1

Paper Presented at the Oil Industry Safety Directorate Symposium, 18 November 1996, Chennai India.

Principles of Lightning Protection For Oil and Gas Installations

A.J. Surtees, BSc, PhD, MBA, FICD, CEng, MIEE, SMIE (Aust) Technical Manager ERICO Inc. USA

MECHANISMS OF LIGHTNING DAMAGE

There are two basic mechanisms by which lightning may enter and cause damage at a site. The first is a direct strike where the building or surrounding structures receive a direct lightning discharge. The effect is a large increase in the local earth potential with subsequent damage to equipment connected to outside services via such means as power feeders, telephone subscriber lines, data or control cables and physical pipelines. The second mechanism is due to magnetic or capacitive induction where a distant strike may induce large voltage transients into power lines, communications lines and the pipeline. The US IEEE standard 587 describes typical peak amplitudes of voltage and current in power and communications lines. The mechanism of coupling to a buried pipeline is different. The pipe, being insulated presents a high resistance to ground and over its length a large capacitance to ground. The earth potential rise associated with a ground strike in the vicinity of the pipe, is capacitively coupled to the pipe. This potential is transferred in both directions from the point of the strike, resulting in local earth potential rises at metering stations and other facilities housing such equipment as monitoring and telemetry electronics. It is this mechanism which is responsible for damage to the sensitive metering and electronic equipment. Thus, a strike some hundreds of kilometres from a particular site may be responsible for local damage. The waveform of the transient induced into the pipe is modified by the pipe capacitance. This means that protection methods which may be effective against the standard 8/20s pulse must be reviewed. Our experience is that the pulse rise time is slowed, consequently protection networks involving series inductive elements are largely ineffective.

obvious direct strike to the more subtle mechanisms of differential earth potential rises and voltage induction at service entry points. 1. Capture the lightning strike at a preferred and know point. This involves the use of an effective air terminal(s) on the structure or vessel to be protected. In the design of area protection, it is important to realise that many points on the structure will be competing for the downward lightning leader by launching upward interception streamers. The effectiveness of a lightning terminal is the measure of its response time in launching such a streamer. The earlier the streamer launch with respect to extraneous emission points on the surrounding structure, the better the terminal will be in ensuring it will take the strike (at a known point) and prevent random striking or bypasses to adjacent uncontrolled points. 2. Convey the lightning energy to ground in a safe manner via a known route. This involves the use of a dedicated down conductor, capable of withstanding the full energy of the lightning discharge and conveying this to the grounding system with minimal danger of side flashing to adjacent earth points. The ability of the down conductor to screen adjacent equipment from the large electro magnetic impulse associated with the discharge current, which may reach energy levels as high as 250kA 8/20s, is also a measure of its effectiveness in reducing damage by induction. 3. Ensure a low impedance earthing system to dissipate the lightning discharge. The need to understand the characteristics of an earthing system under impulse conditions (associated with the higher Fourier spectral components of the lightning discharge), is crucial if an effective earth system is to be designed. An effect earth system is one in which the potential rise of the surrounding earth is minimised and the rate of potential fall off from the injection point is maximised. 4. Eliminate earth loops. Ensuring that a single point earthing policy is adopted and that equipotential earth bonding is used throughout the installation will help eliminate common damage caused by differential earth potentials. 5. Protect service entry points of power feeders. This involves the installation of voltage clamping devices capable of handling the large energy content (kA rating) of the over

A GENERIC APPROACH TO LIGHTNING PROTECTION

Global Lightning Technologies has developed a generic Six Point Plan for the protection of structures or facilities. The concept behind the plan is that it prompts the user into considering a holistic approach to lightning protection, one embracing all aspects of potential damage, from the more

voltage surge, as well as reducing the extremely fast rising edge (dv/dt and di/dt) of this transient. 6. Protect service entry points of data or control lines. This involves the installation of high speed protective barriers. For effective voltage limiting, a hybrid circuit is usually employed where both speed of activation and energy handling capacity are optimised in a multi-stage protective module.

potential to increase to a point where a neutralising discharge must occurs. The method by which this discharge takes place can take on one of five different mechanisms: Cloud-to-cloud Cloud-to-air Intra-cloud discharges Ground-to-cloud discharges and Cloud-to-ground strikes.

POINT 1. CAPTURE THE LIGHTNING STRIKE

AT A PREFERRED POINT
The potential of a direct strike to a communications tower servicing a remote telemetry link, an offshore exploration platform or even an elevated fuel storage tank may be high with the resultant danger of equipment damage or even fire as witnessed recently at the Cilacap refinery in Indonesia. The design of an effective air terminal to protect such structures requires some understanding of the mechanism of the lightning discharge. THE THUNDERCLOUD OR CUMULO-NIMBUS Lightning is a natural phenomenon which develops when the upper atmosphere becomes unstable due to the convergence of a warm, solar heated, vertical air column on the cooler upper air mass. These rising air currents carry water vapour which on meeting the cooler air usually condense giving rise to convective storm activity. Pressure and temperature are such that the vertical air movement becomes self sustaining, forming the basis of a Cumulo-nimbus cloud formation with its centre core capable of rising to more than 15,000 metres. To be capable of generating lightning, the cloud needs to be 3-4 km deep. The taller the cloud the more frequent the lightning. The centre column of the Cumulo-nimbus can have drafts exceeding 120 km/hr creating intense turbulence with violent wind shears and consequential danger to aircraft. This same up draught gives rise to an electric charge separation which ultimately leads to the lightning discharge. The surface of the earth is initially negatively charged to the order of 5 x 105 C, giving rise to an electric field intensity of approximately 0.13 kVm-1. The lower atmosphere takes on an opposing positive space charge. As rain droplets carry charge away from the cloud, from the earth the storm cloud takes on the characteristics of a dipole with the bottom of the cloud negatively charged and the top of the cloud positively. It is known from waterfall studies that fine precipitation acquires a positive electrical charge. Larger particles acquire a negative charge. The up draught of the Cumulo-nimbus separates these charges by carrying the finer or positive charges to high altitudes. The heavier negative charges remain at the base of the cloud and the surface of the earth starts to accumulate positive charge. This gives rise to the observed phenomenon where more than 90% of cloud-to-ground discharges occur between a negatively charged cloud and positively charged earth (negative lightning). THE LIGHTNING DISCHARGE The separation of electrical charge within a cloud allows electric

Approximately 50% of all lightning discharges are cloud-toground strikes. Ground-to-cloud discharges are extremely rare and generally only occur from high mountain tops or tall man made structures. Cloud-to-ground discharges are further subdivided into positive and negative leader discharges, of which about 90% are of the negative category. MECHANICS OF THE LIGHTNING STRIKE The development of a cloud-to-ground discharge is a two staged sequence, with one process being initiated from the cloud while a second process is simultaneously being initiated from the ground or earth bound structures. Both mechanisms rely on an excessive electron build up with subsequent ionisation and avalanche into an electric current flow. The Cloud Initiated Discharge - Leader As a cloud accumulates charge, the electric field builds up to the point where the air starts to breakdown forming an ionised discharge called a pilot streamer. This initial discharge rapidly traverses about 30-50 meters towards the ground. The presence of wind shear tends to blow away the ionised air, halting the progression momentarily until additional negative charge accumulates at the tip of the column and air breakdown again occurs, allowing the ionisation process to advance a further 30-50 metres. This more intense discharge is generally known as the stepped leader. The process repeats itself in a series of discrete steps with a time interval of roughly 50 s. The course taken by each of the steps in the leaders propagation towards the ground is determined by the path through the air which ionises more easily. This gives rise to the characteristically zigzag nature of the cloud-to-ground discharge and the branching of the lightning into many "fingers" in an attempt to reach ground. Being a highly ionised column, the tip of the leader is at essentially the same potential as the charged cell from which it has originated. As this tip approaches the ground, the potential gradient further increases accelerating local ground ionisation. At this point the potential difference between the leader and the earth may be as high as 107 V, resulting in local air breakdown. A ground originating discharge then begins to move up towards the leader, intercepting at some tens of meters above ground level. The Earth Bound Discharge - Streamer At the ground level, a point discharge such as a sharp metal protrusion serves to enhance the electric field intensity as the leader tip approaches, to the point where electrons are

accelerated sufficiently to cause ionisation as they collide with gas molecules. As the kinetic energy of the electrons is less than this ionising potential, additional electrons are released and an avalanche discharge results. To start the process, an initial liberated electron is required. This can come from the natural field intensification due to the presence of a charged cloud or from deliberated introduced means such as a radioactive source or spark gap. Such techniques of enhancing the emission of free ions is the basis of early streamer emission, enhanced-ionisation air terminals. Once the electric field strength exceeds about 2 kVm-1 the number of liberated free ions becomes adequate to cause a current to flow which weakens the electric field. This current is known as the upward streamer current and can reach magnitudes of several tens of amperes and can take the form of a faintly luminescent discharge emanating from sharp protrusions. Time captured photograph has shown that this upwards steamer channel can reach several hundreds of meters as it propagates to meet the descending leader. The Main Discharge Or Return Stroke Once the ionised channel has been completed by the junction of the streamer and the leader, the build up of positive charge in the earth flows upwards along the ionised discharge channel to neutralise the large negative charge in the cloud giving rise to what is known as the return stroke. Alternatively, the process can be described using conventional electron flow as, electrons migrating from the negative cloud to the positive earth. This is characterised by a rapidly increasing electric current whose rate of rise is typically 1010 amperes/sec. Peak currents averaging around 30 kA appear typical with minimum currents being about 3 kA. Maximum discharges exceeding 200kA have been recorded. It is also possible to have consecutive discharges down the same channel. This occurs when the initial discharge neutralises the localised charge cell in the cloud that initiated the stroke. Nearby charge cells then flash across to the ionised channel and use it to discharge to ground. In this manner up to 16 discharges have been observed using the one channel. The average energy released in a discharge is 55 kWhr, a significant amount of energy by modern generation standards. The danger of the discharge lies in the fact that all the energy is expended in only 100-300 microseconds and that the peak discharge current is reached in only 1 to 2 microseconds. The following parameters are typical of the return stroke: Upward speed of return stroke is typically one-third to onehalf the speed of light near the ground and decreases as it approaches the cloud. Total time between ground and cloud < 100s Peak current in first return stroke about 30kA Time to peak < 10ms Leader channel is heated to 30 000K All charge contained in leader and branches is deposited to ground down same channel. Subsequent restrikes take on the following parameters:

Peak currents from 20 to 400kA Time between return strokes 3 to 100ms Number of return strokes 1 to 15, average of 4 Rising times even faster, typically a few nanoseconds.

These are some of the parameters which make lightning difficult to control. The need to ensure that the lightning discharge is effectively captured using a well designed early streamer emission terminal is the key to such control. THE DYNASPHERE EARLY STREAMER EMISSION AIR TERMINAL The result of many years of theoretical and ongoing field research is the DYNASPHERE Early Streamer Emission Terminal. This product provides the design engineer with an air termination relatively free of space charges which is capable of creating photo-ionisation and which concentrates electric field to release free electrons on the approach of a lightning leader. The Dynasphere is a passive air terminal which requires no external power source, relying solely on the energy contained in the approaching leader for its dynamic operation. This remarkable terminal has the ability to concentrate only that electric field which occurs in the millisecond time slots as the leader charge approaches the ground. The principle of operation relies on the capacitive coupling of the outer sphere of the terminal to the approaching leader charge, which in turn raises the voltage of the spherical surface. This rise in voltage produces a field concentration across the insulated air gap between the outer sphere and central grounded finial. As the leader continues to approach the voltage on the sphere rises until a point is reached where the air gap breaks down. This breakdown creates local photo-ionisation and the release of excess free electrons. These then accelerate under the intensified field to initiate an avalanche condition and the formation of a streamer current begins. Unlike the Dynasphere, pointed rods and other types of enhancement terminals tend to create a corona space charge above the emission point which serves to reduce the electric field there by inhibiting streamer initiation. Also, unlike other air terminals using battery or corona generated discharges, the Dynasphere is radio-quiet only producing a spark discharge as the leader approaches. CONVENTIONAL APPROACH TO CALCULATION OF THE PROTECTION RADIUS In 1901, the British Lightning Committee formed to address the protection which a Faraday rod would afford. After much debate, it was resolved that this would be the area falling under a 450 cone drawn from the tip of the rod. Experience over the years has highlighted many deficiencies associated with this method, where lightning has bypassed air terminals and struck within the safe area. The deficiencies associated with this approach are depicted in Figure 1. It was for this reason that the rolling sphere concept of protection for taller structures was introduced in the late 1970s.

Figure 1. Lightning enters the "cone of protection" (Franklin Rod method of protection) due to the inability of the structure to launch a streamer.

COLLECTION VOLUME METHOD The over simplification of the cone of protection approach has prompted research into a more scientific approach to the calculation of the effective protection radius afforded by a lightning terminal. One such model is that of the Collection Volume. The derivation of the collection volume design concept can be understood by considering the approach of the downward leader. The charge Q distributed along this leader causes rapid increase in electric field between it and ground points. When a critical field value is reached, the ground point launches an upward intercepting leader. The distance at which this occurs is called the Striking Distance. The critical electrical field is dependent on both leader charge and distance from the ground point. Figure 2 shows how it is possible to form striking distance hemispheres around an isolated ground point. The greater the leader charge, the greater the striking distance. Unfortunately, this simplistic approach of creating striking distance hemispheres is not infallible in practice. Regard must be taken of the relative velocities of the approaching leaders. Figure 2 shows how it is possible to reach critical electric field and launch an upward leader. If the downward leader is near the periphery of the sphere, its velocity may carry it onward to intercept another upward leader. Therefore, it is possible for the downward leader to enter a striking distance hemisphere without interception. To cater for this the model requires that a limiting parabola be placed on the hemisphere. This parabola is derived from velocity factors and completes our collection volume. It can now be stated that a downward leader entering such a volume is theoretically assured of interception by the ground point concerned. Figure 5 also shows how collection volumes become larger with increased leader charge. That is, the larger the magnitude of the current stroke, the larger the collection volume. The collection volume model assumes that all points on the structure are potential strike points and as such exhibit their own natural collection volumes or attractive radius.

Figure 2. Collection volume and hemisphere bounded by limiting parabola defined by charge on approaching leader.

THE BENJI CAD PROGRAM A proprietary computer program has been developed by Global Lightning Technologies Pty. Ltd. which evaluates the protection radius afforded by an air terminal under different conditions of leader intensity. Known as BENJI after the founder of lightning research, Benjamin Franklin, the program compares the protection radius produced by the air terminal to the attractive radii produced by the electric field intensification of competing points on the structure (corners and edges, antennae, equipment, masts etc). The program then optimises the placement, and number of air terminals, to ensure that all these competing points lie within the protective radius afforded by the ESE terminals. The technology upon which the ESE air terminal and computer model are based, follows that which is included in the Australian / New Zealand Standard NZS/AS1768-1991 Lightning Protection, Appendix A.

POINT 2. SAFELY CONVEY THE LIGHTNING

ENERGY TO GROUND
Once the lightning discharge has been captured it is necessary to covey this energy to the ground in a safe and controlled way. Complications such as side flashing to adjacent conductors, inductive coupling of the large electromagnetic pulse onto nearby signal lines and control of the excess energy content, need to be considered. To this end ERICO has developed a special insluated down conductor which comprises carefully selected dielectric materials to create a capacitive balance and ensure insulation integrity under high impulse conditions. In addition, a conductive outer sheath allows electrostatic bonding of the building through cable securing saddles. This ERICORE down conductor evolved after extensive studies of potential voltage rise in structures due to lightning injection.

extremely fast rising front (typically < 10 s to peak current) of the lightning impulse while the lower frequency component resides in the long, high energy, tail or follow-on current in the impulse. The grounding system appears to the lightning impulse as a transmission line where wave propagation theory with the normal rules of reflection and group velocity, apply. Measurement of earth resistance with conventional low frequency instruments may not provide results which are indicative of the earth systems true effectiveness under lightning discharge conditions. ERICO has developed an Earth System Analyser in which a fast pulse is injected into the earth test point to simulate the performance under lightning impulse conditions. The peak current and voltage amplitude within an effective measurement interval of approximately 500ns is measured and used to calculate the effective impedance. The magnitude of the current pulse is programmable according to the local conditions. The measurement window lies with current pulses of 1 to 5A, 10 to 250V (peak) and impedance range of 1.5 to 250 ohms. By effectively gating off any pulses returning to the instrument after about 500ns, the instrument can be used to isolate distant grounds in a complex system (greater than 75m away), allowing only the earth-under-test to be measured without the need for disconnection. The instrument is also capable of providing repetitive pulses at 30 second intervals to allow remote tracing of pulse currents, their magnitude and flow direction.

Figure 3. ERICORE insulated downconductor The construction of the ERICORE also serves to reduce the mutual inductance. A value of inductance of 1.6H/m is normally regarded as quite small. However when a current is impressed which is rising at the rate of 100kA/s, the effect of the voltage developed due to this inductance (Ldi/dt) becomes dominant. As an example, a single 60 metre down conductor will rise to a value in excess of 1MV with an average discharge. It is for this reason that a number of conductors are frequently specified with standard protection methods. Some of the practical benefits of ERICORE: It provides the design engineer with the ability to select the most convenient lightning route to ground. The down conductor can utilise air ducts etc. and be located remote from electrical and sensitive electronic equipment. The lightning is contained in the 50mm copper core conductor and is oblivious to impedance irregularities in the structure. The risk of side-flashing is reduced. The structure carries only that minimal current which is due to capacitive coupling to the main conductor. Accordingly, voltages across concrete and reinforcing members remain small. This leads to the conclusion that no special bonding techniques are required. By constraining the lightning injection energy to the core of the cable, the amount of radiated field is reduced and induction to adjacent cables, such as RF feeders on telecommunications towers or data lines, is reduced.

POINT 4. ELIMINATE EARTH LOOPS

The current associated with a direct strike is typically 30kA but may be as high as 270kA and exhibits a rise time of many thousands of amperes per second. When this current is discharged through the lightning protection system, the potential of the local earth system, with respect to the general mass of the earth, will rise to a high level. The actual calculation of this earth potential rise depends not only upon the resistance of the earth grid but because of the high rates of rise involved, also upon the inductance of the discharge path. Ignoring inductive effects, a simple calculation shows that for a good earth resistance of 1 ohm and a discharge current of 30kA, the earth potential rise will be 30kV. Given that this rise can never be entirely eliminated, the aim in any well designed lightning protection system is to equalise the potential gradient to ensure that all equipment rises uniformly in potential. This process is known as Earth Potential Equalisation or EPE, and is achieved by bonding all separate grounds points into a common ground system. In practice, bonding involves connecting together all metallic masses at a site with suitable conductors to ensure that they are at the same electrical potential. Once bonded, this common electrical potential must be matched to that of the earth mass itself via a suitable connection to the grounding system. This approach ensures that during a voltage transient, all equipment within the site will rise and fall

POINT 3. ENSURE A LOW IMPEDANCE

GROUNDING SYSTEM
The importance of ensuring that the grounding system affords a low earth impedance and not simply a low resistance must be understood. A spectral study of the energy content associated with the lightning impulse reveals both a high frequency and low frequency component. The high frequency is associated with the

together as the surge current flows and potentially hazardous voltages will not develop across the equipment. Not only does this offer protection to the equipment housed within, but it also ensures that personnel do not come into contact with hazardous voltages when touching two pieces of separate equipment - the touch potential. Effective bonding design usually entails the adoption of a single point earthing approach, in which all equipment within the shelter is connected to a master bus bar which is in turn bonded to the external grounding system at one point only. In addition, the respective ground points for all services, be they AC mains, telephone, data, coax feeders, control signals or RF cables, should enter the shelter at a common point - usually via an aluminium gland plate which is itself also securely bonded to the external grounding system.

the voltage transient, further reducing the potential for damage to the equipment. Such devices are usually known as Power Filters or Surge Reduction Filters (SRF). Field experience over the last fifteen years has shown that simple shunt protection is generally adequate for the more robust types of equipment such as lighting, air conditioning and motor plants (pumps), but is inadequate at providing a safe level of protection for equipment using semiconductor electronics. Where such equipment is connected to the mains, SRFs must be used to limit both the magnitude and rate of rise of the voltage transient. SHUNT PROTECTION Shunt protection devices are referred to under a variety of names including Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors (TVSS), Surge Protective Devices (SPD) or sometimes simply as Arrestors. They usually employ Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV), air gaps, Silicon Avalanche Diodes (SAD) or a combination of these. The parameters which specify the performance of surge suppressors are the voltage level to which they will clamp a typical transient (let-through or residual voltage) and the maximum peak current that can be diverted (peak kA rating). The let-through voltage of a device is the maximum clamped voltage appearing across the device when a surge is diverted. The most common test waveform used to specify the transient performance of surge suppressors is the 8/20s current pulse - Figure 4 and Figure 5. This is usually generated from a 6kV 1/50s charged capacitor source. Larger voltages are generally used in the generation of very large 8/20s pulses. The peak current of the 8/20s waveform which should be considered for the testing of point of entry protection devices, is specified in ANSI C62.41 as 10kA (Category C3). For critical locations or exposed sites this figure is often increased.

POINT 5. PROTECT SERVICE ENTRY POINTS

OF POWER FEEDERS
This involves the installation of voltage clamping devices capable of handling the large energy content (kA rating) of the over voltage surge, as well as reducing the extremely fast rising edge (dv/dt and di/dt) of this transient. PRINCIPLES OF POWER LINE PROTECTION The need for transient protection on power supplies is becoming more apparent to the general community as failure of equipment due to power lines transients becomes more prevalent. This need is recognised by inclusion of new requirements in modern surge protection standards such as IEEE/ANSI C62.41, AS1768-1991, IEC 61643, IEC1024 and BS6651. The question that requires further thought is how best to provide point of entry protection against transients which are conveyed along power circuits. Experience has shown that failure of equipment due to lightning induced surges can be attributed to two basic mechanisms - over voltages with their excess energy content and the extremely fast rise times associated with the lightning impulse. Primary over voltage protection is usually provided by Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV) or Spark Gap devices (SG). Secondary protection is provided by low pass power filtering which serves to reduce the peak let-through voltage and the dv/dt of the impressed surge. A number of devices and technologies are available for the protection of the mains power entering a facility, all of which require a decision as to the effectiveness offered. Typically the devices available fall into two broad categories - shunt protection or series hybrid protection. SERIES HYBRID (FILTER) VS. SHUNT PROTECTION Shunt protection is the most basic form of protection comprising over-voltage clamping devices which act to divert the energy from a transient surge down to earth. Series hybrid protection combines the energy diverting characteristics of a shunt protector with a low pass filter. This serves to further reduce the extremely fast rate of rise of

Figure 4. ANSI C62.41 Category A test pulse - 0.5s 100kHz open circuit voltage ring wave.

Figure 5. ANSI C62.41 Category B test pulse - 1.2/50s unidirectional open circuit voltage waveform, and resultant 8/20s current waveform

In addition to the single shot capability of a surge suppressor, consideration needs to be given to the effects of multiple strike lightning. As mentioned earlier, statistical results from various lightning detection and tracking systems indicate that over half of all lightning flashes consist of more than one strike. The subsequent re-strikes follow the same lightning channel and generally exhibit a faster rate of rise of current than the initial strike. These multiple strikes are separated by some tens to hundreds of milliseconds. The effect of such multi-pulses on surge suppressors is to cause a cumulative heating effect which is suspected, rather than the energy in the strike itself, as being the cause of many of the recorded suppressor failures. At present there is no standard for testing under multi-pulse effects, but research carried indicates that Metal Oxide Varistors actually fail under applied multipulse currents which may only be 75% of the single shot rating of the device. ARC GAP DIVERTERS Air gap arrestors are designed to arc over when transient over-voltages occur and then extinguish when the transient has passed. They are generally capable of diverting large surge currents. The voltage across these devices when an arc has formed is very low (typically tens of volts). However, the voltage required to cause the arc to form is high, typically >3kV The let through voltage seen across such devices is characterised by a voltage spike reaching several thousands of volts with a steep leading edge (high dv/dt). The main problems with the use of such devices stems from the large voltage required to force them into conduction. For example, co-ordination problems with secondary protection can arise where the secondary protection operates at a lower voltage level than the arc gap arrestors. Also if a transient occurs which is below the strike voltage of the arc gap, then no protection is provided. Extensive research by ERICO Inc. has revealed novel techniques of pre-triggering spark gaps at voltages well below their inherent 2kV striking voltage. This research is on-going with the view to producing shunt protectors with extremely low let-through voltages (<100V) and leading edge voltage spikes of under 350V. If such devices are followed by a low pass filter, this leading can be effectively eliminated. METAL OXIDE VARISTORS (MOVS) Metal Oxide Varistors are the most commonly used devices for surge protection of the mains power supply. They are non-linear, voltage dependent resistors with symmetrical voltage-current characteristics. The resistance presented by a varistor decreases with increasing voltage with a high degree of non-linearity. This non-linearity is such that the varistor presents a very high impedance up to a particular voltage at which point a knee in the characteristic is reached and any further rise in voltage is virtually short circuited. The fast response time (< 25ns), and potential for high energy absorption, make these devices ideal for use as transient over-voltage suppressors. The principle of operation of a MOV is illustrated in Figure

6. Sintering zinc oxide and other metal oxide additives under set conditions, results in a ceramic material in which highly conductive zinc oxide grains form within a resistive inter granular oxide medium1. At the junction where the zinc oxide grains contact one another, micro-varistors are formed which have V-I characteristics similar to symmetrical avalanche diodes. A MOV comprises multiple series-parallel connections of these micro-varistor junctions. The thickness of the material sets the number of series connections and hence the conduction or knee voltage while the crosssectional area determines the number of parallel current paths and hence the current handling capability. The energy absorbing capability of the MOV is thus determined by the product of these two parameters which is the volume of the material.

Figure 6. Internal microline structure of a Metal Ovide Varistor MOV AGEING As a MOV device clamps over-voltage transients during normal service, the conducted surge current can cause some of the micro-varistor junctions to be irreversibly damaged. The result of this ageing process is to reduce the conduction or knee voltage (and the remaining surge current capacity) of the device. Eventually the MOV conduction voltage will approach the peak AC voltage of the protected line and the device will start to conduct at the peaks of this AC voltage. This leads to a run away situation resulting in the MOV tending to a short circuit as the ZnO grains fuse. In the case of a surge current that is in excess of the device capacity (or remaining capacity), the micro-varistor channels instantaneously fuse causing device rupture from either the surge current itself or from the follow-on AC current. Thus, MOVs generally fail to a short circuit as a result of ageing or overload effects and consequently the line fuse or circuit breaker upstream of the MOV will operate and/or the MOV itself will explode and blow open circuit. Figure 7 depicts the estimated number of impulses absorbed prior to failure vs the magnitude of the impulses for various MOV surge suppressors.

Siemens, "Surge Arresters Data Book 1985/86",

100kA

30kA

TM 120kA MOVTE C

Impulse 10kA magnitude

3kA

60mmMOV 40mmMOV

are faster than gas arrestors at conducting, however on their own they are still not fast enough to limit a voltage transients to a safe level for typical data circuits operating somewhere in the 5-30V region. Solid State Devices such as Silicon Avalanche Diodes These are special diodes with extremely fast turn on characteristics, typically in the picosecond domain. This means that their clamping threshold is extremely well defined with very little overshoot. They are available in a range of clamping voltages - 7.5, 12, 15, 30, 36 ... 200V making them an ideal protection component for data line protection. GA are able to handle significantly more energy than SADs however, as they are slow to turn on, the let-through voltage rises to well above the turn on threshold and easily exceeds the safe operating limit of most signal/control circuits. It is for this reason that a hybrid circuit comprising the above three components (designated a level 3 protector) is typically used in the design of data protection units. With any signal or power transmission system employing two lines and a separate earth, two types of transient can occur: A Differential Mode transient where the voltage surge appears across the two lines independent of their potential with respect to earth, and A Common Mode transient where the voltage surge is common between each line and earth. The selection of any data line protector should ensure that both Common and Differential modes are eliminated.

1kA 1 10 100 1000 10000

Number of impulses

Figure 7. Estimate of MOV life - typical MOV specifications showing the relationship between the magnitude and number of surges which can be safely diverted MOV devices are generally rated for the maximum energy absorption in one impulse, however as illustrated in Figure 7, a large number of smaller impulses will also cause failure of the MOV. Increasing the single shot rating of the protective devices will significantly increase the lifetime for smaller impulses.

POINT 6. PROTECT SERVICE ENTRY POINTS

OF DATA OR CONTROL LINES
The protection of data or signal line circuits generally requires a protection circuit capable of extremely fast activation (to ensure clamping at the typical tens of volts used in most signalling protocols), whilst at the same time being able to handle significant surge energies. For such purposes, a hybrid type circuit employing a number of different components is usually used. Certain of these components are able to with stand large amounts of current but are slow to activate (there by allowing the transient voltage to rise to levels significantly higher than their clamping voltage), whilst others are extremely fast (allowing no overshoot and clamping at the precise voltage required) but are only able to withstand tiny amounts of energy before self-destructing. The following are some of the most commonly encountered components used in various signal line protection barriers: Gas Arresters - These devices are available in either a 2 or 3 leg configuration. They are made of a ceramic tube which is filled with an inert gas. When a certain potential difference exists between any two of the legs, the arrester fires. The breakdown voltages vary from 70V up to 15kV. The three leg version enables the surge to be clamped to ground irrespective of which line the surge was present on. Gas arresters are comparatively slow to activate (often several microseconds) so should be used in combination with faster devices for optimum protection. Metal Oxide Varistors - MOVs are voltage limiting devices which clamp the voltage rise of an impressed surge once the clamping threshold is exceeded. MOVs

PROTECTION PRACTICES SPECIFIC TO OIL AND GAS INSTALLATIONS

Modern pipeline systems incorporate a range of sophisticated computing, instrumentation and communications equipment. Unfortunately, pipelines act as very efficient collectors of lightning energy, exposing this equipment to a high level of risk of damage due to lightning activity. It is essential, therefore, that these systems be equipped with adequate transient protection to ensure the correct operation of the pipeline system. Lightning activity and metallurgic effects are particular hazards for long, buried pipelines, producing dangerously high voltages along the pipe. For the safety of personnel and for the protection of equipment, it is essential to ensure that these hazards are safely dissipated to earth. Experience has shown that the most extensive damage is generally sustained by equipment electrically connected to the pipe. This is to be expected with the pipe acting as a most efficient collector of lightning energy. The range of pipeline surge protection devices marketed by ERICO Lightning Technologies is shown in Error! Reference source not found.

Figure 9. IJP unit with surge rating of 100kA and housed in an explosion proof enclosure.

Figure 8. Part of ERICO's range of Cathodic Protection systems It is common practice to sectionalise pipelines by the inclusion of insulated joints of the flange or monolithic type. Cathodic Protection (CP) voltage is applied to these pipeline sections. At metering and scrubber stations, an earthing system is generally installed and the out of ground pipe work between the insulated joints connected to it. Without protection, induced transient pipeline voltages can easily breakdown the insulated joint resulting in a permanent low resistance path to earth. Flange type insulated joints are particularly susceptible. There are two common methods of protecting insulated joints. Special cell can be used as an electrolytic switch blocking voltages in the cathodic protection range while shunting hazardous voltages to ground. Such cells require regular maintenance to check electrolyte levels as well as careful installation to minimise lead inductance for effective lightning protection. A second method involves the use of gas arresters electrically connected across the insulated joints. When a transient voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage of the arrester, the gas within the arrester ionises and creates a low impedance path to shunt the surge energy to ground. The arrester is self restoring reverting to a virtual open circuit. Providing the surge rating of the arrester is not exceeded, it will exhibit almost unlimited life. Figure 9 illustrates an explosion proof 100kA 8/20s insulated joint protector.

CATHODIC PROTECTION Modern switched mode power supplies used for cathodic protection are electronically controlled and regulated for maximum efficiency and operational accuracy. The CP power supply is connected between the pipe and a buried earth system located perhaps 50-100 metres from the pipe and known as a ground bed. Input sensing comes from the pipe and a reference ground electrode. In an unprotected system surge currents will flow from the pipe to points of different potentials such as the ground bed and reference cell. There may also be flash overs within equipment cubicles caused by the cubicle being connected to yet another earth, for example the station earth system. Protection of electronic circuitry requires multistage protectors with the primary protector being a high energy absorption device such as a gas arrester. As mentioned previously, gas arresters are relatively slow to operate and can allow dangerously high voltages to pass before fully conducting. For this reason secondary protectors such as MOVs and pulse rated clamping diodes are typically used. All cabling inputs and outputs from electronic CP power supplies require protection with hybrid devices designed to divert surge energy to a common ground. This should be the station earth mat, to which all metalwork should be bonded. As with all transient protection, the philosophy is to create an equi-potential plane which will uniformly rise in potential with respect to true earth.

PIPELINE POTENTIAL CLAMPING Traditionally, large electrolytic capacitors have been used to protect pipelines from these hazards. However this method is not ideal, particularly in areas of high ambient temperature where the de-ratings applied to capacitors make them virtually useless. The Pipeline Potential Clamp (PPC) is connected between the pipeline and ground. A high energy gas discharge tube at the front end of the unit protects the pipe and associated equipment from lightning and other high energy transients, diverting the energy to ground. Inductive filtering and Metal Oxide Varistors act as a secondary protection stage, dampening the fast rise time and keeping voltages to safe levels. A series of diodes are used to protect the pipe from AC voltages and telluric effects, clamping the pipe-to-ground potential to within safe limits. INTRINSIC SAFETY The use of lightning protection units in certified hazardous areas requires some consideration. Providing LPUs or transient barriers contain no energy storage component and may be certified as simple apparatus, then they can be connected in intrinsically safe circuits on the hazardous side without upsetting the integrity of the IS circuit. Intrinsically safe barriers incorporating lightning protection on their input circuitry are now becoming available.

Figure 10. Block diagram of a hybrid lightning protection unit for a dual CP system Under normal operating conditions, the protector is transparent to the CPU and electrical isolation between the ground bed, the reference earth and the station earth mat, is maintained. In the event of a surge on the pipe, the protector acts to clamp the potential difference between the anode ground bed, the two pipe terminals and the reference earth to levels that will not cause damage to the CPU. A heavy duty gas arrester is used to divert the transient energy to ground via the station earth mat. The protector has been designed for use with CP power supplies rated at 20V/5A. Installation Considerations CPU protectors of this kind should be installed with a minimum of lead length between the unit and the CPU. Under fast rise time transient conditions, cable inductance becomes significant and high transient voltages can be developed across long leads. It is essential that the protector be grounded to the station earth mat.

Figure 12. A typical gas pipeline metering station showing the location of lightning protection units for insulated joints, cathodic protection and pipe connected transducers. Figure 11. Wiring arrangement for the CPU Protector provided by ERICO.

GENERIC APPROACH TO THE PROTECTION OF EQUIPMENT IN HAZARDOUS AREAS All equipment located within hazardous areas which is connected to support equipment lying outside the area (ie. located within the safe area) should be protected using Intrinsically Safe Barriers (ISB). It is preferable that the brand of barriers used also incorporate lightning transient protection. The barriers must be installed outside the confines of the hazardous area ie. in the safe area - Figure 13

(RTU, modem, charger, batteries, telecom lines etc.) needed to support the instrumentation in the zone 1 area. These options depend on where the additional equipment is located:Support equipment not certified as intrinsically safe and located within the zone 1 area, should be installed inside intrinsically safe enclosures. Feeders from this equipment to the safe area should be protected with ISB devices. Support equipment installed outside of the hazardous area, should also be protected with Universal Transient Barriers (UTB) to ensure that any impressed currents are maintained to safe levels. When installing lightning protection barriers, it is important to ensure that the total loop resistance of the ISB, UTB and RTU does not exceed the maximum specified loop resistance. Equipment installed within the safe area should be referenced to a single point Safe area Earth System (SES). All ISBs installed should be referenced to the SES. The SES should be bonded to the IES where distances permit (<30m). Copper conductor of at least 16mm2 gauge should be used for this purpose. The mains power feeder, should be protected with a surge reduction filter rated to at least IEEE 62.41 Cat. C. (10kA, 8/20s). Any incoming telephone lines (connected to modems etc) should also be protected with suitable transient barriers.

LP E

Figure 13. Typical installation layout of an intrinsically safe area Typical equipment requiring protection includes: Pressure regulators, digital links Pressure release valves, analogue links Pressure transducers, 4-20mA links Flow computers - RS485 links Insulated flanges Two options exist for protection of non-certified equipment

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Paper Presented at the Oil Industry Safety Directorate Symposium, 18 November 1996, Chennai India.

Appendix PARTIAL REFERENCE LIST OF VOLATILE STORAGE FACILITIES PROTECTED BY ERICO INC.

TASMANIA Berriedale Sewage Plant, Ellis Point, Berriedale Comalco Aluminium Powder Plant, Bell Bay Prince of Wales Sewage Plant, Derwent Park Road Sewerage Treatment Plant, Burnie WESTERN AUSTRALIA Industrial Plant Kwinana NEW SOUTH WALES Blue Circle Southern Cement - Berrima Plant Clarence Colliery Waste Water Treatment Tank Coal Storage - Hunter Valley Griffith City Council Sewage Treatment Plant Hunter Valley Open Cut Mine Hunter Valley Colliery 2000T Coal Storage Bin Hunter Valley Open Cut No.1 Newvale Colliery Sydney Water - North Head Sewage Treatment Plant Tower Colliery - Wilton Waterboard Rouse Hill Sewerage Treatment Plant Westcliff Colliery Borehole No 1 Westcliff Colliery - Methane Drainage Wingeecarribee Shire Council Moss Vale Sewage Treatment Plant 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 6 3

QUEENSLAND Airport Treatment Plant OK Tedi Mining, PNG QCL Cement Silos, Gladstone &Townsville Qld. Cement & Lime, Townsville Qld. Cement & Lime Silo, Gladstone Racecourse Mill-Sugar Refinery, Mackay Surge Bins - Abbot Point Coal Thallanga Mine Site White Mining, North Goonyella Mine INDONESIA Kaltim Prima Coal Kawasan Industri Gresik (Jawa Timur) Rumah Sakit Semen Gresik Semen Gresik (Persero) Proyek Tuban Treatment Centre of Industrial Bureau TAIWAN Chung Chou Sewerage Treatment Bldg THAILAND Egat Mah Moh, Lampang Rayong Wire, Rayong Sane Chemical, Chonburi. TGCI Factory, Saraburi The Siam Cement Office, Nakornratchasima 1 3 1 5 1 1 5 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1

1 1 1 1