14 February 2013 Anthropology Notes Chapter 5: Making a Living What do we need in order to survive?

Food, shelter, companionship (having a partner), etc. Primary subsistence strategies: methods to obtain food from environment The following are the five main subsistence strategies- descriptors are not exclusive or unique for each type o Foraging: Ju/'hoansi & Tiwi o Horticulture: Yanomamo o Pastoral (herding): Basseri o Agricultural: USA o Industrial: USA Secondary subsistence strategies: What do ***missing note

What influence a society's subsistence strategies? Land and weather -> type of food and activity Population density -> amount of food eaten (carrying capacity) Productivity and efficiency of people -> work hours Innovation and inventions Primary subsistence strategy: Foraging * The oldest form and no manipulating of the environment 3 types of foraging societies: a) Pedestrian: hunt wild game and gather fruits and nuts (south africa: Ju/'hoansi & !Kung) b) Equestrian: large game hunting on horses c) Aquatic: fishing by boat (Kwakiuti & Inuit of North America) - Increase inequality: men do most of the hunting and fishing (controlling of resources) Gathering 80 20 20 10 Hunting 20 20 60 50 Fishing 0 60 20 40

Dobe Ju/' hoansi, S. Africa Haida, N. America Plains Cree, N. America (Candada) Inuit, North America (Alaska)

Ju/'hoansi & Tiwi Population per group? Work hours & tasks? Tools? Possession? - very few Advantages? - high able to adapt to environment Disadvantages? - they eat they way out away from home (no game to hunt)

Some notes may be missing - refer to Chapter 5 Notes by Tyler Horticulture: Yanomamo background Amazon (Venezuelan/Brazilian): fruits, vegetable, game, & fish. Population: ~22,000 Small villages: 40 - 300 (~ 150 people per square mile) Western contact: slave trading ~ 1700 & gold mining ~1950 Several shabono: Individual houses under a large roof surrounding an open plaza (for gardens) Houses: small trees for poles & thatched roof Polygyny Small scale & low intensity gardening & fishing. Use human energy & simple tools (wooden hoe, bow & arrow, baskets, etc.) o Horticulture feeds about 50-100 people - small scale farming o Agriculture can feed a 100,000 people + - large scale farming 80% food (gardening): plantain, taro, and seet potato Supplement with foraging, fishing. Trading of goods -> alliance among neighboring tribes o *Balanced reciprocity Chapter 6 economics Karl Polanyi: suggested 3 modes of distribution of resources All societies: status goes to those who control the distribution of goods. o **** Reciprocity: exchange of goods and services 1. Generalized reciprocity: exchange without expecting a return Parents to children; shelter (B-day gifts, christmas gifts) This is common in foraging societies. 2. Balanced reciprocity: exchange with expectation of a return. Strong obligation to repay the gift; holiday giving. 3. Negative reciprocity: get goods for nothing without penalties Practiced among strangers Occurs mainly through bartering: negotiating (hopefully) for a direct exchange. o **** Redistribution: a two-stage process -> resources flow into a central place to be stored, counted, & then reallocated. Conspicuous consumption: display of wealth for social prestige o Leveling mechanism strategy (dispersal of material goods) Non-stratified society (foragers): o kin based, social pressure & prestige o Power: knowledge & controlling distribution. o Big men / women (Trobriander) - NOT foragers, they are heteroculers: donate own surpluses and convince others to contribute Stratified Society: o Some will be denied of goods. o Power: owning & controlling resources. o Taxation, charity organizations and philanthropy o **** Market Exchange: exchange of goods and services through a standardized currency where prices are set by supply and demand.

Maximizing profits (surplus) Standardized currency Little face-to-face interaction (internet shopping) Effects of globalization: iternational jobs, alliances, cross-cultural problems and diseases. **** Pastoralism: o Transhumance: men move livestock to highlands in summer and lowlands in winter; others stay home. o Nomadism: seasonal migration (no permanent home; move with livestock) Differences: herding, domestication & animal husbandry. Herding: relying on natural land to feed their animals. Domestication: taming animals for a resource Animal husbandry: altering animals genetically

Why pastoralism and not agriculture? o Pastoralism feeds about 20,000 and agriculture can feed hundreds of thousands. Land cannot support large crops. Animal protein, milk products, wool, leather and fertilzer If animals are so valuable, when should we eat them? Droughts, crop failures, ceremonies, old age of animal. Pastoralism: Basseri Background Located in Southern Iran (kinda of a mountainas area) and Nomads ~ 16,000: 3,000 tents; 5-6 people per tent. A camp site: 35-40 tents (200 people) 300 miles length & 50 miles wide Diverse territory: desert to mountain with little rain Move every 3-4 days; 3-4 hour walks. Takes about 2 hours to pack the entire camp site and are able to leave the area. They only herd goats and sheep (subsistence products) No cattle herding (rocky terrain!) Donkeys, camels, and horses: packing animals and riding. Social relations with agricultural neighbors: animal graze land, then fertilize it (balance reciprocity) Trade of goods: flour, clothing, utensils, saddles, radios, jewelry, etc. Only men represent family in public matters Widow women must have male representative. Agriculture: large scale & high intensity farming for profit. Large acreage and semi good soil Support large population (>100,000) Use irrigation, fertilizers and animal energy Supplement with animal husbandry (altering animals genetically) Scarcity of land and job specialization (free time) Industrialism: (mechanizing production): rely on science and technology to exploit environment.

Jay Mough February 7, 2013 Anthropology Notes Culture, language, and communication 6,000 known languages of 15,000. Why are they no longer spoken? o Colonialism & assimilation o Warfare, epidemics o Preferences Genocide Culture died Diseases o Pigeon language - not a real language, a combination of two different languages that have been simplified. (Doesn't have proper grammer usually) o Creole Language - Has the proper grammer created from pigeon language. This language, creole, is learned by the children and is then passed down to their children. o Noam Chompski: language acquistin device. Language versus communication Communication: nonverbal Language: verbal & written Why are we interested in communication and language? to communicate with the people that we study to share our experiences of past, present, and future o The Hmong Singing & songs: tells tradition, teach & cajole people, use in ceremonies (religious connection) Oral tradition: Passing the knowledge down the line Written tradition: This is written down and passed down without change o The Ju/'hoansi (also called the following: !Sam - Sam !Kung - !Kung) **Where they are **** , what they eat *** politics ****eonomy**** 300,000 people Live in Botswana Hunters and gatherers Mixed farmers and herders - live off the land - small groups/community Very peaceful people Dialect consists of a lot of clicks. No written tradition, but use the oral tradition with singing songs. They are always engaging in conversations from morning to night fall Elders (around 75 people) tell stories & children listen Use laguage as a way to avoid conflicts: jokes Why are we interested i communication & language? Tiwi o Ceremonies (singing & songs) o Multiple levels

o o o o o o o o

Formal speech (story telling - long sentences) nonformal (spontaneous speech) Group membership -> shows who belongs and who do not belong (levels of jargon) Language is adaptive -> western influence: Dutch, Portuguese, Malaysian, Japanese, French & British Live on Melville Island About 2,000 grown to 2,500 population Early 18th century Dutch, French settled there The schools teach English. Used to use long words which have shortened / modern Tiwi has more modern English

Why are we interested in communication and language? Understand how it is used to deceive or manipulate: doublespeak o Euphemism: avoid harsh or distateful reality Death - sorry for your loss - vs. - so they kicked the bucket o Jargon: specialized language of a profession or similar group o Gobbledygook (Bureaucratese): piling on words to overwhelm the audience. Before: High-quality learning environments are a necessary precondition for facilitiation and enhancement of the ongoing learning process. After: Children need good schools if they are to learn properly. o Inflated Language: make the ordinary seem extraordinary. Used cares - pre-tested; junk - antiques Why are we interested in communication and language? Explain our world & culture: vocabulary reveal social & physical environment of a culture (Eskimo's 50 words for snow) Use of metaphors -> kaluli Is language Biological? Noam Chomsky suggested: o Language Acquisition Device (LAD): a mechanism to identify (not supply) grammar rules. o A generic universal blueprint to: 1. Categorize words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) 2. helps child to determine sequence of sentence: nouns/verbs/objects 3. recognize plural, action & past tense o Over time children discar other language's Does language determine our thoughts? 1. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis -> Linguistic Determinism: language determines how people think and see the world. 1. Language controls our: thoughts, behaviors, attitudes & values are reduced to words 2. If true, then English speakers cannot assign gender to objects -> but we do 3. If true, we view the world in 1 way -> but we have multiple perspectives. 2. Linguistic Relativity: Lanuage influences how we describe our world 1. Culture makes language creative: language reflects cultural change Tiwi: Colonization -> changes in languages 2. The Kaluli: language influence us & we influence it

3. Kaluli use metaphors in describing their world as: Soft: these objects tend to decompose or die (eggs & birds with high pitch calls) Hard: these objects tend to last a long time. Metaphor example: chilren are the fruits of our society 4. Infants are soft and adults are hard A "hard" man is one who is strong and outspoken Boys are taught to be demanding, assertive, and not to give up until they get what they want. 5. Transitioning to adulthood through language development Must avoid certain soft mushy food: eggs, banana, lemon etc. Must learn to "firm up" as they get older Must "firm up" their language to socialize with adults properly * Children can no longer whine but must know when to ask and how to ask for food in complete sentences. How do we communicate nonverbally? There are six ways in which we do this: Artifacts: clothes Haptics: touching Chronemics: time Interpersonal space: Kinesics: expressions, gestures, eye contacts Paralanguage: sounds. Why is written/spoken language better than nonverbal? Person does not have to physically be in the same room to communicate. Creativity Can deceive and mislead Hide emotions

Jay Mough 14 February 2013 Anthropology Notes Chapter 5: Making a Living What do we need in order to survive? Food, shelter, companionship (having a partner), etc. Primary subsistence strategies: methods to obtain food from environment The following are the five main subsistence strategies- descriptors are not exclusive or unique for each type o Foraging: Ju/'hoansi & Tiwi o Horticulture: Yanomamo o Pastoral (herding): Basseri o Agricultural: USA o Industrial: USA

Secondary subsistence strategies: What do ***missing note

What influence a society's subsistence strategies? Land and weather -> type of food and activity Population density -> amount of food eaten (carrying capacity) Productivity and efficiency of people -> work hours Innovation and inventions Primary subsistence strategy: Foraging * The oldest form and no manipulating of the environment 3 types of foraging societies: a) Pedestrian: hunt wild game and gather fruits and nuts (south africa: Ju/'hoansi & !Kung) b) Equestrian: large game hunting on horses c) Aquatic: fishing by boat (Kwakiuti & Inuit of North America) - Increase inequality: men do most of the hunting and fishing (controlling of resources) Gathering Dobe Ju/' hoansi, S. Africa 80 Haida, N. America 20 Plains Cree, N. America (Candada) 20 Inuit, North America (Alaska) 10 Hunting 20 20 60 50 Fishing 0 60 20 40

Ju/'hoansi & Tiwi Population per group? Work hours & tasks? Tools? Possession? - very few Advantages? - high able to adapt to environment Disadvantages? - they eat they way out away from home (no game to hunt) Some notes may be missing - refer to Chapter 5 Notes by Tyler Horticulture: Yanomamo background Amazon (Venezuelan/Brazilian): fruits, vegetable, game, & fish. Population: ~22,000 Small villages: 40 - 300 (~ 150 people per square mile) Western contact: slave trading ~ 1700 & gold mining ~1950 Several shabono: Individual houses under a large roof surrounding an open plaza (for gardens) Houses: small trees for poles & thatched roof Polygyny Small scale & low intensity gardening & fishing. Use human energy & simple tools (wooden hoe, bow & arrow, baskets, etc.) o Horticulture feeds about 50-100 people - small scale farming o Agriculture can feed a 100,000 people + - large scale farming 80% food (gardening): plantain, taro, and seet potato

Supplement with foraging, fishing. Trading of goods -> alliance among neighboring tribes o *Balanced reciprocity

Chapter 6 economics Karl Polanyi: suggested 3 modes of distribution of resources All societies: status goes to those who control the distribution of goods. o **** Reciprocity: exchange of goods and services 1. Generalized reciprocity: exchange without expecting a return Parents to children; shelter (B-day gifts, christmas gifts) This is common in foraging societies. 2. Balanced reciprocity: exchange with expectation of a return. Strong obligation to repay the gift; holiday giving. 3. Negative reciprocity: get goods for nothing without penalties Practiced among strangers Occurs mainly through bartering: negotiating (hopefully) for a direct exchange. o **** Redistribution: a two-stage process -> resources flow into a central place to be stored, counted, & then reallocated. Conspicuous consumption: display of wealth for social prestige o Leveling mechanism strategy (dispersal of material goods) Non-stratified society (foragers): o kin based, social pressure & prestige o Power: knowledge & controlling distribution. o Big men / women (Trobriander) - NOT foragers, they are heteroculers: donate own surpluses and convince others to contribute Stratified Society: o Some will be denied of goods. o Power: owning & controlling resources. o Taxation, charity organizations and philanthropy o **** Market Exchange: exchange of goods and services through a standardized currency where prices are set by supply and demand. Maximizing profits (surplus) Standardized currency Little face-to-face interaction (internet shopping) Effects of globalization: iternational jobs, alliances, cross-cultural problems and diseases. **** Pastoralism: o Transhumance: men move livestock to highlands in summer and lowlands in winter; others stay home. o Nomadism: seasonal migration (no permanent home; move with livestock) Differences: herding, domestication & animal husbandry. Herding: relying on natural land to feed their animals. Domestication: taming animals for a resource Animal husbandry: altering animals genetically Why pastoralism and not agriculture? o Pastoralism feeds about 20,000 and agriculture can feed hundreds of thousands.

Land cannot support large crops. Animal protein, milk products, wool, leather and fertilzer

If animals are so valuable, when should we eat them? Droughts, crop failures, ceremonies, old age of animal. Pastoralism: Basseri Background Located in Southern Iran (kinda of a mountainas area) and Nomads ~ 16,000: 3,000 tents; 5-6 people per tent. A camp site: 35-40 tents (200 people) 300 miles length & 50 miles wide Diverse territory: desert to mountain with little rain Move every 3-4 days; 3-4 hour walks. Takes about 2 hours to pack the entire camp site and are able to leave the area. They only herd goats and sheep (subsistence products) No cattle herding (rocky terrain!) Donkeys, camels, and horses: packing animals and riding. Social relations with agricultural neighbors: animal graze land, then fertilize it (balance reciprocity) Trade of goods: flour, clothing, utensils, saddles, radios, jewelry, etc. Only men represent family in public matters Widow women must have male representative. Agriculture: large scale & high intensity farming for profit. Large acreage and semi good soil Support large population (>100,000) Use irrigation, fertilizers and animal energy Supplement with animal husbandry (altering animals genetically) Scarcity of land and job specialization (free time) Industrialism: (mechanizing production): rely on science and technology to exploit environment. Chapter 5: Making a Living I. What do we need in order to survive? A. Food, Shelter, Companionship, ect. B. Primary subsistence strategies: Methods to obtain food from environment. 1. Foraging: Oldest, doesnt require manipulating the environment. 2. Horticulture 3. Pastoral (herding) 4. Agricultural 5. Industrial II. What influences a societys subsistence strategies? A. Land and weather: Type of food and activity. B. Population density: Amount of food eaten. C. Productivity and efficiency of people: Work hours. D. Innovation and inventions. III. Foraging Societies A. Pedestrian: Hunt wild game and gather fruits and nuts. B. Equestrian: Large game hunting on horses.

C. Aquatic: Fishing by boat. D. Move daily to staying for 3-5 weeks to 2-3 months. E. Advantages 1. Mobility. a. Leave disease behind. 2. Plenty of food. 3. No stress. 4. Egalitarian F. Disadvantages 1. Dependent on environment. 2. Problems preserving food. G. In decline. 1. Globalization, land limitation, war, colonization, and diseases. IV. How can we prevent from being dependent on nature? A Neolithic Revolution (~10,000 years ago) 1. Manipulate environment to our advantage. 2. Domesticate plants. 3. Some domesticate animals too. V. What does production require? A. Time and energy (labor). B. Technology. C. Resources. 1. Determine what is usable, hot to use it, and who will distribute. 2. Choose a path that will produce maximum benefit. 3. Create rules to regulate resources. 4. Find a method to organize labor. a. Gender b. Age c. Ability VI. How is labor organized in small-scale societies? A. Social units (lineages). 1. Independent Units: Mechanical solidarity (Emile Durkheim). 2. Foraging and Horticultural Societies B. Gender 1. Help form identity (kids are socialized into these roles) C. Religious Positions VII. How is labor organized in large-scale societies? A. Interdependent: Organic solidarity (Durkheim) 1. Specialization a. Doctors b. Carpenters c. Teachers B. Highly efficient and produce quantities of products. C. Creates stratify society (inequality) 1. Unequal access to resources. 2. Those controlling resources have access to wealth and power. VIII. Pros and cons to domesticating plants and animals? A. Food year-round.

B. Increased population. C. Sedentary D. Poverty E. Inequality F. Crime G. Environmental Degradation (global warming) H. Health Problems 1. Foragers get fresh balanced daily diet. 2. Increased carbs. 3. Increased population and sedentary lifestyle, Jay Mough 4-4-13 Chapter 8 Sex and Gender How does culture influence our view of sex? - When people can have sex - Who can have sex - What is sexy and what is not (no universal standards) - Importance of sexual activites 1. Sex & Gender a. Western societies: assume 2 sexes & 2 genders (male & female) b. In the U.S. sexual orientation, identity & gender are fixed and they are biologically based. c. Sexual identity versus gender identity i. Sexual identity: 1. XX a. XX XY can only be changed on outside, not inside 2. XY a. XY XX 3. XO 4. XXY 5. MIX XX & YY ii. Gender identity: 1. Masculinity d. Other cultures recognize 3 to 4 genders e. Hermaphrodites: a person with both male and female reproductive organs, genitalia, or sex genes. f. Intersexuals combine everything, such as points 3,4,5 above 2. Cultures with 2+ genders a. Sexual orientation: the sex that one is attracted to. i. Reflective of sexual attraction and practices ii. The opposite sex (heterosexuality) iii. The same sex (homosexuality) iv. Both sexes (bisexuality) v. Asexuality: indifference or lack of attraction to either sex. b. Zuni: Two-spirit (Berdaches)

i. Biologically male but gender identity as female ii. Viewed as a third gender as neither man nor woman c. Azamde: i. Background: 1. Central Africa: 2 seasons: wet and dry (many springs and lots of rainfall) 2. Horticulturalist with foraging & domestication: dogs and chickens 3. Houses: made of mud and grass with thatched grass roof 4. Polygyny 5. Practice witchcraft 6. Chiftdom 7. Wealth = foodstuff 8. Individualized skills: woodwork, pottery, weaving, etc. ii. Marriage, Sex & Gender: 1. Independent family unit 2. Proposal: a. Suitor asks brides father (The suitor is a friend of the one who is actually going to marry the bride) b. Bride visits suitors home for trial period for several weeks c. Suitor consults oracles d. Brides family goes to grooms home for ceremony & build her a cooking hearth e. Bridewealth: small payment & indebt to brides parents i. If groom mistreats wife, her parents can reclaim her 3. Polygyny (may marry wifes sister) 4. Sexual division of labor: men (construction and repair); women (maintaining garden) 5. Homosexuality (normal and In some ways is accepted): a. Unmarried warrior: during separation from women, they have sexual relations with apprentices (in order to become a man you need to do some form of homosexual act). b. After several years, warriors practice heterosexual marriages 6. Lesbianism a. Tends to occur among co-wives & is secret b. Women may marry Jay Mough 4-16-13 Chapter 9: Political Organizations Purpose of politics? To organize and maintain societal functioning thru norms and laws Functions of law? Law: a set of written rules people must obey A means of social control (taxes) by enforcing sanctions (+/-) (sanctions: negative: jail, positive: award) Learned and allowed for change Define social roles and tasks o Social roles (how to behave in certain situations, acting differently in front of a policeman vs. a college student)

What are the 4 levels of political organizations or integration? a) Band: similar to foraging (20 - 100 people) b) Tribe: (top of 500 people) c) Chiefdom: (3,000 people) d) States: (100,000 + people) How are they the same and how are they different? A) Band (oldest form) they have a very small group of people. a. A small group of people belonging to extended families who live together and are loosely associated to a territory in which they make a living. i. Foraging societies: independent kinship based (they can survive by themselves) ii. Power: personal skill and temporary status (there is no one designated leader) 1. Theyll have multiple temporary leaders (people who know when to move or how to hunt / they need to convince the band to move) iii. Many leaders with no authority. B) Tribe: a. A culturally distinct population whose members consider themselves descended from the same ancestor. i. Small scale societies (horticulture & pastoral) - The tribes will work together with other tribes, unlike a band who all live independently of one another. ii. Common interest, culture, language, and territory. iii. Informal leadership: no authority (They have an informal, designated leader, similar to a Band. The leader has some form of skill/power that others dont so they stand out more than others) iv. Use mediator, compensations (if mediator, compensations are not satisfactory, then warfare will break out), and warfare C) Chiefdom: a. A society with social ranking in which political integration is achieved through and office of centralized leadership called the chief i. Horticulture & pastoral societies ii. They have a fulltime leader: ranked power and authority. iii. Kinship based relations: hereditary position with religious support (The chiefs son will become leader and so on. Females rarely are leaders.) iv. Control redistribution of resources (The chief needs to ensure that resources are gathered and that all 5,000 people are provided for) 1. The groups are directly connected to the central leader D) States: a. A hierarchical, centralized form of political organization in which a central government has a legal monopoly over the use of force. i. Ranked according to status & money, elected and appointed positions, use coercion and sanctions, has power and authority. 1. Some groups are higher than others regardless of where they are in the hierarchy. 2. The groups are not directly connected to each other ii. Related through common interest, culture, language and territory. Theories of State formation (*Names will not be on Exam*)

a) Voluntaristic Theory (1936, Gordon Childe): a. People volunteered gave up freedom for certain benefits (protection). (Ill give you some crops if you protect my land) b) Hydraulic Theory (1950, Karl Wittfogel & Julian Stewart): a. Farmers gave up freedom in exchange for technology (irrigation to roadways) c) Coercive Theory (Robert Carneiro) a. States formed to mobilize people to conquer territories for resources. d) Trade networks: a. A system is needed to distribute foods to the mass e) Multi-causal explanation (1960, Robert Adams) a. Certain group has better resources and land which gave them advantages to wage war. Theories of Stratification:

Jay Mough February 7, 2013 Anthropology Notes Culture, language, and communication 6,000 known languages of 15,000. Why are they no longer spoken? o Colonialism & assimilation o Warfare, epidemics o Preferences Genocide Culture died Diseases o Pidgin language - not a real language, a combination of two different languages that have been simplified. (Doesn't have proper grammer usually) o Creole Language - Has the proper grammer created from pigeon language. This language, creole, is learned by the children and is then passed down to their children. o Noam Chompski: language acquistin device. Language versus communication Communication: nonverbal Language: verbal & written Why are we interested in communication and language? to communicate with the people that we study to share our experiences of past, present, and future o The Hmong Singing & songs: tells tradition, teach & cajole people, use in ceremonies (religious connection) Oral tradition: Passing the knowledge down the line Written tradition: This is written down and passed down without change o The Ju/'hoansi (also called the following: !Sam - Sam !Kung - !Kung) **Where they are **** , what they eat *** politics ****eonomy****

300,000 people Live in Botswana Hunters and gatherers Mixed farmers and herders - live off the land - small groups/community Very peaceful people Dialect consists of a lot of clicks. No written tradition, but use the oral tradition with singing songs. They are always engaging in conversations from morning to night fall Elders (around 75 people) tell stories & children listen Use laguage as a way to avoid conflicts: jokes

Why are we interested i communication & language? Tiwi o Ceremonies (singing & songs) o Multiple levels Formal speech (story telling - long sentences) nonformal (spontaneous speech) o Group membership -> shows who belongs and who do not belong (levels of jargon) o Language is adaptive -> western influence: Dutch, Portuguese, Malaysian, Japanese, French & British o o Live on Melville Island o About 2,000 grown to 2,500 population o Early 18th century Dutch, French settled there o The schools teach English. o Used to use long words which have shortened / modern Tiwi has more modern English Why are we interested in communication and language? Understand how it is used to deceive or manipulate: doublespeak o Euphemism: avoid harsh or distateful reality Death - sorry for your loss - vs. - so they kicked the bucket o Jargon: specialized language of a profession or similar group o Gobbledygook (Bureaucratese): piling on words to overwhelm the audience. Before: High-quality learning environments are a necessary precondition for facilitiation and enhancement of the ongoing learning process. After: Children need good schools if they are to learn properly. o Inflated Language: make the ordinary seem extraordinary. Used cares - pre-tested; junk - antiques Why are we interested in communication and language? Explain our world & culture: vocabulary reveal social & physical environment of a culture (Eskimo's 50 words for snow) Use of metaphors -> kaluli Is language Biological? Noam Chomsky suggested: o Language Acquisition Device (LAD): a mechanism to identify (not supply) grammar rules.

A generic universal blueprint to: 1. Categorize words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) 2. helps child to determine sequence of sentence: nouns/verbs/objects 3. recognize plural, action & past tense Over time children discar other language's

Does language determine our thoughts? 1. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis -> Linguistic Determinism: language determines how people think and see the world. 1. Language controls our: thoughts, behaviors, attitudes & values are reduced to words 2. If true, then English speakers cannot assign gender to objects -> but we do 3. If true, we view the world in 1 way -> but we have multiple perspectives. 2. Linguistic Relativity: Lanuage influences how we describe our world 1. Culture makes language creative: language reflects cultural change Tiwi: Colonization -> changes in languages 2. The Kaluli: language influence us & we influence it 3. Kaluli use metaphors in describing their world as: Soft: these objects tend to decompose or die (eggs & birds with high pitch calls) Hard: these objects tend to last a long time. Metaphor example: chilren are the fruits of our society 4. Infants are soft and adults are hard A "hard" man is one who is strong and outspoken Boys are taught to be demanding, assertive, and not to give up until they get what they want. 5. Transitioning to adulthood through language development Must avoid certain soft mushy food: eggs, banana, lemon etc. Must learn to "firm up" as they get older Must "firm up" their language to socialize with adults properly * Children can no longer whine but must know when to ask and how to ask for food in complete sentences. How do we communicate nonverbally? There are six ways in which we do this: Artifacts: clothes Haptics: touching Chronemics: time Interpersonal space: Kinesics: expressions, gestures, eye contacts Paralanguage: sounds. Why is written/spoken language better than nonverbal? Person does not have to physically be in the same room to communicate. Creativity Can deceive and mislead Hide emotions

Jay Mough 4/26/13 Exam 4 Study Guide: Chapter 9: Political Organizations 1. Define political organization and identify 4 dimensions of political organization. a. Definition: The patterned ways in which power is legitimately used in a society to regulate behavior, maintain social order, make collective decisions, and deal with social disorder. i. Band: similar to foraging ii. Tribe iii. Chiefdom iv. States 2. What are the purposes to forming political organizations? a. To organize and maintain societal functioning thru norms and laws. 3. Describe the characteristics of political organization in band, tribal, chiefdoms, and state societies. a. Band: small group of people belonging to extended families who live together and are loosely associated to a territory in which they make a living. b. Tribe: A culturally distinct population whose members consider themselves descended from the same ancestor. c. Chiefdom: A society with social ranking in which political integration is achieved and office of centralized leadership called the chief. d. State: a hierarchical, centralized form of political organization in which a central government has a legal monopoly over the use of force. 4. Explain 5 theories that account for the formation of state societies. a. Voluntaristic theory: People volunteered gave up freedom for certain benefits (protection) b. Hydraulic Theory: farmers gave up freedom in exchange for technology (irrigation to roadways) c. Coercive theory: states formed to mobilize people to conquer territories for resources d. Trade networks: a system needed to distribute foods to the mass e. Multi-causal explanation: certain groups has better resources and land which gave them advantages to wage war. 5. What are the functions of law? How is it related to political organization? a. Law: a set of rules people must obey. b. A means of social control (taxes) by enforcing sanctions (jail, positive awards) 6. How can law define relationships with people? a. It provides for a means of control over people. 7. Explain the difference between informal versus formal means of social control. Which political organization is likely to use informal versus the formal means of social control? a. Formal social control implemented by authorized agents including officers, employers. This is practiced via law as statutes, rules and regulations against deviant social behavior. b. Informal social control Exercised by a society without stating any rules or laws. It is expressed through norms and customs. Social control is performed by informal agents of their own in an unofficial capacity. This is practices more in small groups i. Band: informal

ii. Tribe: informal leadership iii. Chiefdom: Formal they have a fulltime leader ranked power and authority. iv. States: formal Chapter 12: Power, conquest, and A World System 1. What is power? What are the 4 forms of power? Provide examples from the film: In the White Mans image. a. Power: the ability to impose ones will onto others b. Four forms of power: i. Independent entity: ii. Interpersonal power: iii. Organizational power: iv. Structural power: 2. How do people attain power? How is power exercised? Provide examples from the film: In the white mans image. a. Power attained in multiple ways: i. Inherited position: kings ii. Appointed iii. Legitimacy (backed up by an institution): pope iv. Supernatural powers: ordained by God v. Personal achievement: prestige (honor and respect) b. 3. Explain the relationship between power and authority. Which political organization does not have both? Why? a. Power is the ability to impose ones will onto others while authority is applying that power. b. Tribes? They are a small group 4. What is colonization? What are some reasons (justifications) for colonization? Give examples from the movie: in the white mans image a. Colonization is the act of colonizing; the establishment of colonies. b. Why colonization: finding resources to make population rich, stability, food, 5. What are the effects of colonization? Give examples from the movie a. Effects of colonization 6. How did the colonizers exert control over colonized countries? Give examples from the movie a. They begin imposing laws and regulations 7. Can a subordinate group challenge the power of a dominant group? If so, how? Provide examples from the movie a. Sure 8. How does the Unilineal Evolutionary Theory explained human diversity and supported the practices of racism in the U.S.? a. It says that it requires technology to advance and that science disciplines supported nonscience practices: phrenology. i. Savagery: 1. Early fire invention 2. Middle bow and arrow 3. Late pottery ii. Barbarism 1. Early pottery 2. Middle agriculture

3. Late animal domestication iii. Civilization 1. Industrialization 9. Define race, ethnicity, and nationality. What are the differences between the 3 concepts? a. Race: biologically people sharing a cluster of genes b. Ethnicity: social construction based on perceived phenotype differences(eyes, eybrows) c. Nationality: place of birth share geographical location and a governing system. 10. Why did anthropologists reject the concept of race? When is the concept of race not a problem to be applied to the study of human diversity? a. It was rejected because it wasnt based on a science. Chapter 13: Globalization and Change 1. Understand how culture change internally and externally. Why might a society resist cultural change? a. Internally: change due to technology inventions, primary innovation (unintentional discovery), secondary innovation (deliberate application of ideas) b. External: cultural diffusion or borrowing (focus on mutual contact and forced contact/ resources from outside of country being brought in) 2. Explain how acculturation, assimilation, and diffusion are different from one another. a. Acculturation: cultural modification of an individual or people by adapting to or borrowing traits from another culture. b. Assimilation: process by which a person or a groups language or culture come to resemble those of another group. c. Diffusion: the movement of things and ideas from one culture to another. 3. Which process was applied in the movie a. Forced assimulation 4. Explain the differences between modernization theory, dependency theory, and world system theory. How does globalization impact small-scale cultures? a. Modernization theory: non-industrial nations will move in the social and technological direction of industrialized nations. b. Dependency theory: colonized nations were made to be dependent colonies they reshaped subsistence strategies. c. World system theory:

Jay Mough 4-9-13 Chapter 11: Spirituality, Religion & the Supernatural All societies have: 1. Beliefs about the soul & life after death 2. A way to explain the unexplainable 3. A defined & shared worldview What is religion? Definition given by Wallace beliefs and rituals concerned with supernatural beings, powers & forces

Purposes of religion? 1. Explain physical and social environment that cannot be scientifically demonstrated: a. Human existence (meaning of life, death & relationship with deities) 2. Reduce anxiety: Gods will pray and make sacrifices 3. Educational institution 4. Group solidarity a. Enhance group solidarity & increase ethnocentrism b. Group activity with a leader (church service) c. Agree to perform ritual at a specified time/place 5. Social control & conflict resolution a. Stories & rituals provide a rational for order What are the characteristics of religion? Not rational (cannot be scientifically proven) & based on faith Sacred narratives (myths): stories of gods and human origins (Bible) Rituals: repetitive practice occurring at a set time and place Symbols and symbolism: masks, statues, and wafers and wine o Create unity without understanding meanings Supernatural being o Mana: objects(trees, rocks, water, etc.) contain power which man can possess o Monotheism belief in a single god o Polytheism belief in many gods Religious practitioners o Shamans, Priests, Witches and sourcerers, Wiccans (there are the people that will teach you, they are the experts, they know everything such as why you were born or died. Minangkabau: Religion (Adat & Islam) 1. Adat (4 rules of conduct) a. Laws of nature humans must learn to operate b. Principle of social organization matrilineality & maintaining tradition c. Local/community rules allow changes d. Daily customs & Practices social norms 2. Harmonious existence a. Similar & reinforces each other encourage compromise, reciprocity (help each other, dont be selfish), social obligation, compassion and loyalty b. Masculine Adat recognizes Muslim laws (patrilineal rules (the male is head of household of both patrilineal and matrilineal societies)) c. Feminine Adat recognizes matrilineal tradition & inheritance 3. 1820: fundamental Muslims sought Islamic purity a. 20 years civil war attempt to wipe Minangkabau & Dutch colonialists b. Extremists failed to purge Adat but left a strong Islamic influence c. Adat is the application of the Korean religious laws Tiwi: Religion 1. Focus more on living relationships & less on supernatural relationships 2. No magic or witchcraft misfortunes & illnesses due to ones own behavior. 3. 3 worlds:

a. Unborn: babies wait to be born; they grow old and marry each other b. Living: focus on personal achievement c. World of the dead: retain all skills and stop growing/developing i. Upon death, spirits linger longing to be with the living may bring illness to love ones ii. Accepting death live exactly the same as the living. Are all ritualistic behaviors based on religion? (no) 1. Non-religious: baseball magic (wearing the same lucky socks) 2. Religious practices: set off from social routines of everyday life What is the purpose of performing rituals? Make cultural ideas concrete Give directions to participants Unity Appease supernatural forces 2 differences with magic (those that anthropologys study, and those that anthropologists dont.) Types of Rites: 1. Rites of passage: transform one status to another a. Mark changes & build relationships ( changing status ) b. Van Gennep: 3 phases: separation, initiation/transition (liminal state), & incorporation. 2. Rites of Intensification: reaffirm commitment to a set of values and beliefs a. Maintain welfare and restore harmony in community (going to Sunday church mass) b. Harvesting festivals. 3. Rites of Affliction: eliminate illness/misfortune due to supernatural forces conjured by enemies. Magic: (belongs to the university, possesses power) Without power: trickery (David Copperfield) With power: manipulation of supernatural forces 1. Sympathetic magic: like produces like (take a small group of people of a large group and begin trying to change things) a. Exert control over environment 2. Contagious magic: objects and people that one interacts with can influence each other (think of dead skin falling off your body, those skins will stay and those can control you) a. Hair, clothes, teeth, etc. Can be used for influence Witchcraft: (born with it, and you intend to harm other people) Inborn capacity (with intent to do harm) Possess psychic powers: thoughts are used to do harm (think bad thoughts of intended victim)

Wicca (They believe you can summon their power, to channel that power, and do good stuff with it.) Inborn capacity to do goods Use tools (chants) to focus inner powers to bring about change.

Jay Mough April 23, 2013 Chapter 10: The world system and colonialism 1. Why do cultures change? a. Development of technology i. Progress: advancement from depending on nature to controlling it ii. People think it will increase their adaptation b. Mutual contact i. Immigrants: people who move to another country voluntarily c. Forced contact i. Creates refugees due to war or political oppression ii. Cannot return to home and have little to no social network iii. Cultural shock: language, new roles, social norms, etc. iv. Seek education to increase status 2. How do cultures change? a. Internal (within our country) (change due to technology): i. Inventions: new ideas, objects, or behavior that emerge within society ii. Primary innovation: unintentional discovery (accidents) iii. Secondary innovation: deliberate application of ideas. b. External: cultural diffusion or borrowing (focus on mutual contact and forced contact/ resources from outside of country being brought it) i. Spreading of ideas (abstract) or behaviors ii. Can be direct or indirect and forced or unforced iii. Borrowing (or stealing / taking anothers idea for something *say steeling how to build the iPad]) accounts for 90% of cultural change. iv. Material means are adopted before ideas or behaviors v. Ideas are adopted if they are: 1. Seen as superior, benefits are visible, easily understood, can be tested, and consistent with existing culture. Trobrianders: modern time - 1793: French explorer named the islands after his captain (this explorer went venturing the world and found the islands and met these people who already inhabited the area. He named them the Trobrianders after his captain.) - 1894: Methodist missionaries arrived in Kiriwina. - Papua (Southern Islands): colonized by Great Britain - New Guinea (Northern Islands): colonized by Germany. - 1906: Australians set up local administrative center, opened stores, trade posts and engaged in pearl activities - 1930: 1st primary school opened (learn to speak English, not native language) - 1945: both territories were united with independence (under some control of Australians) - 1975: full independence - Late 1960s 1970s: tourism boomed (as tourists came, they brought money and they wanted to buy things using money. Some things include necklaces such as shell necklaces that are worth a lot to trobrianders. These sell for $300.) - Men stop tending to children and yam garden to earn money (bananas are womens wealth, yams are mens wealth. - 1970: John Kasaipwalova convinced many to invest in hotels and other businesses

1972: a fire destroyed hotel 1976: stores closed unpaid workers and loss of investments Accused of embezzlement conviction overturned 9 months laters.

3. Views of political economic development a. Modernization theory: non-industrial nations will move in the social and technological direction of industrialized nations. i. Walter Rostow (1960): 5 stages (unilineal path) 1. Tradition: produce what is needed; no surplus 2. Precondition for take off: must accumulate and consume resources; priority to modernize over religion 3. Take off: Use the west as a blue print 4. Drive to modernity: reach for self-sustaining growth (technology pervades the whole economy) 5. Modernity: b. Criticism: i. Western nations prospered because they exploited other counties. ii. Colonized nations cannot modernize without raw materials 1. Stuck at precondition to take off 4. Dependency Theory: a. Colonized nations were made to be dependent colonies b. Colonizers reshaped subsistence strategies c. International Bank for Reconstruction and Devel. (World Bank): i. UN agency provide loans to promote trade and economic devel. 5. Colonization: possessing a territory and maintaining political domination. a. Motives? i. Industrialization: demand for raw material ii. Overpopulation iii. Cultural modification: Christianize the world (The white mans burden Rudyard Kipling) iv. Search of wealth, mythical kingdoms, and fountain of youth. b. Methods of control: i. Persuasion: verbal argument ii. Direct rule: Military presence, taxation, and formal schooling iii. Indirect rule: traditional leaders and create new positions. 6. Effects of European expansion? a. Slavery and new diseases: small pox and plague b. Abolish traditions deemed offensive or immoral c. Slow advancement for colonized nations i. Exploit first then rebuild infrastructure d. Resistance: refuse to conform i. Rebellion: disrupt status quo to redistribute power and resources 1. This is a small scale uprising ii. Revolution: overthrow existing political organization 1. This is the overthrowing of everything e. Power of imagination: interpret own experiences 7. Religion and Social Change:

a. Revitalization movements: a deliberate and organized attempt to create a better society i. Anthony Wallace: occurs when people are oppressed and suffered cultural suppression, and in periods of social and economic upheaval ii. Construct a new culture, establish a new social order, or return to old way of life iii. Native American Ghost Dance in 1890s 1. Rights of passive, intensification, oppression 8. Theories supporting colonization a. Provide a better life (civilized methods) i. Authority to sanction, establish military, tax and cultural change. b. Transformism/Evolution (1859): Darwin c. Unilineal Evolution Theory (1877): E.B. Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan i. Require technology to advance 1. Savagery: a. Early: fire invention b. Middle: bow and arrow c. Late: pottery 2. Barbarism: (in order to be true barbarism, you need to have agriculture and tame wild beasts) a. Early: pottery b. Middle: agriculture c. Late: animal domestication 3. Civilization: a. Industrialization d. Science disciplines supported nonscience practices: phrenology Differences between race, ethnicity, and nationality? Race (biologically): people sharing a cluster of genes Race (social construction): based on perceived phenotype differences (phenotype use eyebrows, ears, eyes, etc) Ethnic group: share beliefs, habits, customs, language, religion, and norms Nationality: sharing a geographical location and a governing system Yanomamo: modern time Measles epidemic in 1968 (spread by missionaries) Encroachment of land building of roads 1970 1987: gold rush miners (~300,000) with guns, heavy machinery, and new diseases Results: death due to diseases, little game, no vegetation, polluted water (high mercury), and dead fish and reptiles. Very few yanomamo remain, each village does have a leader that controls the interest of the people. Human rights organizations: o No recognizable leader (each village has its own leader) o Difficult to trust that a leader will not be biased. o Jay Mough April 16, 2013

Chapter 12: Power, Conquest and a World System Types of power (Eric Wolf): 1. Independent entity: power belongs to nature and universe. (powers are already inside you, just need to learn them) a. We get this power via: prayers to attain temporary power (please protect so-and-so) 2. Interpersonal Power: achieved status or established rules (power within the individual) 3. Organizational Power: groups control over a social setting 4. Structural Power: federal power (economic and social control) Differences between authority and power? Power: ability to impose ones will onto others Authority: applying power Power exists in all societies but not all people have authority. How do they get their positions? 1. Inherited position: Kings 2. Appointed 3. Legitimacy (backed up by an institution): pope 4. Supernatural powers: ordained by God 5. Personal achievement: prestige (honor and respect) How can you impose your will onto others or to settle disputes? - Coercion - Persuasion - Informal and uncentralized: kinship, supernatural and degradation ceremonies - Formal and centralized: court +/- sanctions. Yanomamo: Politics and Power - Foragers and horticultures: 50-300 people - Generally egalitarian and peaceful - Political structure: tribe headman for each village (There is an identifiable leader in each village) o Attempts to restore order and live by example o Act as negotiators and maintain alliances with other villages. - To prevent warfare marital exchanges (this will tie families together to provide support should a village raid occur) - If payment is due women are preferred as traded goods - Trading of resources (trade network theory) ensure indebtedness, maintain ties, and show of strength and intimidation (a strong leader will invite everyone, the whole village, to their village to trade and show off their strength) o A village hosts a trade exchange with feasting for days o hope for an equal exchange (The hosting village will present themselves as loud people to show off their strength and that you shouldnt mess with them) o no compromise chest-pounding duel (several individuals may die versus warfare) - Stereotype of fierce and aggressive people are inaccurate o Warfare was highest with Western presence

Trobrianders: background - 1200 people; Northeast Australia - Egalitarian, matrilineal descent, polygyny, and chiefdom o They have a head specific leader - Yams, pigs, fish and banana bundles - Believe in witchcraft and sorcery - At death, spirits re-inhabit women for pregnancy Trobrianders: Politics - Chiefs: inherited title (they have multiple chiefs, but one big chief) - Tasks: maintain order, make decision for whole village, and hosts yam or dance competition (yams play a huge part in culture. They serve as a high gift and is gifted to others without anything to be immediately returned.) o Convince people to grow extra yam garden o Must amass resources: money, ax, hoe, etc. o Show of power and influence Trobrianders: Power - Have yams Have power (men are working for the women) - No one can grow his/her own yams - No one can build his/her own house to store yams - Individuals can have a general garden that is separate from a yam garden - Ensure building of relationships he grows yams to give away. - Wifes brother will start a yam garden for newlywed couple. - If he is worthy, his wifes brother will build him a yam house (a place to store the yam) Yams are used in: - Signifies marriage they sit in front of the mothers house (on front porch) and they eat yam together. The couple sits together eating yam in front of everyone to signify they are marrying each other - Pay debt - Signify marriage - Show skills, power and influence Traditions persist due to: - Women made banana bundles and use them as money - Yams are given to women who gave away banana bundles - Banana bundles and yams are renewable resources Jay Mough March 3, 2013 Cultural Anthropology Exam 2 Study Guide Chapter 4: Language and Communication: 1. Communication is nonverbal and language is verbal and written. a. Communication is a better system because it is used to transfer stories from one generation to the next b. Language is a better system yet because if the stories are written down, they can be stored for generations without alterations.

2. *** NEED CLARIFICATION ****Euphemism: avoid harsh or distasteful reality: sorry for your loss. Vs. they kicked the bucket Jargon: specialized language of a profession or similar group Gobbledygook: piling on words to overwhelm the audience. Inflated Language: make the ordinary seem extraordinary. 3. We are interested in communication so we can communicate with the people that we study a. To explain our world and culture vocab reveal social and physical environment of a culture 4. Metaphors are important because they reveal social and physical environments of a culture a. Kaluli use these to describe their world as soft or hard. 5. Noam Chomsky came up with the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) a mechanism to identify (not supply) grammar rules a blueprint that children will follow to learn language 6. Sapir & Whorf had a hypothesis: linguistic determinism: language determines how people think and see the world. a. This compared to -> Linguistic relativity: language influences how we describe our world. 7. There are different forms of speech: formal and informal speeches a. Four types of doublespeak include: Euphemism, Jargon, gobbledygook, inflated language. 8. Pidgin language is not a real language, its a compination of two different languages. a. Creole language has proper grammar created from pidgin. Learned by children and is passed down to their children b. Creole is a language that is learned by the children and Chomskys theory is based on that children will learn that language naturally. 9. For the Tiwi, speech was formal for story telling and nonformal for spontaneous speech a. For the Ju/hoansi use language as a way to avoid conflicts: jokes b. For the Kaluli they use language to describe metaphors in describing their world as soft or hard

Chapter 5 & 6: Making a Living & Economics 1. Functions for developing various patterns of subsistence include: foraging, horticulture, pastoral, agricultural, and industrial. a. Land and weather, population density, productivity and efficiency of people, innovation and inventions. 2. Primary subsistence strategy include foraging where they dont alter the environment and secondary they do by manipulating the environment. 3. The five forms of subsistence strategies include: a. Foraging Ju/Hoansi & Tiwi fishing, hunting and collecting vegetables

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b. Horticulture Yanomamo production of plants using a simple, nonmechanized technology and where the fertility of gardents and fields is maintained via long periods of fallow. c. Pastoral (herding) Basseri a whole social group and their animals move in search of pastors. d. Agricultural USA same piece of land is permanently cultivated with use of technology. e. Industrial USA production from food moves away towards other production such as other goods and services. The three different foraging strategies include: a. Pedestrian: hunt wild game and gather fruits and nuts (Ju/hoansi & !kung) b. Equestrian: large game hunting on horses (Kalui?) c. Aquatic: fishing by boat. (Kwakiuti and Inuit) For those who are foraging, horticulture, and pastoral the advantages include mobility leaving disease behind, plenty of food, no stress, egalitarian. DISadvantages include: dependent of environment and problems preserving food. Carrying capacity: amount of food eaten a. Transhumance: men move livestock to highlands in summer and lowlands in winter; others stay home. b. Nomadism: whole social group and their animals move in search of pastor. c. Egalitarian: a social group, promoting equal political, economic, social, and civil rights for the people d. Slash-and-burn Civilization: based on deep understanding of forest environment. Large understanding of all features and landscape, they plant a variety of crops in fields. e. Animal Husbandry: altering animals genetically f. Neolithic revolution: manipulate environment to our advantage, domesticate plants, some domesticated animals too. Stratified societies: some will be denied of goods Power: owning & controlling resources taxation a. Effects of stratification within a society: i. There is an archy/ tiered of people. Rich from poor. Scarcity relates to foraging, pastoralism and horticulture by means that when the resources are gone, the social group will move on to another location. For Agriculture, scarcity may prevent them from growing anything. a. Scarcity for stratified societies creates a problem where the rich will have the needed resources such as food while those who are poor cannot. Economy: the norms of government production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services within a society. a. The three types of reciprocity defined by Karl Polanyi are: i. Generalized reciprocity: exchange of goods and services Christmas gifts ii. Balanced reciprocity: exchange with expectation of a return repay the gift iii. Negative reciprocity: get goods for nothing without penalties strangers gift Conspicuous consumption: display of wealth for social prestige a. Big men: not foragers, they are heteroculers: donate own surpluses and convince others to contribute b. Potlatch: a form of redistribution involving competitive feasting practiced among Norwest coast native americans.

i. Leveling mechanism strategy: a practice, value, or form of social organization that evens out wealth within a society. 11. Emile Durkheim defined social division of labor: the pattern of apportioning different tasks to different members of a sociery. a. Mechanical solidarity independent units foraging and horticultural societies. b. Organic solidarity interdependent specialization: doctors, carpenters, teachers 12. Describe how each cultural group utilized each subsistence strategy in order to survive: a. Ju/hoansi & Tiwi: foraging b. Yanomamo: horticulture c. Basseri: Pastoral (herding) Jay Mough 4/4/2013 Chapter 7 Exam 3 Study Guide: Chapter 7: Family, Kinship & Marriage 1. Kinship: a culturally defined relationship stabled on the basis of blood ties or through marriage. a. We determine who is related to by consanguineal, affinal, fictive. i. Consanguineal: related by blood ii. Affinal: related by marriage iii. Fictive: not blood, adopted children b. This is necessary because: they provide continuity between generations and provide for the orderly transmission of inheritance and succession (social position). 2. What are the functions of family, kinship, and marriage? a. Family & marriage: regulating sexual access between males and females, arranging for the exchange of services b/w males & females, & assigning responsibility for child car b. Kinship: refer to Q1 B 3. How do individuals know who they can marry: some are based on cross-cousin (moms brothers) marriage and others are parallel-cousin (moms sister) marriage. Levirate: man marries widow of deceased brother. Sororate: wife dies, her sister takes place as wife. Monogamy: one spouse. Polygamy: many spouse. Polygyny: man with more than 1 wife. Polyandry: wife with more than one husband a. Examples: Kaluli Arranged marriage, patrilocal (wife live with male and w/ strangers), men have authority over women. Marriage traced through Male lines b. Basseri: husband & wife live in independent tents, bridewealth, inheritance to son, land to daughters. c. Minangkabau: marriage traced through wife lines, children belong to wife, husband stays as guest, Matrilocal live in female family. d. Tiwi: polygyny, matrilineal & exogamy, father makes decision of who marries, women have high status e. Samoan: extended household, no parallel marriage, cross cousins are married, Matrilocal couple lives with wifes family. 4. Married couples can live in multiple places: Patrilocal wife with male and strangers. Matrilocal male lives with female and strangers. They can live separately a. They live at each location because it may either benefit the husband or the wife.

5. Various types of descents: a. Unillineal Descent: membership in a descent group is based on links through either the maternal line or the paternal line, but not both b. Corporate descent: permanent kinship groups that have an existence beyond the individuals who are members at any given time c. Patrilineal descent: affiliates a person to kin of both sexes related through males only. d. Matrilineal descent: affiliates a person to kin of both sees related through females only 6. Types of Marriages: a. Monogamy: having one spouce at a time most common due to economic reasons b. Polygamy: having more than one partner higher status for both men & women, everyone treated equally c. Polygyny: permitting a man to have more than one wife d. Polyandry: 2+ husbands e. Pathic marriage: gay marriage f. Arranges marriage 7. Anthropologists reason for why people marry: a. Materialism: marry for resources b. Idealistic: to be with each other 8. Marriages compensate for a loss or gain of a daughter by: a. Bridewealth: transfer of goods to brides family common in polygynous & pastoral societies. Compensate her family for her labor & childbearing girls are of value. b. Dowry: transfer of goods to grooms family girls not value boys get resources improves her future dowry death: wives are murdered or accidental deaths. c. Bride-service: a man must work for the brides family either before or after the marriage. Groom works for brides family as payment women are valued. i. Levirate & sororate: 1. Levirate: man marries the widow of a dead brother 2. Sororate: mans wifes dies, her sister is given to him as wife. Chapter 8: Sex and Gender 1. What is the difference between sex and gender: a. Sex refers to the biological differences between male and female. b. Gender is your masculinity and feminine. 2. What is a stratified society? a. A society in which extensive subpopulations are accorded differential treatment (upper, middle, lower class) b. What is gender stratification and what are some explanations of gender stratification: i. Ways in which gendered activities and attributes are differentially valued and related to the distribution of resources, prestige, and power in a society. ii. Gender stratification is unequal distribution of treatment based on gender type: domestic sphere females, public sphere males. iii. Examples decreasing gender stratification 1. Matriarchy societies: women have autonomy & power & influence lower gender stratification 2. Equal contributions of work lower stratification 3. Achieved (earned status, worked hard to obtain status) vs. ascribed status (brother, sister, king, queen) 3. How do people from various cultures explain a third gender?

a. They are hermaphrodites, or intersexuals b. Examples: i. John both male and female parts ii. Susan had testosterom levels of a male iii. Zuni two-spirited people iv. Azamde: independent family unit suitor asks brides father and his daughter stays with suitor. There are homosexual acts that are performed with the males to make them a man. 4. What are the differences between sexual orientation, sexual identity, and gender identity? a. Sexual orientation: who they like (men like women etc. b. Sexual Identity: their chromosones XX, XY, XO, XXY, etc. c. Gender Identity: Masculinity Chapter 11: Spirituality, Religion, & the Supernatural: 1. Define Religion What are the functions of religion: a. Religion: beliefs and rituals concerned with supernatural beings, powers and forces b. Functions: provides meaning and order in peoples lives. Reduce social anxiety and give people sense of control over their destinies. 2. What are the purposes of rituals? What are the characteristics of a ritual? Identify the various types of rituals. How do they differ from one another? a. Purpose of rituals: a ceremonial act or a repeated stylized gesture used for specific occasions involving the use of religious symbols. b. Characteristics of a ritual: repetitive practice occurring at a set time and place c. Types of rituals: Liminal, rites of passage, rites of Intensification, prayer, sacrifice, magic d. Different by I. Liminal: stage of ritual where a person passed out of an old status but has yet to enter a new status II. Rites of passage: go from one status to another III. Rites of intensification: ritual structured to reinforce the values and norms of a community and to strengthen group identity 3. Explain 3 types of rites discussed in class. How are they different from each other a. Rites of passage: transform from one status to another b. Rites of Intensification: reaffirm commitment to a set of values and beliefs c. Rites of affliction: eliminate illness/misfortune due to supernatural forces conjured by enemies. 4. Rite of passage is a form of ritual seen in all cultures. Describe the various phases of a rite of passage. How are these phases different from one another? What purpose does each rite serve the individual or the community? a. Phases include: I. Separation: person or group is detached from a former status II. Transition: person/group have been detached from their old statuses but not yet attached to a new one III. Reincorporation: passage from one status to another is symbolically completed. 5. Understand the differences between religion, magic, and witchcraft. a. Religion: social institution characterized by sacred stories, symbols, and symbolism; the proposed existence of immeasurable beings, powers, states, places, and qualities; rituals and means of addressing the supernatural; specific practitioners; and change b. Magic: religious ritual believed to produce a mechanical effect by supernatural means.

c. Witchcraft: ability to harm others by harboring malevolent thoughts about them; the practice of sorcery. 6. Who are these individuals: Van Gennep, Victor Turner, Anthony Wallace. a. Gennep: gave 3 phases to rites of passage: separation, initiation/transition (liminal state), and incorporation. b. Turner: wrote that rituals frequently generate liminal states in which the structured and hierarchical classifications that normally separate people into groups such as caste or class are dissolved. Because of this, people can behave in ways that would be clearly unacceptable under other circumstances. c. Wallace: gave definition of religion beliefs and rituals concerned with supernatural beings, powers and forces. Minangkabau Kinship (Marriage & Family) Cross-cousin marriage is preferred no marry members of same matriclan Men are allowed to have multiple wives not common Traditional domestic unit consist of: women & married and unmarried daughters, and her daughters children, adult sons or grandsons who are not yet married reside in local prayer house (saurau) those married sleep as guests in the house their wife(s) reside in. House consists of a great common room stretching full length of house. 2 different types of property for inheritance: o Harato pancarian (earned property) & harato pusako (ancestral property) o Earned property: goods produced for exchange inherited by Children of both sex o Ancestral property: goods for immediate consumption, land inherited by females.

In the family: o Both parents have interest in success of children Father helps provide education Father finds suitor (s) for his daughters Children receive attention from mothers brother, who assists in childrens success. Jay Mough 3-7-13 Chapter 7 Determining family members: Consanguineal, affinal, fictive kin (compadres, Godparents, adopted children) o Consanguineal: related by blood o Affinal: related by marriage o Fictive: not blood. Fictive would include friends, etc. Godparents, adopted children Purposes of Family and marriage (why we get married): 1. Aid, protect, establish networks, increase alliances 2. Mark availability (rings) and regulate who marries who (endogamy and exogamy) 3. Transforms status (female-wife; sister-aunt; daugher-mother; etc.) 4. Assign domestic duties, marriage rights & public roles. 5. Inheritance: endogamy & exogamy

Endogamy: within a particular group/culture/status/religion -- rule prescribing that a person must marry withing a particular group o Exogamy: a rule prescribing that a person must marry outside a particular group 6. Stability for children (resources, educational, and emotional needs) Who is part of your nuclear family? Husband, wife & children (1st generation and maybe 2nd generation, but no more) o most common, but not universal How is an extended family different from a collateral household? An extended family that stays together and are not related in any way. A collateral household: siblings, spouses & children under one roof. An extended family: consanguineal & affinal kins from multiple households. What purposes do they serve (within a nuclear family)? Keep resources intact & support family members. How can marriage be considered an economic investment? Distribution of goods from family to family. What is the difference between bridewealth, dowry & bride service? 1. Bridewealth (also refered to as bridewealth): transfer of goods to bride's family o Common in polygynous & pastoral societies Polygynous men have multiple wives. o Compensate family for her labor & childbearing capacity o In this, the girls are of value. 2. Dowry: transfer of goods to groom's family. o Male --> brings in wealth; girls --> loss of money. o Improves her future o dowry death: wives are murdered or accidental deaths o Girls are not of value o Boys are of value, they get all the resources 3. Bride-service: a man must word for the bride's family either before or after the marriage. o Groom works for the bride's family as payment o Foraging societies. o Women are viewed as a much higher status.

Factors affecting gender roles assignment? What needs to be done? Who lives in/near the home (types o residence) economic means ideology & religion Gender role theories (tasks & activities assigned to the sexes) 1. Strength theory: work that requires strength & endurance a. Size, strength, & mobility --> allows men to become hunters, butchers, & warriors.

2. Expendability: men are expendable (can perform risky tasks) 3. Compatibility-with-child-care: a. Centered on children: limits what they can do & where to go b. men tend to children, trap small games, & weave baskets c. Agta women (from Philippines): hunt with children What is gender stratification? Unequal distribution of treatment based on gender type o Domestic sphere - females o Public sphere (supposed to represent others)- males Factors decreasing gender stratification (ways to reduce inequality)? matriarchy societies: women have autonomy & power & influence --> lower gender stratification. equal contributions of work --> lower stratification achieved (earned status, worked hard to obtain status) versus ascribed status (brother, sister, king, queen,) What are the various types of descent groups? How do they differ? A descent group is: group of kin who are descendents of a common ancyster beyond two generations. There are two types of inheritance types: 1. Unilateral: patrilineal or matrilineal a. Unilateral: on side of family i. Patrilineal: Male side ii. Matrilineal: Female side The Kaluli: Marriage o Patrilineal descent (tracing lineages through male line) & exogamy o Children belong to husband o Men have authority over women o Patrilocal: meaning the women(wife), will live where the male resides. She may live with strangers that her husband knows. Depending on him for everything. o Arrange marriage without couple's knowledge (at time of bridewealth exchange, couple are given notice) - Woman doesn't know who they are marrying. o Women: tend to gardens, pigs, hunt small game, gathering nuts & fruits, and raising children. o Men: group activities in heavy labor (cut trees, clear garden plots, build dams and fences, and planting) o Sharing of food --> build relationships o Use concept of food as a metaphor: Full stomach or have food, you have friends; empty stomach or no food, no friends & loneliness Basseri: Marriage Basseri are a pastoral society Neoloca - husband and wife live in independent tents (each tent has equal equality in domestic sphere, men make decision of when and where to move)

o o o o o

Patrilineal & endogamous -> inheritance goes to son; daughters get land & resources from other kinsman (uncles, aunts, father) Father gives animals to son to amass herd prior marriage. Bridewealth (in cash) or milk-price to furnish couple's new home. Women: food preparation and domestic tasks: equal power in home Men: haul water and wood, roast meat, and make tea: power outside the home (represent family)

Minangkabau: background West Sumatra of Indonesia Contact with European ~ 1300 --> spice trade; pepper; gold; coffee Dutch colonized in 1800 --> Independence 1949 2 geographic locations: Darat (highland & cultural core) & Rantau (outlying districts & social economic life) They Practice Adat: rule of conduct, belief, & social organization (this is not a religion, but a set of principiles) Influence of Islam: 7th century --> trading with Muslims. They have patrilineal decent (tracing all ties through female line) - but its headbutting with Islam Minangkabau: Marriage 1. Dual descent a. power to run household & community --> patrilineal (Islamic influence) (Woman has power by keeping land in female side and making decisions with husband, but he has the final say in them) b. inheritance of land & wealth --> matrilineal tradition c. Situational dependence 2. Matrilineal descent: tracing lineages thru female line a. the children belong to the wife: mother-child bond. The husband stays as guest. (patrilineal descent, the children would belong to husband) b. inheritance: mother to daughters; mother's brother to sons. c. Father: i. Gives inheritance to his sister's sons (resources stay in the female line) ii. Responsibilities: 1. Domestic: childrearing, eating & sleeping 2. Economic & politics: maternal family d. Matrilocal (live in the female family) Tiwi: marriage Polygyny, matrilineal & exogamy. Pregnancy (not from intercourse): unborn spirit (lves near water) enters a woman. Cannot control spirit --> ensure every child has a father, every woman must be married to have a child (Tiwi can control this practice) Father makes all the decisions of who marries - mother has some influence, but doesn't make the final decision. A widow will be betrothed before leaving her husband's grave Girls are valued in Tiwi society due to polygyny practice. Women: enjoy high status --> become senior wife & matriline Due to Catholic influence in 1950s, polygyny ended.

B. Cognatic descent (35%) Includes bilateral, ambilineal, and double descent 1. Bilateral descent: tracing ties evenly on both sides (our society) 2. Ambilineal descent: choice of maternal or paternal links (depends which group provides greater opportunities) --> child makes this decision Linked to Achieved status Samoans (Polynesian Islands) 3. (Dont worry about this) Double Descent: each side provides certain resources $ from maternal & land from paternal Samoan: Background South of Hawaii: 1200 miles; 193,000 population; U.S. territory since 1925 (eastern side) They are Horticulturalist (fruit trees, taro, & yams) & fishing Chiefs: achieved status o 6 Levels of chiefs (ranking) Christianity (1800s) o Easy to convince people to convert Why: Roles of Talking Chief are similar to priests & pastors' roles Economic & political advantages (gain resources & avoid war) Ambilineal Descent Somoan: Marriage Extended household: grandparents, parents, children, & other kin Father is the head of the household: Matai Male branch versus Female branch o Special deference is paid to the female branch (the famale is the one who bears the child) Siblings & cousins (those considered to be siblings) o parrallel cousins are considered to be more of siblings o Parallel cousins are mother's sister marries father's brother marriages are forbidden for parallel cousins o cross cousins can get married o Cross cousins are mother's brother marries fathers sister o Cannot use sexual language in each other's presence. o Cannot dance or be alone together - siblings can't dance together o Cannot express affection in public Both sides must contribute resources to wedding Matrilocal - the couple lives with the wife's family Men cook traditional food and trained to be carpenters Women cook more foreign food and utensils (forks, spoons, microwaves, etc.) and trained to make clothes and weavers. Types of marriages: culturally sanctioned union between 2+ people 1. Monogamy: having one spouce at a time. You get bored with each other, divource, and get another partner. a. Most common for economic reasons (not enough $) 2. Polygamy: 2+ males or female partners

a. Polygyny (2+ wives): Tiwi, Ju/Wazi, Wodaabe i. Most preferred ii. Advantages: 1. Higher status for both man & wives 2. Suggests wealth 3. Suggests - not give any forms of peporential treatment - wives are higher than the husband - husband is to treat all wives equally, if one gets a diamond ring, the others must receive something of equal value. 4. suggests man is veral 5. more wives to share work iii. Ideally: need permission & no favoritism (ranked status) b. Polyandry (1% practice this): 2+ husbands 1. Polyandry practice people want to have a small population. ii. Associated polyandry: to blood ties, unrelated men marry one wife. iii. Fraternal polyandry: 2+ brothers to 1 female (Nepal, Tibet, Sri Lanka, & India. iv. Economic reasons: small-scale agricultural societies (materialism --> scarcity of land) v. Rotation of sexual privileges to determine biological children. vi. Problems: people marry for love & too many females 3. Pathic marriages: a. same sex marriages 4. Arranged marriages a. Too important for inexperienced young people b. Religious, economic, & political reasons c. Jay Mough 3-7-13 Chapter 7 Determining family members: Consanguineal, affinal, fictive kin (compadres, Godparents, adopted children) o Consanguineal: related by blood o Affinal: related by marriage o Fictive: not blood. Fictive would include friends, etc. Godparents, adopted children Purposes of Family and marriage (why we get married): 1. Aid, protect, establish networks, increase alliances 2. Mark availability (rings) and regulate who marries who (endogamy and exogamy) 3. Transforms status (female-wife; sister-aunt; daugher-mother; etc.) 4. Assign domestic duties, marriage rights & public roles. 5. Inheritance: endogamy & exogamy o Endogamy: within a particular group/culture/status/religion -- rule prescribing that a person must marry withing a particular group o Exogamy: a rule prescribing that a person must marry outside a particular group 6. Stability for children (resources, educational, and emotional needs) Who is part of your nuclear family? Husband, wife & children (1st generation and maybe 2nd generation, but no more) o most common, but not universal

How is an extended family different from a collateral household? An extended family that stays together and are not related in any way. A collateral household: siblings, spouses & children under one roof. An extended family: consanguineal & affinal kins from multiple households. What purposes do they serve (within a nuclear family)? Keep resources intact & support family members. How can marriage be considered an economic investment? Distribution of goods from family to family. What is the difference between bridewealth, dowry & bride service? 1. Bridewealth (also refered to as bridewealth): transfer of goods to bride's family o Common in polygynous & pastoral societies Polygynous men have multiple wives. o Compensate family for her labor & childbearing capacity o In this, the girls are of value. 2. Dowry: transfer of goods to groom's family. o Male --> brings in wealth; girls --> loss of money. o Improves her future o dowry death: wives are murdered or accidental deaths o Girls are not of value o Boys are of value, they get all the resources 3. Bride-service: a man must work for the bride's family either before or after the marriage. o Groom works for the bride's family as payment o Foraging societies. o Women are viewed as a much higher status.

Factors affecting gender roles assignment? What needs to be done? Who lives in/near the home (types o residence) economic means ideology & religion Gender role theories (tasks & activities assigned to the sexes) 1. Strength theory: work that requires strength & endurance a. Size, strength, & mobility --> allows men to become hunters, butchers, & warriors. 2. Expendability: men are expendable (can perform risky tasks) 3. Compatibility-with-child-care: a. Centered on children: limits what they can do & where to go b. men tend to children, trap small games, & weave baskets c. Agta women (from Philippines): hunt with children What is gender stratification? Unequal distribution of treatment based on gender type o Domestic sphere - females

Public sphere (supposed to represent others)- males

Factors decreasing gender stratification (ways to reduce inequality)? matriarchy societies: women have autonomy & power & influence --> lower gender stratification. equal contributions of work --> lower stratification achieved (earned status, worked hard to obtain status) versus ascribed status (brother, sister, king, queen,) What are the various types of descent groups? How do they differ? A descent group is: group of kin who are descendents of a common ancyster beyond two generations. There are two types of inheritance types: 1. Unilateral: patrilineal or matrilineal a. Unilateral: on side of family i. Patrilineal: Male side ii. Matrilineal: Female side The Kaluli: Marriage o Patrilineal descent (tracing lineages through male line) & exogamy o Children belong to husband o Men have authority over women o Patrilocal: meaning the women(wife), will live where the male resides. She may live with strangers that her husband knows. Depending on him for everything. o Arrange marriage without couple's knowledge (at time of bridewealth exchange, couple are given notice) - Woman doesn't know who they are marrying. o Women: tend to gardens, pigs, hunt small game, gathering nuts & fruits, and raising children. o Men: group activities in heavy labor (cut trees, clear garden plots, build dams and fences, and planting) o Sharing of food --> build relationships o Use concept of food as a metaphor: Full stomach or have food, you have friends; empty stomach or no food, no friends & loneliness Basseri: Marriage Basseri are a pastoral society Neoloca - husband and wife live in independent tents (each tent has equal equality in domestic sphere, men make decision of when and where to move) o Patrilineal & endogamous -> inheritance goes to son; daughters get land & resources from other kinsman (uncles, aunts, father) o Father gives animals to son to amass herd prior marriage. o Bridewealth (in cash) or milk-price to furnish couple's new home. o Women: food preparation and domestic tasks: equal power in home o Men: haul water and wood, roast meat, and make tea: power outside the home (represent family)

Minangkabau: background West Sumatra of Indonesia

Contact with European ~ 1300 --> spice trade; pepper; gold; coffee Dutch colonized in 1800 --> Independence 1949 2 geographic locations: Darat (highland & cultural core) & Rantau (outlying districts & social economic life) They Practice Adat: rule of conduct, belief, & social organization (this is not a religion, but a set of principiles) Influence of Islam: 7th century --> trading with Muslims. They have patrilineal decent (tracing all ties through female line) - but its headbutting with Islam

Minangkabau: Marriage 1. Dual descent a. power to run household & community --> patrilineal (Islamic influence) (Woman has power by keeping land in female side and making decisions with husband, but he has the final say in them) b. inheritance of land & wealth --> matrilineal tradition c. Situational dependence 2. Matrilineal descent: tracing lineages thru female line a. the children belong to the wife: mother-child bond. The husband stays as guest. (patrilineal descent, the children would belong to husband) b. inheritance: mother to daughters; mother's brother to sons. c. Father: i. Gives inheritance to his sister's sons (resources stay in the female line) ii. Responsibilities: 1. Domestic: childrearing, eating & sleeping 2. Economic & politics: maternal family d. Matrilocal (live in the female family) Tiwi: marriage Polygyny, matrilineal & exogamy. Pregnancy (not from intercourse): unborn spirit (lves near water) enters a woman. Cannot control spirit --> ensure every child has a father, every woman must be married to have a child (Tiwi can control this practice) Father makes all the decisions of who marries - mother has some influence, but doesn't make the final decision. A widow will be betrothed before leaving her husband's grave Girls are valued in Tiwi society due to polygyny practice. Women: enjoy high status --> become senior wife & matriline Due to Catholic influence in 1950s, polygyny ended. B. Cognatic descent (35%) Includes bilateral, ambilineal, and double descent 1. Bilateral descent: tracing ties evenly on both sides (our society) 2. Ambilineal descent: choice of maternal or paternal links (depends which group provides greater opportunities) --> child makes this decision Linked to Achieved status Samoans (Polynesian Islands) 3. (Dont worry about this) Double Descent: each side provides certain resources $ from maternal & land from paternal

Samoan: Background South of Hawaii: 1200 miles; 193,000 population; U.S. territory since 1925 (eastern side) They are Horticulturalist (fruit trees, taro, & yams) & fishing Chiefs: achieved status o 6 Levels of chiefs (ranking) Christianity (1800s) o Easy to convince people to convert Why: Roles of Talking Chief are similar to priests & pastors' roles Economic & political advantages (gain resources & avoid war) Ambilineal Descent Somoan: Marriage Extended household: grandparents, parents, children, & other kin Father is the head of the household: Matai Male branch versus Female branch o Special deference is paid to the female branch (the famale is the one who bears the child) Siblings & cousins (those considered to be siblings) o parrallel cousins are considered to be more of siblings o Parallel cousins are mother's sister marries father's brother marriages are forbidden for parallel cousins o cross cousins can get married o Cross cousins are mother's brother marries fathers sister o Cannot use sexual language in each other's presence. o Cannot dance or be alone together - siblings can't dance together o Cannot express affection in public Both sides must contribute resources to wedding Matrilocal - the couple lives with the wife's family Men cook traditional food and trained to be carpenters Women cook more foreign food and utensils (forks, spoons, microwaves, etc.) and trained to make clothes and weavers. Types of marriages: culturally sanctioned union between 2+ people 1. Monogamy: having one spouce at a time. You get bored with each other, divource, and get another partner. a. Most common for economic reasons (not enough $) 2. Polygamy: 2+ males or female partners a. Polygyny (2+ wives): Tiwi, Ju/Wazi, Wodaabe i. Most preferred ii. Advantages: 1. Higher status for both man & wives 2. Suggests wealth 3. Suggests - not give any forms of peporential treatment - wives are higher than the husband - husband is to treat all wives equally, if one gets a diamond ring, the others must receive something of equal value. 4. suggests man is veral 5. more wives to share work

iii. Ideally: need permission & no favoritism (ranked status) b. Polyandry (1% practice this): 2+ husbands 1. Polyandry practice people want to have a small population. ii. Associated polyandry: to blood ties, unrelated men marry one wife. iii. Fraternal polyandry: 2+ brothers to 1 female (Nepal, Tibet, Sri Lanka, & India. iv. Economic reasons: small-scale agricultural societies (materialism --> scarcity of land) v. Rotation of sexual privileges to determine biological children. vi. Problems: people marry for love & too many females 3. Pathic marriages: a. same sex marriages 4. Arranged marriages a. Too important for inexperienced young people b. Religious, economic, & political reasons c. Chapter 2 Why do Cultures exist? Adapt to geography/environment -> satisfy needs and cope with challenges. Encourages people to follow its rules (provide an orderly existence); also known as social norms. Express people's thoughts and actions Common bond - includes all of the above Yanomamo: modern time Measles epidemic in 1968 (spread by missionaries) Encroachment of land building of roads 1970 1987: gold rush miners (~300,000) with guns, heavy machinery, and new diseases Results: death due to diseases, little game, no vegetation, polluted water (high mercury), and dead fish and reptiles. Very few yanomamo remain, each village does have a leader that controls the interest of the people. Human rights organizations: o No recognizable leader (each village has its own leader) o Difficult to trust that a leader will not be biased. o Concepts of culture include: Things people think: ideas Things people do: rituals Things people use: material resources Defining Culture: Father of Modern Anthropology: E.B. Tylor (1871): ... that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Do cultures share similarities? What are some cultural universities? General? & Particulars? Universal (features found in all cultures): biological (dependency, year-round sex, & complex brain), psychological, social (incest taboo), economic, marriage and family, education, etc.

General (features common to several cultures): marriage practices (arranged versus personal choice) Particulars (specific tradition belonging to a specific group): Amish, different marriage ceremonies, etc.

Characteristics of Culture: Abstract concept: values & beliefs It is own & shared (a blueprint - you don't have to be told how a birthday event works, or how to do Christmas): predict & interpret others' behavior & react accordingly. o It is shared by passing down the traditions to future generations. o You own it by performing traditions. It is material creation & symbolic (language, signs, art & religion). It is learned through enculturation. It is negotiated & contested: holidays & child rearing. It is dialectical process: affect & effect ($ & war -> role change, family.) It is dynamic (respond to change): technology -> transportation -> communication & family. It is adaptive & maladaptive o Technology: transportation and pollution It seizes nature: biology gives us abilities; culture regulates behavior. o Food All-encompassing: include good & bad characteristics of a society. Do people follow their cultural norms? What is cultural norm? o a set of guidelines that people follow. Ideal versus real culture. o *Ideal culture: What people say they should do(e.g., marriage vows). o *Real culture: What people actually do (e.g., cheating on spouse). Cultural Transmission: Enculturation: through socialization, individuals learn and adopt their cultural knowledge. o Active process & does not stop after 18: rites of passages. o Occurs through specific situations (birthday parties). o Multiple sources: parents, teachers, peers. o Dependence training: teach interdependence, compliance, & cooperation. Keeping people within the group. o Independence training: teach independence, self-reliance & personal achievement. People live independently Chapter 1: Why did Minor write the article The Nacirema? warn anthropologists of their biases: guard against ethnocentrism ethnocentrism: measure others by using our own standards Use native's cultural description: describe customs and rituals that are relevant and current guard against exoticizing others What are the impacts of ethnocentrism? How do anthropologists guard against this?

unite people and may lead to racism apply cultural relativism: a cognitive tool

Disadvantages to being a cultural relativist? Cannot compare cultures all behaviors are moral How is cultural anthropology different from other disciplines? Holistic (we understand everything) focuses on past, present, and future; biology focuses on society, language and culture. Comparative: search of general principles that explain diversity -> look for patterns and meanings. Fieldwork: a period of close involvement with people anthropologists are interested in learning. Apply cultural relativism in describing, analyzing and explaining cultures. Anthropology over the centuries: Early 1800s: o Focused on small-scale technologically simpler societies (relying on journals written by other cultures to understand how they lived their lives.) o Armchair ethnography (we didn't go out and study the culture outselves - we relyed on the Journals written by others, and assumed the culture behaved exactly to the journal) o Tylor & Lewis H. Morgan created typologies to organize cultures. o Reductionism (reduce concepts to a simple explanation) -> lose info Late 1800s - Early 1900s: moved away from armchair ethnography o Franz Boas: considered to be the Father of American Anthropology Historical particularism: each culture is unique Armchair ethnography is insufficient -> we need to do direct exploration is necessary Guidelines for fieldwork (first hand exploration involving living and participarting in culture of interest) Mid 1900s: o Cultural Materialism: Marvin Harris: 1. Infrastructure (Material means) Material world constitutes human nautre (not mind or spirit) 2. Structure (Institutions) Organizations that hold society together (government, family, church, school, etc.) 3. Super Structure (Laws, ethics, religion, and the mind) Idealism: mind is the essence of human nature (body holds back the mind) o How are these categories reductionistic? Culture and Personality/Psychological Anthropology ./ now Cultural Anthropology o Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead (2 students of France bowas) Culture is patterened, integrated, and socially constructed. o Feminist Anthropology Questioned gender bias in fieldwork and writing Why little attention paid to women prior to 1970s? Men had limited access to women's lives Assumed men represented women's voices

Men's role were much more public and easily studied.

Late 1900s - present o Few untouched cultures are available o Study own society Focus on native interpretation, self discovery, & reflectivity (Critically reflect one's experiences in the field) o Challenge & criticize ourselves for improvement Is cultural relativism possible? *Enculturation creates biases Solution: Increasing self reflectivity is the solution to encultural biases Why should anthropologists work for the government instead of universities? o Running out of academic jobs o Mead: reduce bad research o For example: direct versus indirect rule o "winning the hearts & minds of people requires understanding the local culture." o Train officers, examine military culture, & explain the local culture (Human Terrain Systems) Disadvantages to working for the government? o "The handmaiden of colonialism" -> being called spys.

Chapter 3 Notes: Issues anthropologists must deal with in fieldwork: o Language proficiency o Choosing knowledgeable informants o Knowledge of basic local laws Key Informants vs. Normal Informants. Key: most reliable - better than normal informants o Being a student (native people are the experts) o Cope with culture shock (doing stuff/eating stuff your not familiar with) *Lack of understanding of culture -> aware of biases -> self understanding & reflection How do we cope with culture shock? o Time o Bring mementoes from home -> increase rapport (Rapport: makeing freinds, becoming familiar with environment, building credibility, build relationships and you can be trusted) o Immerse in work and socialize -> increase rapport o Introduce activities from home: reflect about own culture o Understand people's difficulty in explaining cultural practices to you. Approaches to fieldwork: o A) Etic/Analytical model/Positivism: describe culture from an outsider's objective view. Remain objective and unbiased Apply Scientific methods

B)

* quantitative approaches (surveys, census, mapping) * use science & its methods to investigate & explain reality (Unilineal Evolutionary Model) Determine causes of cultural patterns Emic/Folk model: describe culture from the perspective of its members. No objectivity - highly biased view Solution: encourage reflexive ethnography

** Most anthropologists use both etic & emic approaches o C) Method used in both approaches: Participant Observation Boas & Malinowski (outlined the points of participant observation) Participant observation focus on social practicies Approximate 1 year in culture Conduct interviews: structured versus unstructured. Personal history of 1 person & group (genealogy) Informants and key informants Provide researcher with emic perspective Informants: most people & general info of culture key informants: o *Specialists who may be marginalized: FBI directors o *Provide good & bad info of culture Participate when invited & activity does not violate one's ethics. Epiphany: understand cultural practices through participation Record nonverbal behaviors: Ideal & real cultural practices: marriage vows and affairs. Networking & rapport building (reduce reactivity - reactivity: cause & effect, reacting to something that just happened, looking at someone who entered a room) Disadvantages of participant observation: Small sample size: difficult to generalize data Recording data (increase memory skills, video camera) - cultural ritual doesn't allow for recording via camera or video. topic is too sensitive to observe Repeat rituals -> gain multiple perspectives and consistency (ideal and real culture accurate).