identity, to makesomesense.Taylor notesthat a place in thepattern, well,fulthing ofone's lifeis torealizein one's person with is in direct contrast ly,with e'clat" (Taylor 1985:259).Sucha perspective that emphasizes thecontext ofthesotheinfluential Bourdieuian perspective In theBourdieuian pernegotiate. cial "field," or arenain which socialactors thecompetition of elitesleads to theelaboration ofculture, because spective, particular "'egoistic,' private, suchcompeting actors orgroups seemtochange inpublicly avowable, legitimate interests . .. into'disinterested,' collective, terests" perspective articulated byTay(Bourdieu 1990:109).The contrasting lorsees mygood as a person inextricably boundup with theshared goodsof thecommunity. In sum, shared an understanding ofhumans thetwocommunities ofCyprus to as socialbeingssetwithin a particular, meaningful order whoshouldstrive in fulfillment achieveexcellence of a teloslinked to that order. Furthermore, that forthem their own nature, order itself-thelogos of things-described their ownlimitations, where fit intothat andthenature ofthose beorder, they that order. Where thetwo place in that particular ingswhooccupied particular communities differed was inthemeaning giventothat order, ofthetelilinked itmeant in fulfillment ofa telos. toit,andofwhat to achieveexcellence
EVOCATION AND ENLIGHTENMENT
was seenas a necessary ofone's growth tofullhumanity part Education, then, insofar as beingspecifically GreekorTurkas that humanity was understood ish.One might one's father howto be good at beinga man,butto learnfrom learn ora Turk-i.e., howtobe a goodGreek howtobe goodatbeinga Greek Butclearly theconception ofa communal or orTurk-one needededucation. conas bearers ofthat socialtradition, ethnic andofeducated humanity, persons in fact, tained within ittheseedsofpotential conflict. One might, aspireto an was in It was this, I wishtoargue, that that was exclusive identity bynecessity. in thecase ofCyprus. fact what occurred as important fornationalism in Cyprus, education was recognized Clearly, for realizwhenBritish administrators that recognized planswereafoot since, Inblamewas education. theprimary oftheir target ingnationalist aspirations, three decadesofBritish ruleinthe administrators strugfinal island, deed,inthe of non-British from theschoolsall thesignsand symbols gled to eliminate In their to thiscrackdown, we can already begin political loyalties. responses Turkish andGreek tounderstand thedifferences between conceptions Cypriot fitand their ownnature within that order. Greek intowhich of theorder they andpolitical leaders all calledtheBritish Cypriot teachers, priests, journalists, claimedwas aimedat "anglicizing" that they policyone of "dehellenization" theCypriot Turkish whileopposedto many of leaders, aspects youth. Cypriot thepolicy, never calleditone of"deturkicization." indescribing this theGreek teachers andfightperiod, Cypriot Interestingly,
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ersthat I interviewed all felt itnecessary tobeginatthebeginning, byexplainingto me theentire history of theislandthat madethestruggle to unite with Greeceinevitable. Thisuniformity of narrative withan observacorresponds tionthat I explain in detailelsewhere (Bryant 1998a),which is that one ofthe moststriking contrasts between GreekandTurkish nationalisms, as theseare found in Cyprus, is that thevehement between insistence by GreekCypriots that theisland is five thousand years Greek, that thesoil,sea,andsky areGreek, and theequallyfirm conviction ofTurkish Cypriots that they have a stakein theislandbecause it was conquered by their Ottoman ancestors. Moreover, Greek tella story ofethnic Cypriots identity that stretches backinan unbroken lineofcontinuity for fivethousand years. In contrast tothis, nationalism came toTurkish Cypriots with thefounding oftheTurkish in 1923andthe Republic subsequent ofnationalist period In little reforms. morethana decadeTurkish Cypriots their changed alphabet, their clothing, theforms oftheir religious worandevenwhat ship, calledthemselves. they I found What especially puzzling, was that all those however, I interviewed, intalking ofthelateBritish period, deny that theschools were necessary for the creation andtransmission ofan Hellenic identity, yetthey discuss these British measures as attempts to "dehellenize." One of theteachers with whomI discussedthisproblem was Michalakis whohad beenforcefully Maratheftis, involvedin themany international protests of the1950sagainst theBritish administration's attempts to control Greek Cypriot education and-in thewords oftheprotestors-to "dehellenize" it.If an ethnic is something identity that's nottaught, I askedhim, howcan teaching something different be "dehellenizing"?Maratheftis answered quitesimply that theproblem itwas "unwas that natural," andso couldnotform an effective pedagogy; pedagogy couldonly be effective whenit expressed "the timelessideals of a people" (Maratheftis 1992:154).As I haveobserved elsewhere (Bryant theideasoutlined 1998b), by Maratheftis and others thatGreekCypriot suggest has a pedagogyactually rather Platonic character: oneis Greek be buta byblood,andeducation should ofthat. reminder than Evenmore itis clearthat this, however, therealization ofethnic identieducation tythrough was therealization of an unquestionable good,therealofone'sfull ization Thisis so much a part humanity. ofGreek Cypriot discourse I can pickan exampleonlysomewhat that at random. It is certainly well exin thewordsof Leontios, pressed Bishopof Pafosduring the1930s,whodetheneedfor fehnded a purely Greek education bysaying, itis a question ofanhistorically Here, however, Greek a history offive island, having thousand ofa glorious years, a history these civilization, times occupied during bya population Greek, purely andChristian.... Forthis noble, reason the official andsystematicattempt the toanglicize Greek is reprehensible Cypriots ... Itis a truth scientifitheGreeks-the that cally proven ancestors-became the first creators ofeducation, andinthis the became educated ofhumanity way ... TheGreek they people spirit ap-
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hueducation andGreek meaning of"human," proaches theuniversal (m6rfosis)means maneducation.29
notat all from a claimmade six decadesago, itdiffers Whilethiswas written minister that "thedevelofeducation Cypriot as recently as 1994bytheGreek our intellectual tradition, by education, supported of a Hellenocentric opment ourdefense against whatandconstitutes andis irreplaceable is oursalvation According to in theoccupiedterritories."30 is beingtaught everchauvinism them was notjustto deprive a Greekeducation both, to denyGreekCypriots corredirectly fullhumanity, sincehumanity of their butto denythem rights to Hellenism. sponds goal. I national goal accordswiththeultimate human Hence,theultimate as the"great book this with Foucault (1979:136)describes wouldcompare what ina newdisciplining that resulted project ofMan-the-Machine," themodernist of the FrenchEnlightenment and regimentation of the body.Philosophers education was butthat manis,byhisnature, mechanical, wouldhavesaidthat hand,wouldhave on theother required to achievehis telos.GreekCypriots, a member ofhisrace,butthat saidthat manis,byhisnature, an ethnic subject, end. hishigher education was required to fulfill In contrast, ofevocation. education was a process Cypriots, then, ForGreek I call here"enthat I wouldpropose, education was a process Turkish Cypriot aydinlatmak. ofthe Turkish andtranslation indirect appropriation lightenment" butrather enlightenment this was nota scientific to outline here, Butas I want traanenlightenment ofself-a clarification, ifyouwill,ofone'senvironment, daywhenI went to me one October Thisbecameclearer ditions, andculture. ofnorthern toinCyprus tooneoftheshoddily constructed offices government He had been an inof Turkish education. Cypriot terview a former director I wanted to ask him things spector of schoolsin the1950s,and amongother didn't their that Turkish alongwith complain sameperiod, Cypriots why, during He laughedheartily, thensaid that Greekcounterparts of "deturkicization." with someidea liketheir Greek Turkish weren't neighbors, obsessed, Cypriots on to it as "a lotofdemagogy," then went of "pure"culture. He characterized he says, for was responsible mistrust. "Otherwise," itwas this ideathat saythat individuwith eachother andTurks "youcouldfind Greeks contentedly living to look theGreekswouldalwaystry ally,butwhenit came to communally, but werethemajority here, notbecausethey they thought downat theTurks, ... Every racehas their to a highculture becausethey belonged thought they characteristic." owncharacteristic; this is their children speaking, that, pedagogically he said,it was well-known Rather, In this educafirst abouttheir ownenvironment. regard, learn bestbylearning tionwas supposedto makethechildren inheritance, proud-proud of their or ethspokeof an Elliniki oftheir traditions. So whileGreekCypriots proud Cypriots spokeofmillihisler, spirit-Turkish niki(psychi-aGreekor ethnic in theschools, Turkish of problems or national emotions. And in complaints
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feelornational life"(milli hayat) "national their saythat wouldoften Cypriots likea flame.3' ofbeingextinguished, ingswerein danger naofTurkish was thefoundation that sociology theDurkheimian Indeed, gave onethat was a cultural that thebesteducation toimply appeared tionalism see inevitably whichindividuals lensesthrough ofplace to thecultural pride also be craftlensesshould those is that ofthis Buttheimplication theworld.32 persons idea that The anthropological differently.33 crafted ed, and possibly Butthere was widely accepted. culture andsee their world through feel, think, that I want context nationalist ofthisin theTurkish werecertain implications todrawouthere. reathat very butthatfor uponculture, is that aredependent persons Thefirst as In order to work together needstobe clarified. ofthat culture sonthenature that thesamelenses.Thisis a theme a community, we all havetolookthrough itwas generinCyprus, where ofeducation in discussions repeatedly emerged andlack becauseofdisunity behind hadfallen that thecommunity allybelieved and goals. As earlyas 1926, a committee of its nature of cleararticulation since that itsbelief stated education Turkish elementary to reconsider formed truth" andself-evident itwas an "undeniable
andharmony by thegradregularity attain perfect necessarily that education . . . must from an incoherent be converted should a community andthat ofevolution, ualprocess with ourpresthat bydealing we feelconvinced ofmutual support, massintoa society for theMoslem we shallbe speaking education, viz. ourelementary entsubject-matter, in everything.34 is behindhand andindifference, owingtoneglect community which,
andnewswereechoedin the1950sand 1960s,whenparties Theseconcerns libraries and proposed providing aboutculture conferences organized papers that emphasized repeatedly Those samepublications to villagers. andtheaters andculfallson ourintellectuals obligation in thevillagesa great "especially tured youths."35 overitsmeaning is particularly clearin thedebates Thefunction ofculture remarked: onejournalist anduse,in which
ourgreat needforculsatisfied. On thedaythat needshavenotbeenfully Ourcultural the for itis necessary Forthis reason, willbecomeclear. ourfuture ture canbe satisfied, to forcultural institutions, thistruth and to makeself-sacrifices peopleto appreciate in thepresent.36 their zeal in this andtoincrease regard children, bring up educated
sense,butittakeson the meant herein itsanthropological "Culture" is indeed is thatin I wouldpropose, The reasonforthis, overtones of "highculture." culture were ofthat andclarifiers thearticulators as wellas in Cyprus Turkey atwhointhenationalist period orintellectuals, known as theaydinlar, a group had been and shouldbe. Turkish culture whatthe"true" to describe tempted andwhenappliedto means"clear"or "enlightened," literally Theword aydin theoldermuinevver, as "intellectual," replacing translated a person is usually notonlywhat can include The aydinlar means"enlightened." which literally andpoets.37 butalso novelists, journalists, essayists, we meanbyintellectuals
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thefalse, culture from Turkish the"true" to separate responsibility It was their underneath hidden orpureTurkish, fortheoz Ttirkfe, forinstance, searching, theaydinlar wereexIn Cyprus, andArabic.38 ofPersian uselessaccretions the sincetoo practices, suchas religious "thepeople"in things pectedto instruct from their that borrowed practices still tothesyncretistic clung villagers many undertones, forall of itsanthropological Thusculture, neighbors.39 Christian education and "enlightenthrough accessibleprimarily was stillsomething madepossiblebytheaydinlar. a clarification ment," andthrough education through clarified thisnotion ofa "culture" Second,itis clearthat in the1950s,it thesesamedebates ofprogress. During also represents a form was "educathat theonlywayforvillagers to progress stated was repeatedly educated and that"without and again education," tion (tahsil),education, Incannot progress."40 realm inthecultural that arebehind thevillages youths, will theethical aimthat provides that culture deed,itwas clearin suchdebates TurkI believe, is that for this, Thereason into thefuture. direct thecommunity in drawing between a separation Atatuirk ish nationalists followed in Cyprus in theanthropomaterial and culture which progress, represents civilization, a moraland spiritual in thisinstance it also represented logicalsense,though in itsanwas meant Culture, then, progress.4' tomaterial incontrast progress, value. This evenprogressive sense,butit also had a positive, thropological it witha moralprogress was possible, of a fully articulated culture equation with olderunderstandof Durkheimian sociology seems,becauseof a fusion quite meant something wasclearly bywhich progress, andmoral ingsofculture tothehuman racewas slowly developing totheoldKantian notion that similar thisshouldmakeus moreand more and morality, wardscivilization and that citizens.Obviously, given thatthisprogress capable of being responsible this ofhuman moral progress notion citizens, should makeus more responsible tobe drawn this aninference from thepolity. There is inseparable from is,then, was drawn: namely, in itsmore forms certainly idea that orRomantic popular inparticular culandmoral wouldbe realized that human civilization progress became cultured" forms. So for Turkish "becoming tural andpolitical Cypriots, was a to do so a moralfailing. andthefailure "Progress" a moralimperative theaydinlar andresulting totruth achieved through closerandcloserapproach ofthecommunity. in an overall improvement molded education. ofpersonhood They through aretwovisions These,then, theroleofeducated peras wellas moral imagining areethnic visions, visions, educated personsin a possiblefuture-a good lifestillto be made.Clearly, therolesof good Turks and Greeks; sonsin Cyprus werenotsimply playing to and Greeks. Their iconically ability thevirtues embodied ofgood Turks they was nota rolethat they playedandmatruths aboutthecommunity represent lived.The unity oflifethus it was whothey becameandhowthey nipulated; traditional hierarchiesto thetraditions-and was also inreference achieved ofrelicouldmakesense.Hence,theentanglement which sucha unity within
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of distinct in Cypruswas not an overlapping gion,politics, and education anditsbearers within which spheres; rather, it was an inheritance knowledge that nationalism couldbe inserted, and madesense.It was intosucha context thegoodleader, theedthevirtues ofthegoodcitizen, through suchforms that thenationalist age.Education, then, manorwoman, might continue into ucated ofethnic identities that realization andembodiment becamea means tothefull and ontologically linked to bodiesof knowledge. The realwerestructurally problem butalso ization ofthose ethnic idealswas notonlyan epistemological inthepolitical an ethical mayalso haveforeclosed endeavor, andone which community. clusion ofothers within a newform ofcultural
CONCLUSION
be perceived as an aesI haveattempted todescribe here howeducation might to moldhimself an ethnic after thetic thestudent attempts enterprise in which better. In as "cultured," and therefore morally "civilized," typerepresented andethnicity has produced a theintertwining of education, "civility," Cyprus a struggle tobecome thetype anddemands moral vision that shapesexperience whocan realizethat moral vision.It is in thissense,I have argued, ofperson in muchthesame enterprise that ideology maybecomean endofan aesthetic To spoutslogansat theexpenseof, rhetoric was forancient Greeks. waythat and to some,butforthoseforwhomidentity say,sciencemayseemfrivolity be delinked, part ofgrowth tofull perthis maybe a necessary themoral cannot In this sonhood. becomessomething tobe worked on andimidentity context, betterment through education is inproved, both a goodanda goal.Moreover, is also linked toethnic the realization ofone'spotential goods,so that extricably a of one's ethnic For Cypriots who defined thebetter realization personhood. since ornational education becamea moral enterprise, terms, goodlifeinethnic itthey themselves intopersons better couldfashion capableofrealizthrough itmaybe possible toliveinthepresent with perideals.In thissense, ingthose sonswhileimagining a future that excludes those persons. to see theobservation that itis difficult I wouldliketo conclude with today theidea ofa pattern has been becausein modernity suchan ethical patterning which theinis missing is theidea ofan end,a good,a goal,through lost.What the community. dividual'slife and actionscan take coherent shape within combecomeproperty rather thanshared, "Goods"in themodern conception as tocommodities. to education munal appliesas much goals;thisobservation teloshas been replaced theidea of a limited by open-ended perMdreover, ofprogress towards a goal, a notion Whileeducation alwaysentails fectibility. is lostandprogress becomes itis only inthemodern context that thegoal itself of a limited telosis of coursea becausea notion indefinite. Thisis important thenotion of indefinite and confined defined proone,whereas communally ofthecapacities ofhumans andperfectibility is basedon understandings gress qua humans.
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that theassumption doesnotbeginfrom that ofeducation Hence,anytheory goals mustalways be hierarchical, and intrinsically humanshave limited, Anthrothebackdoor. that willsneakin through byan individualism stymied maintains a pretensions, I have argued, despiteall of its relativistic pology, continculture is something as though behavior, as learned modelof culture is else. Here,indeed, likeeveryone gent, appliedto a tabularasa-a human with itsequallystrong reconciles itsclaimsto relativism where anthropology I This samecontradiction, "we'reall thesame,we're all human." claimsthat notonlyon the ofeducation, on all forms writings wantto propose, pervades And it whichwe learnourcultures.42 through education types of "informal" bymodguaranteed supposedly becausethefreedoms it,inlarge part, pervades be individually selfhumans that also require ernpolitical and legal systems the todo with haslittle individualism intractable creatures, evenifthis realizing ofpersons intheir livedlives.43 actualexperiences maybe at workthatnationalism It is onlywithsome such assumptions theimeducation, so that through appliedto individuals viewedas something that is applied-the curriculum-and arethecontent objectsof study portant to show, areat best These,I havetried themanner ofapplication-pedagogy. achievea educated persons within which pattern secondary totheoverarching ofculturaltheachievement notthrough gainbutthrough better lifeevaluated conEuropean Western outside specific excellences. Indeed, human lyspecific increfor thehistorical successofeducation thevarious models proposed texts, may they sense.Evenin suchcontexts, communities makelittle national ating imperialism in thecontext of a British Forinstance, require somerefinement. and "ma"infancy" in ideas of civilizational that was ideologically grounded toothers. In that context, was already denied was a goalthat "progress" turity," someone whocouldachieve himself into theindividual shaped (qua individual) therefore was a goal,butit was also one an open-ended progress rationality; to inone'sposition andbyduty privilege) (ofrelative that was shaped bypride theidea Evenin thiscontext, then, andtheempire). one's community (Britain parochial. andperfectibility was relatively of"modern" progress where of theworldwhere hierarchies havenotbeenhidden, In other parts have education has been exclusiveand valuedas such,and wheretraditions has alwaysbeenan inteeducated beenembodied inpersons, persons creating In theprenationalist anditscontinuity. thecommunity gralpartof imagining ofMuslimandChristian villagers-fora larger theaspirations erain Cyprus, havebeen forone's children-may plotofland,a good crop,goodmarriages of thevirtues ofthecitizen, to achievetheexcellences Butaspirations shared. whofitintoorders Turkor Greek, becoming persons a fully realized implied andlongintellectual traditions. Hence, defined hierarchy, byreligion, political entailed didnotrepthat theadvent andthedivisiveness they ofnationalisms theelaboration of goods andgoals that butrather resent a radicaldisjuncture theorder ofeachcommunity. hadhistorically defined
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NOTES
is onethatAlasandethics citizenship between relationship the about 1. Thequestion (MacInandpractice on socialsciencetheory inworks posesinpassing dairMaclntyre 1984:133).Alethics (Maclntyre ofcontemporary 1998:56)andon theexhaustion tyre anyone acknowledgement, one and does notrequire is a general thequestion though takes atleast argument that thefollowing willrecognize work Maclntyre's with familiar ofhisas a foundation. somepart ofthe ofthelasthalf politics complicated ofthevery sketch barest the 2. Thisis only inthe powers hereoftheroleofinternational andI makeno mention century, twentieth (1989); Ismail(1989); Joseph (1978); Hitchens see Crawshaw views, Forother conflict. (1966); (1986); Salih(1978); Stephens (1990);Pollis(1973); Reddaway (1985); Pantelis on the andhistorical writings (1980). Someofthebestanthropological andWoodhouse (1979); Loizos (1974, 1988); Pa(1998); Kitromilides includeCalotychos question padakis(1998); andSantCassia (1986). see HodgeandLewis (1966) andPollis(1973). 3. On Cyprus, intheessaytoa quasi-Aristotelian later myreferences bysomethat 4. Itmay be noted if not of selfanachronistic, makemyuse of an aesthetics judgement form of ethical (on this oftheterm lateemergence Despitethechronologically problematic. downright senseofa 1995),I choosetouse itherein thepost-Kantian 1993andNorton see Ferry ofjudgement. form situated culturally a conheusestodescribe which ownterm, "poetics," Herzfeld's using 5. I avoidhere by those generated andstereotypes-especially inwhich symbols, signs, tested process overin dailylife fought and cleverly manipulated, overturned, thenation-state-are certainly whileHerzfeld becauseI believethat 1997). I avoidthisterm (esp. Herzfeld ofCretan, ofshepherd, roles-thatoffather, differing thewaysin which demonstrates I at thelevelof symbols, andbe reconciled citizen-maycomeintoconflict ofGreek in role-that ofcitizen howa single in showing less successful he is much believethat mygoalis more words, Inother andembodied. constructed ethically the nation-state-is fortheinexplanation a satisfactory to find onlyan attempt and encompasses limited as well theisland, andrending in dividing Cypriots ofeducation dubitable importance With theorized. has beenso inadequately this question why tounderstand as an attempt whycerbutthereasons ofcontestation, nottheforms in mind, I wantto uncover this with livedlifeare reconciled that maybe poorly andjudgements tainsigns, symbols, notcontested. nevertheless and in thisveneration involved on thepractices observations interesting 6. Forvery 1984. see Nesim1987andProdhromou sacrality, students. former was erected byKatalanos' 7. Thebustitself ofthe from theheadmaster Sofronios toArchbishop IE, letter 8. AAOCC, Bt,B3iov 1895. 20 December Gymnasium, Pancyprian collection. 9. Author's Greek-speakers Idea" among for the"Great enthusiasm tostimulate 10. The attempt inHerzfeld 1982.ForCyprus atlength hasbeenexamined state theGreek outside livinig in Kitromilides 1990. has beenexplored thistheme andAsia Minor, was theleader of theTurks"), as Atatuirk ("Father Kemal,also known 11. Mustafa oftheRewas president andafterwards WarofIndependence andherooftheTurkish ofthe hisyears as president in 1938.During hisdeath from 1923until ofTurkey public in thealphabet, suchas a change reforms, anddrastic numerous he instituted republic, of the discussions of thefez.For summary andtheabolition of women, theunveiling see Kinross1965andLewis 1961. andhisreforms, ofAtattirk importance colis availablein Ali Nesim'sinvaluable of thisforCyprus 12. The bestaccount
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Hakkinda KibrisTurk Egitimi Gflneoslerimiz: Batmayan Egitim lection oforalhistories, Educaon Cyprus Turkish Educational Suns:A Research (OurUnsetting birAragitirma tion). occasionsthat on numerous complained and other Muslimnotables 13. The mufti a fewdrunken Christians androusing thevillagecoffeeshops Katalanos was canvassing in editorial SA1/753/1910, their Muslimneighbors (forinstance, to violenceagainst no. 189 of 18 August Sunnuhat 1910). attempted tokillin a disKatalanos allegedly whom 14. As early as 1895,a teacher him Katalanosandto protect theteacher from thearchbishop to punish puteimplored 6/18 Sofronios, N. KalvatitoArchbishop AA, letter from Ghiorgos (AAOCC, Btij3iov January 1895). Walter High Commissioner no. 8189, from despatch 15. C067/105, confidential letter from Commis7 April1897,andSA1/1259/1896, SendalltoLordChamberlain, 4 July 1896. sioner ofNicosiatoChiefSecretary, 25 July from Spencerto chiefsecretary, draft memorandum 16. SA1/1314/1881, 1881. Katalanos, whois disorator" wasNikolaos doubt that this "famous 17. There is little in this cussedelsewhere paper. but that arerelevant ofliterature on education strains 18. There areatleasttwoother selfhood andeducation and that follows. The first dealswith totheargument tangential Selves(1990) andherearKondo'sCrafting well-represented byDorinne is particularly is thedis"Creating an Ideal Self" (1987). The mainfocusofthisliterature lierarticle ofselfhood that reofa newconcept oftheidea of"the"selfandtheframing mantling ideals(see also Dumont 1980; Geertz 1973;andMarcusandFischer latesittocultural to anthropological attempts has comeprimarily from recent 1986). The secondstrain Muslimeducation and its role in thelarger social order(esp. Eickelman understand 1998). My ownargu1998; and Starrett 1978;Lambek1990;Messick1993; Mitchell butmyparticular focuson education and ment takestheseas a background reference, theconcerns that motivate nationalism does notallowme to deal explicitly herewith thesestudies. 19. N?ov Kitov, 10 May 1880. in Blue Book report 1895-6. 20. Report commissioner ofLarnaka, byCobham, in Iraq,to assess officer fortheservice ofa Mr.A. L. T. Smith, 21. A 1927 request that "onthe met with a positive andtheremark educational difficulties response Cyprus' in Cyprus as elsewhere. The schoolsarenot sidethere is thesamedifficulty economic bureaucrats and Thereis a larger class ofwould-be their fitting pupilsto earna living. from memorandum advocates than theislandcan support" (CO67/222/13, unemployed attemptCypriot newspaper A. J.Dawe, 3 October 1927).As lateas 1953,oneTurkish itsreadership that is notshameful" for ed toconvince lyceegraduates (Hursoz "working 26 August 1953). of devoting themwho possessbig or smallproperty instead 22. "Manyvillagers to abandon it.How? Theyspend hasten selvesto itsproper andup-to-day exploitation becausethey areactuated oftheir children a lotofcapital forthetheoretical education advocates or called thefathers of schoolmasters, to have themselves by theambition in most cases thewholeoftheir movable andimmovable doctors. properTheycharge to givehigher educaother children-inorder at theexpenseoftheir ty-manytimes himwithuselessmeansforthelife tionto one member of their by equipping family On areno longer Andtheresult? so longas scientific goldmines. professions struggle inlandloses continually handsand thevillager's theone handtheCyprus labouring We do notof is beingaggravated of professional parasites. by thecreation solvency simtheeducation ofthepeopleshould stop.No! We maintain coursemeanto saythat hispractical education is whatis mostrequired" 1934. Hpivij, 21 November plythat
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23. C067/238/14, memorandum from LewisJ.Grant, Director ofthe Turkish Lycee. 24. C067/281/14, no. 90386. 25. AAOCC, Bt,B3iov EH, no. 77,4 October 1952. 26. For an analysis of thecultural roots of thearticulation ofBildung, see Dumont 1994.Moregeneral studies oftheEnlightenment andpost-Enlightenment concern with education, Bildung, andthe"beautiful soul"include Hirsch (1983) andNorton (1995). Other works linktheemergence ofa separate aesthetic sphere tothepolitics ofthepostsee in particular Enlightenment; Chytry (1989); Ferry (1993); andHess (1999). 27. Muslimconcern overthispractice provides one ofthebestcluesto itsefficacy. For instance, in 1906 several petitions weresentbyMuslims praying that thegoverntherights oftheMuslims in theisland.The Commissioner ment wouldprotect ofPatothechief phos,C. G. Wodehouse, wrote secretary inexplanation: "I believethewhole trouble to have arisen an ill-judged through speechdelivered by theschoolmaster of Droushia, ontheoccasionoftheanniversary oftheIndependence ofGreeceon the25th of March.The speechwas madein Classic Greekthisarousedthesuspicions of the tohaveconcluded Moslemswhoappear that thespeechwas intended toexcite thefeelingsofthevillagers andtoincite them toactsofviolence" (SA1/1491/1906, letter dated 5 May 1906). 28. (ODovn 21 December 1901. -nrKi5mpou, 29. AAOCC, no. 500,letter from Leontios, BishopofPafos, toGovernor Palmer, 18 November 1935. 31. Ziya G6kalp, whosewritings served as thefoundation for much ofAtatuirk's naas therealmof emotion, that civilization is "ecotionalism, discussed culture saying nomics, religion, law,morals, etc.,andall suchideas"whileculture is "religion, morals. ofbeauty." andall theemotions He wouldgo on to saythat "becausetheemotions procomefrom it is very ducedby culture insideand are intimate, difficult forthem to be seenorexamined" (Gokalp1909/1989:9-10). 32. For thespecific rootsofTurkish see question of theDurkheimian nationalism, Spencer (1958). 33. Forinteresting parallels tothis useofculture, see Bringa (1995) andGrant (1995). in Khalid(1998). Sucha visionis also implicit MoslemElementary Education. 34. SA1/931/1926, 10 May 1926,Programme: 35. HalkinSesi,29 June 1962. NazifStileyman 27 December1949. 36. "Kuilttir ve Medeniyet," Eboglu, Istiklal, 37. On this see in particular Mardin1993. question, Dil Kurumu, orTurkish Turk thedirection ofthe 38. Thistook placeunder Language in 1926(Shaw 1977:376).Foran excellent folkofTurkish Society, beginning analysis lorestudies, see Ozturkmen (1998). thecommunity to whenTurkish writers 39. As, forexample, Cypriot encouraged itwas unnationalthat itsculture, andthe"intellectuals" toteachthevillagers "purify" "I wonder whatthedifference to worship Christian saints. istic,forinstance, is," one ofApostowhovisits themonastery a Turk who'sjusta copyofa Turk, asks,"between thecross,lights anddoes I don'tknowwhatother kneelsbefore los'Andreas, candles, birHristiyan Christian?' unutterable and a pork-eating nonsense, ("Domuz eti yiyen gibi!,"HalkinSesi,22 September 1954). 40. HalkinSesi,23 June 1955. tohavebeenthat ofZiyaGokalp, who ofthis stance 41. Thefirst articulation appears ofsociology that hadbyhistime enwas also strongly influenced strain bytheComtean in an influential work that "a civTurkish nationalist circles. tered Gokalpargued early is thecommon ofdiverse nations. Becauseevery civilization was creilization property to whichit belongs.For this atedin order lifeof thosenations to enblethecommon
30. (Dt2F?5D0?poq, 18 July1994.
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eachnation produces civilization, are'international.' Butinevery reason all civilizations manners orways,andthese arecalledculture (hars)"(G6kalp1909/ itsownparticular 1989:3).See also Gokalp(1959) andHeyd(1950). and"informal" in drawing a contrast between "formal" involved 42. The problems in Strauss 1984. education arewelldiscussed see Ewing(1990); debate onthis question, interesting anthropological 43. Fora very Murray (1993); andSpiro(1993).
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hueducation andGreek meaning of"human," proaches theuniversal (m6rfosis)means maneducation.29

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